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Obstetrics (from the Latin obstare, "to stand by") is the surgical specialty dealing with the care of a woman and her offspring during pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium (the period shortly after birth). Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Pregnancy ( Latin graviditas) is the carrying of one or more offspring known as a Fetus or Embryo, inside the Uterus of a Female Childbirth (also called labour, birth, partus or parturition) is the culmination of a Human Pregnancy or Postnatal ( Latin for 'after birth' from post meaning "after" and natalis meaning "of birth" is the period beginning immediately after Midwifery is the equivalent non-surgical specialty. Midwifery is a Health care profession where providers give Prenatal care to expecting Mothers attend the birth of the Infant Most obstetricians are also gynaecologists. Gynaecology or gynecology (see spelling differences) refers to the surgical specialty dealing with health of the female reproductive system ( Uterus See Obstetrics and gynaecology. As per the discussion in the Talk page there has been no consensus as to using the American (gynecology or British (gynaecology spelling for this article BUT

The average gestational period for humans is 40 weeks by gestational age and 38 weeks by fertilization age. Gestational age is usually considered to be the age of an Embryo or Fetus (or newborn infant from the first day of the woman's last menstrual period (LMP This is divided into three trimesters. Pregnancy ( Latin graviditas) is the carrying of one or more offspring known as a Fetus or Embryo, inside the Uterus of a Female

Veterinary obstetrics is the same concept for Veterinary medicine. Veterinary obstetrics are the obstetrical methods used in Veterinary medicine, which are quite different from the ones of human medicine Veterinary medicine the application of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion, domestic, exotic, wildlife

Contents

Antenatal care

In obstetric practice, an obstetrician or midwife sees a pregnant woman on a regular basis to check the progress of the pregnancy, to verify the absence of ex-novo disease, to monitor the state of preexisting disease and its possible effect on the ongoing pregnancy. A woman's schedule of antenatal appointment varies according to the presence of risk factors, such as diabetes, and local resources. Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc

Some of the clinically and statistically more important risk factors that must be systematically excluded, especially in advancing pregnancy, are pre-eclampsia, abnormal placentation, abnormal fetal presentation and Intrauterine Growth Restriction. Pre-eclampsia (US preeclampsia) is a Medical condition where Hypertension arises in pregnancy ( Pregnancy-induced hypertension) in association Birth weight is the weight of a baby at its birth. It has direct links with the Gestational age at which the child was born and can be estimated

For example, to identify pre-eclampsia, blood-pressure and albuminuria (level of urine protein) are checked at every opportunity. Pre-eclampsia (US preeclampsia) is a Medical condition where Hypertension arises in pregnancy ( Pregnancy-induced hypertension) in association Urine is a liquid waste product of the body secreted by the Kidneys by a process of filtration from Blood and Excreted through the Urethra.

Placenta praevia must be excluded (PP = low lying placenta that, at least partially, obstructs the birth canal and therefore warrants elective caesarean delivery); this can only be achieved with the use of an ultrasound scan. Placenta praevia ( placenta previa AE) is an obstetric complication in which the placenta has attached to the uterine wall close to or covering the Obstetric sonography (ultrasonography is the application of Medical ultrasonography to Obstetrics, in which ultrasound is used to visualize the Embryo However, early placenta praevia is not alarming; this is because as the uterus grows along the pregnancy, the placenta may still move away. A placenta praevia is of clinical significance as from the 28th week of gestation. The current management includes a caesarean section. The type of caesarean section is determined by the position (anterior or posterior) of the placenta.

In late pregnancy fetal presentation must be established: cephalic presentation (head first) is the norm but the fetus may present feet-first or buttocks-first (breech), side-on (transverse), or at an angle (oblique presentation). A breech birth (also known as breech presentation) refers to the position of the Baby in the Uterus such that it will be delivered

Intrauterine Growth Restriction is a general designation, where the fetus is smaller than expected when compared to its gestational age (in this case fetal growth parameters show a tendency to drop off from the 50th percentile eventually falling below the 10th percentile, when plotted on a fetal growth chart). Birth weight is the weight of a baby at its birth. It has direct links with the Gestational age at which the child was born and can be estimated Causes can be intrinsic (to the fetus) or extrinsic (maternal or placental problems).

Signs

Anatomical model of a human pregnancy
Anatomical model of a human pregnancy

Trimesters

First trimester: elevated β-hCG (human chorionic gonadotrophin) of up to 100,000 mIU/mL by 10 weeks GA is thought to contribute to morning sickness, fatigue, mood swings and food cravings. Morning sickness, also called Nausea, Vomiting of Pregnancy ( emesis gravidarum or NVP) or pregnancy sickness A mood swing is an extreme or rapid change in mood. They are commonly associated with Mood disorders of which the classic example is Bipolar disorder (also The symptoms can last through 12 to 16 weeks of gestation.

Second trimester: The abdomen shows an obvious swelling arising from the pelvis, starting the "obvious phase" of pregnancy. Hyperpigmentation, including linea nigra, may appear. In Dermatology, hyperpigmentation is the darkening of an area of Skin or nails caused by increased Melanin. Linea nigra ( Latin for "black line" is a dark vertical line that appears on the abdomen during Pregnancy.

Third trimester: The mother may experience backaches due to increased strain. Back pain (also known " dorsalgia " is Pain felt in the back that usually originates from the Muscles Nerves Bones Typically, the curvature of the spine is changed as pregnancy evolves in order to counteract the change in weight distribution. The mother may also suffer mild urinary incontinence due to pressure on the bladder by the pregnant uterus, as well as heartburn(due to compression of the stomach). Urinary incontinence ( UI) is any involuntary leakage of Urine. Heartburn or pyrosis is a painful or burning sensation in the Esophagus, just below the breastbone usually associated with regurgitation of gastric acid

Overall

Maternal physiology

During pregnancy, the woman undergoes many physiological changes, which are entirely normal, including cardiovascular, hematologic, metabolic, renal and respiratory changes that become very important in the event of complications. The breast is the upper Ventral region of an animal’s Torso, particularly that of Mammals including Human beings. Linea nigra ( Latin for "black line" is a dark vertical line that appears on the abdomen during Pregnancy. Telangiectasias are small dilated Blood vessels near the surface of the skin or Mucous membranes measuring between 0 Palmar Erythema is reddening of the palms at the Thenar and Hypothenar eminences Amenorrhoea ( BE) amenorrhea ( AmE) or amenorrhœa, is the absence of a Menstrual period in a woman of reproductive age Nausea ( Latin: Nausea, Greek:, " Sea-sickness " also called wamble) is the sensation of unease and discomfort Vomiting (also called throwing up, emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's Stomach through the Mouth and sometimes the Sciatica is a set of symptoms including Pain that may be caused by general compression and/or irritation of one of five nerve roots that give rise to the Sciatic nerve The sciatic nerve (also known as the ischiatic nerve) is a large Nerve that starts in the lower back and runs through the buttock and down the Lower limb Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" Hematology ( American English) or haematology ( British English) is the branch of biology (physiology Pathology, Clinical laboratory Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. The kidneys are complicated organs that have numerous biological roles In Animal physiology, respiration is the transport of Oxygen from the outside air to the cells within tissues and the transport of Carbon dioxide

Cardiovascular

The woman is the sole provider of nourishment for the embryo and later, the fetus, and so her plasma and blood volume slowly increase by 40-50% over the course of the pregnancy to accommodate the changes. An embryo (from Greek:, plural, lit "that which grows" from en- "in" + bryein "to swell be full" is a multicellular A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and Blood plasma is the Liquid component of Blood, in which the Blood cells are suspended This results in overall vasodilation, an increase in heart rate (15 beats/min more than usual), stroke volume, and cardiac output. Measuring heart rate The Pulse rate (which in most people is identical to the heart rate can be measured at any point on the body where an Artery 's pulsation Cardiac output (Q is the volume of blood being pumped by the Heart, in particular by a ventricle in a minute Cardiac output increases by about 50%, mostly during the first trimester. The systemic vascular resistance also drops due to the smooth muscle relaxation caused by elevated progesterone, leading to a fall in blood pressure. Diastolic blood pressure consequently decreases between 12-26 weeks, and increases again to prepregnancy levels by 36 weeks. Blood pressure is also the title of a short story by Damon Runyan in Guys and Dolls and Other Stories If the blood pressure remains abnormal beyond 36 weeks, the woman should be investigated for pre-eclampsia, a condition that precedes eclampsia. Pre-eclampsia (US preeclampsia) is a Medical condition where Hypertension arises in pregnancy ( Pregnancy-induced hypertension) in association Eclampsia is a serious complication of Pregnancy and is characterised by convulsions.

Hematology

Metabolism

During pregnancy, both protein metabolism and carbohydrate metabolism are affected. Protein metabolism or proteinolysis denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the synthesis of proteins and amino acids Carbohydrate metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of Carbohydrates One kilogram of extra protein is deposited, with half going to the fetus and placenta, and another half going to uterine contractile proteins, breast glandular tissue, plasma protein, and hemoglobin. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and The placenta is an Ephemeral organ present in placental Vertebrates, such as Eutherial Mammals and Sharks during Gestation The uterus (from the Latin word for womb) is the major Female reproductive organ of most Mammals including Humans One end the Mammary glands are the organs that in Mammals produce Milk for the sustenance of the young Hemoglobin ( also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the Iron -containing Oxygen -transport Metalloprotein

Nutrition

All patients are advised to take prenatal vitamins to compensate for the increased nutritional requirements. A neural tube defect will occur in human Embryos if there is an interference with the closure of the Neural tube that occurs around the 28th day after Fertilization Prenatal vitamins are Vitamin supplements intended to be taken before and during Pregnancy and during Postnatal Lactation. The use of Omega 3 fatty acids supports mental and visual development of infants. [1] Choline supplementation of research mammals supports mental development that lasts throughout life. [2]

Gastrointestinal

Renal

Pulmonary

All of these changes can contribute to the dyspnea (shortness of breath) that a pregnant woman may experience. Morning sickness, also called Nausea, Vomiting of Pregnancy ( emesis gravidarum or NVP) or pregnancy sickness Human chorionic gonadotropin ( hCG) is a Glycoprotein Hormone produced in Pregnancy that is made by the Embryo soon after conception Gastroesophageal reflux disease ( American English and Canadian English) or Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease ( British English, Hiberno-English Constipation, costiveness, or irregularity, is a condition of the Digestive system in which a person (or animal experiences hard Feces that Renal function, in Nephrology, is an indication of the state of the Kidney and its role in Renal physiology. Postnatal ( Latin for 'after birth' from post meaning "after" and natalis meaning "of birth" is the period beginning immediately after Creatinine is a break-down product of Creatine phosphate in Muscle, and is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body (depending on muscle mass Gestational diabetes (or gestational diabetes mellitus, GDM) is a condition in which women without previously diagnosed diabetes exhibit high blood The renin-angiotensin system (RAS or the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS is a hormone system that regulates Blood pressure and water ( fluid Aldosterone is a hormone that causes the tubules of the kidneys to retain sodium and water Sodium (ˈsoʊdiəm is an element which has the symbol Na( Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) atomic number 11 atomic mass 22 Lung volumes refers to physical differences in lung volume while lung capacities represent different combinations of lung volumes usually in relation to inhalation and exhalation Lung volumes refers to physical differences in lung volume while lung capacities represent different combinations of lung volumes usually in relation to inhalation and exhalation Lung volumes refers to physical differences in lung volume while lung capacities represent different combinations of lung volumes usually in relation to inhalation and exhalation Respiratory minute volume (or minute ventilation, or flow of gas) is the Volume of Air which can be inhaled (inhaled minute volume Respiratory alkalosis results from increased alveolar respiration ( Hyperventilation) leading to decreased plasma Carbon dioxide concentration Dyspnea or dyspnoea (pronounced disp-nee-ah, IPA /dɪsp'niə/ from Latin dyspnoea, from Greek dyspnoia from

Endocrine

Musculoskeleton and dermatology

Others

Prenatal care

Main article: Prenatal care

Prenatal care is important in screening for various complications of pregnancy. Prenatal care refers to the medical care recommended for women before and during Pregnancy. This includes routine office visits with physical exams and routine lab tests:

First trimester

Second trimester

Third trimester

Complications

See Complications of Pregnancy

Fetal assessments

Common
Uncommon

Induction

Reasons to induce include:

  1. pre-eclampsia
  2. IUGR
  3. diabetes
  4. other general medical condition, such as renal disease
  5. "postdates" - the pregnancy has lasted longer than 41 weeks after the last menstrual period

Induction may occur any time after 34 weeks of gestation if the risk to the fetus or mother is greater than the risk of delivering a premature fetus regardless of lung maturity. A contraction stress test (CST is performed near the end of Pregnancy to determine how well the Fetus will cope with the contractions of Childbirth Pre-eclampsia (US preeclampsia) is a Medical condition where Hypertension arises in pregnancy ( Pregnancy-induced hypertension) in association Birth weight is the weight of a baby at its birth. It has direct links with the Gestational age at which the child was born and can be estimated The kidneys are complicated organs that have numerous biological roles

If a woman does not eventually labour by 41-42 weeks, induction may be performed, as the placenta may become unstable after this date.

Induction may be achieved via several methods:

  1. pessary of Prostin cream, prostaglandin E2
  2. l or oral administration of misoprostol
  3. cervical insertion of a 30-mL Foley catheter
  4. rupturing the amniotic membranes
  5. intravenous infusion of synthetic oxytocin (Pitocin or Syntocinon)

Labor

During labor itself, the obstetrician/doctor/intern/medical student under supervision may be called on to do a number of things:

  1. monitor the progress of labor, by reviewing the nursing chart, performing vaginal examination, and assessing the trace produced by a fetal monitoring device (the cardiotocograph)
  2. accelerate the progress of labor by infusion of the hormone oxytocin
  3. provide pain relief, either by nitrous oxide (nowadays uncommon, at least in the U.S.), opiates, or by epidural anesthesia done by anaesthestists, an anesthesiologist, or a nurse anesthetist. A pessary is a small Plastic or Silicone medical device or form of Pharmaceutical preparation which is inserted into the Vagina or Rectum A prostaglandin is any member of a group of Lipid compounds that are derived enzymatically from Fatty acids and have important functions in the Animal body Oxytocin ( IPA: /ˌɔksɪˈtoʊsɪn/ (Greek "quick birth" is a Mammalian Hormone that also acts as a Neurotransmitter in the Oxytocin ( IPA: /ˌɔksɪˈtoʊsɪn/ (Greek "quick birth" is a Mammalian Hormone that also acts as a Neurotransmitter in the Nitrous oxide, commonly known as " laughing gas," is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula N 2 O. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For other uses see Opiate (disambiguation, or for the class of drugs see Opioid. Local anesthesia is any technique to render part of the body insensitive to pain without affecting consciousness Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις A nurse anesthetist ( AE) is a Registered nurse and advanced practice nurse who has acquired additional education and training to administer Anesthesia.
  4. surgically assisting labor, by forceps or the Ventouse (a suction cap applied to the fetus' head)
  5. Caesarean section, if vaginal delivery is decided against or appears too difficult. A Caesarean section (or Cesarean section in American English) also known as C-section, is a form of Childbirth in which a surgical Caesarean section can either be elective, that is, arranged before labor, or decided during labor as an alternative to hours of waiting. True "emergency" Cesarean sections (where minutes count) include abruptio placenta, and are more common in mulitgravid patients, or patients attempting a VBAC (Vaginal Birth After Caeserean section).

Antenatal

During the time immediately after birth both baby as well as mother are hormonally cued to bond, the mother through the release of oxytocin a hormone also released with breastfeeding. Oxytocin ( IPA: /ˌɔksɪˈtoʊsɪn/ (Greek "quick birth" is a Mammalian Hormone that also acts as a Neurotransmitter in the Breastfeeding is the feeding of an Infant or young Child with Breast milk directly from human Breasts, not from a Baby bottle or other

Emergencies in obstetrics

The main emergencies include:

Some unknown factors cause vascular damage in the [endothelium], causing hypertension and proteinuria. Hypertension, also referred to as high blood pressure, HTN or HPN, is a medical condition in which the Blood pressure is chronically elevated Proteinuria (from protein and urine) means the presence of anexcess of serum Proteins in the Urine. If severe, it progresses to fulminant pre-eclampsia, with headaches, epigastric pain and visual disturbances. This is a prelude to eclampsia, where a convulsion occurs, which can be fatal.

Imaging, monitoring and care

In present society, medical science has developed a number of procedures to monitor pregnancy.

Antenatal record

On the first visit to her obstetrician or midwife, the pregnant woman is asked to carry out the antenatal record, which constitutes a medical history and physical examination. Obstetrics (from the Latin obstare, "to stand by" is the surgical speciality dealing with the care of a woman and her offspring during Pregnancy Midwifery is a Health care profession where providers give Prenatal care to expecting Mothers attend the birth of the Infant The medical history or Anamnesis of a Patient is information gained by a Physician or other healthcare professional by asking specific questions Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs

On subsequent visits, the gestational age (GA) is rechecked with each visit. Gestational age is usually considered to be the age of an Embryo or Fetus (or newborn infant from the first day of the woman's last menstrual period (LMP Symphysis-fundal height (SFH; in cm) should equal gestational age after 20 weeks of gestation, and the fetal growth should be plotted on a curve during the antenatal visits. Fundal height, or MacDonald's rule is a measure of the size of the Uterus used to assess fetal growth and development The fetus is palpated by the midwife or obstetrician using Leopold maneuver to determine the position of the baby. Blood pressure should also be monitored, and may be up to 140/90 in normal pregnancies. Blood pressure is also the title of a short story by Damon Runyan in Guys and Dolls and Other Stories High blood pressure indicates hypertension and possibly pre-eclampsia, if severe swelling (edema) and spilled protein in the urine are also present. Hypertension, also referred to as high blood pressure, HTN or HPN, is a medical condition in which the Blood pressure is chronically elevated Pre-eclampsia (US preeclampsia) is a Medical condition where Hypertension arises in pregnancy ( Pregnancy-induced hypertension) in association Oedema (or Edema in American English formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, is the increase of Interstitial fluid in any organ &mdash swelling

Fetal screening is also used to help assess the viability of the fetus, as well as congenital problems. Prenatal testing is Testing for diseases or conditions in a Fetus or Embryo before it is born Genetic counseling is often offered for families who may be at an increased risk to have a child with a genetic condition. Genetic counseling is the process by which patients or relatives at risk of an inherited disorder are advised of the consequences and nature of the disorder the probability of developing Amniocentesis at around the 20th week is sometimes done for women 35 or older to check for Down's Syndrome and other chromosome abnormalities in the fetus. Amniocentesis (also referred to as amniotic fluid test or AFT) is a medical procedure used in Prenatal diagnosis of genetic abnormalities and fetal Down syndrome, Down's syndrome, or trisomy 21 is a Chromosomal disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome. A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and Protein that is found in cells. Even earlier than amniocentesis is performed, the mother may undergo the triple test, nuchal screening, nasal bone, alpha-fetoprotein screening and Chorionic villus sampling, also to check for disorders such as Down Syndrome. The triple test, also called triple screen, the Kettering test or the Bart's test is an investigation performed during Pregnancy (usually the second trimester A nuchal scan is a sonographic prenatal screening scan ( Ultrasound) to help identify higher risks of Down syndrome in developing babies particularly for The nasal bones are two small oblong Bones varying in size and form in different individuals they are placed side by side at the middle and upper part of the Face Alpha-fetoprotein ( AFP) is a molecule produced in the developing Embryo Chorionic villus sampling (CVS is a form of Prenatal diagnosis to determine chromosomal or Genetic disorders in the Fetus. Amniocentesis is a prenatal genetic screening of the fetus, which involves inserting a needle through the mother's abdominal wall and uterine wall, to extract fetal DNA from the amniotic fluid. There is a risk of miscarriage and fetal injury with amniocentesis because it involves penetrating the uterus with the baby still in utero.

Imaging

A dating scan at 12 weeks
A dating scan at 12 weeks

Imaging is another important way to monitor a pregnancy. Obstetric sonography (ultrasonography is the application of Medical ultrasonography to Obstetrics, in which ultrasound is used to visualize the Embryo The mother and fetus are also usually imaged in the first trimester of pregnancy. A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and This is done to predict problems with the mother; confirm that a pregnancy is present inside the uterus; guess the gestational age; determine the number of fetuses and placentae; evaluate for an ectopic pregnancy and first trimester bleeding; and assess for early signs of anomalies. The uterus (from the Latin word for womb) is the major Female reproductive organ of most Mammals including Humans One end the Gestational age is usually considered to be the age of an Embryo or Fetus (or newborn infant from the first day of the woman's last menstrual period (LMP The placenta is an Ephemeral organ present in placental Vertebrates, such as Eutherial Mammals and Sharks during Gestation An ectopic pregnancy is a Complication of pregnancy in which the fertilized Ovum is implanted in any tissue other than the uterine wall

X-rays and computerized tomography (CT) are not used, especially in the first trimester, due to the ionizing radiation, which has teratogenic effects on the fetus. X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. Computed tomography (CT is a Medical imaging method employing Tomography. Image talkNew_radiation_symbol_ISO_21482svg for details --> Ionizing radiation Teratology stems from the Greek ( Genitive) meaning monster, or marvel and, meaning word, speech. Instead, ultrasound is the imaging method of choice in the first trimester and throughout the pregnancy, because it emits no radiation, is portable, and allows for realtime imaging. Obstetric sonography (ultrasonography is the application of Medical ultrasonography to Obstetrics, in which ultrasound is used to visualize the Embryo Radiation, as in Physics, is Energy in the form of waves or moving Subatomic particles emitted by an atom or other body as it changes from a higher energy Ultrasound imaging may be done at any time throughout the pregnancy, but usually happens at the 12th week (dating scan) and the 20th week (detailed scan).

A normal gestation would reveal a gestational sac, yolk sac, and fetal pole. The gestational sac (or gestation sac) is the only available intrauterine structure that can be used to determine if an intrauterine Pregnancy (IUP exists The yolk sac is the first element seen in the Gestational sac during Pregnancy, usually at 5 weeks Gestation. The fetal pole is a thickening on the margin of the Yolk sac of a Fetus during Pregnancy. The gestational age can be assessed by evaluating the mean gestation sac diameter (MGD) before week 6, and the crown-rump length after week 6. Gestational age is usually considered to be the age of an Embryo or Fetus (or newborn infant from the first day of the woman's last menstrual period (LMP Multiple gestation is evaluated by the number of placentae and amniotic sacs present. A multiple birth occurs when more than one Fetus is carried to term in a single Pregnancy. The placenta is an Ephemeral organ present in placental Vertebrates, such as Eutherial Mammals and Sharks during Gestation The amniotic sac is the sac in which the Fetus develops Some sources consider it to be equivalent to the Amnion.

Pregnancy has different cultural aspects related to the perception of the body, the relationship with partner and to the meaning of the event.

Terms and definitions

Salary

The salary of an obstetrician varies from country to country:

Country Annual salary ($)
United Kingdom 118,000 [3]
United Arab Emirates 228,190 [4]

See also

References

  1. ^ Omega-3 least known of pregnancy "Big 3". Obstetrics is the study of the reproductive process within the female body including Fertilization, Pregnancy and Childbirth. Gynaecology or gynecology (see spelling differences) refers to the surgical specialty dealing with health of the female reproductive system ( Uterus Home birth occurs when a woman labors and delivers a child at home rather than the labor and delivery ward of a Hospital or Birthing center. See also Reproductive health, Women's health Maternal health care is a concept that encompasses Family planning, preconception Prenatal Midwifery is a Health care profession where providers give Prenatal care to expecting Mothers attend the birth of the Infant Obstetric sonography (ultrasonography is the application of Medical ultrasonography to Obstetrics, in which ultrasound is used to visualize the Embryo Postnatal ( Latin for 'after birth' from post meaning "after" and natalis meaning "of birth" is the period beginning immediately after Retrieved on 2008-01-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC
  2. ^ Tees RC, Mohammadi E (1999). "<226::AID-DEV7>3.0.CO;2-H The effects of neonatal choline dietary supplementation on adult spatial and configural learning and memory in rats". Dev Psychobiol 35 (3): 226–40. PMID 10531535.  
  3. ^ salaryexpert.com Presumed the value is in GBP, then by Google December 18, 2007: 117 999 British pounds = 239 832. 968 U. S. dollars
  4. ^ salaryexpert.com Presumed the value is in AED, then by Google December 18, 2007: 838 051 British pounds = 1. 70333866 million U. S. dollars

Further reading

External links

Dictionary

obstetrics

-noun

  1. (medicine) The care of women during and after pregnancy
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