Nutrition is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life. Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism Many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with good nutrition.
The diet of an organism refers to what it eats. This article is primarily about the human diet For a discussion of animal diets see List of feeding behaviours. Dietitians are health professionals who specialize in human nutrition, meal planning, economics, preparation, and so on. A dietitian (also 'dietician' though 'dietitian' is used consistently by professionals is an expert in Food and Nutrition. A health care provider or health professional is an organization or person who delivers proper Health care in a systematic way professionally to any individual in They are trained to provide safe, evidence-based dietary advice and management to individuals (in health and disease), as well as to institutions.
Poor diet can have an injurious impact on health, causing deficiency diseases such as scurvy, beriberi, and kwashiorkor; health-threatening conditions like obesity and metabolic syndrome, and such common chronic systemic diseases as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and osteoporosis. Scurvy (NLat scorbutus is a disease resulting from a deficiency of Vitamin C, which is required for the synthesis of Collagen in humans Beriberi (pronounced Berry-berry) is a Nervous system ailment caused by Thiamine (vitamin B1 deficiency Kwashiorkor is a type of malnutrition with controversial causes but it is commonly believed to be caused by insufficient protein intake Obesity is a condition in which excess Body fat has accumulated to such an extent that health may be negatively affected Metabolic syndrome is a combination of medical disorders that increase the risk of developing Cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular diseases refers to the class of diseases that involve the Heart or Blood vessels ( arteries and Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc Osteoporosis is a Disease of Bone that leads to an increased risk of fracture.
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Overview
Nutritional science investigates the metabolic and physiological responses of the body to diet. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. With advances in the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics, the study of nutrition is increasingly concerned with metabolism and metabolic pathways, the sequences of biochemical steps through which the many substances of living things change from one form to another. Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is
The human body contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA/RNA). The human body is the entire physical and mental structure of a Human Organism. A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed proportion by Mass. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Fiber or fibre is a class of Materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces similar to lengths of thread. In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Ribonucleic acid ( RNA) is a Nucleic acid that consists of a long chain of Nucleotide units These compounds, in turn, consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. A chemical element is a type of Atom that is distinguished by its Atomic number; that is by the number of Protons in its nucleus. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 Magnesium (mægˈniːziəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Mg, Atomic number 12 Atomic weight 24 Manganese (ˈmæŋgəniːz is a Chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e. g. hormones/vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite), both in the human body and in organisms (e. Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body A vitamin is an Organic compound required as a Nutrient in tiny amounts by an Organism. Phospholipids are a class of Lipids and are a major component of all Biological membranes All phospholipids contain a Diglyceride, a Phosphate Hydroxylapatite, also called hydroxyapatite, is a Mineral. It is a naturally occurring form of calcium Apatite with the formula Ca5(PO43(OH The human body is the entire physical and mental structure of a Human Organism. g. plants, animals) that humans eat.
The human body consists of elements and compounds ingested, digested, absorbed, and circulated through the bloodstream. Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products Except in the unborn fetus, it is the digestive system which carries out the first steps in feeding the cells of the body. Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called In a typical adult, about seven liters of digestive juices enter the lumen of the digestive tract. They break chemical bonds in ingested molecules and modulate their conformations and energy states. A chemical bond is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between Atoms and Molecules and which confers stability to diatomic and polyatomic Though some molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream unchanged, digestive processes release them from the matrix of foods in which they occur. Unabsorbed matter is excreted in the feces. Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animal's digestive tract expelled through the Anus
Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the diet and the products of excretion. A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. Comparing the food to the waste can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed in the body. Their effects may only be discernible after an extended period of time, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of human nutrition is still slowly evolving. A variable (ˈvɛərɪəbl is an Attribute of a physical or an abstract System which may change its Value while it is under Observation. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or
In general, eating a wide variety of fresh, whole (unprocessed), foods has proven favourable compared to monotonous diets based on processed foods. In particular, the consumption of whole plant foods slows digestion and provides higher amounts, and a more favourable balance, of essential nutrients per Calorie, resulting in better management of cell growth, maintenance, and mitosis (cell division), as well as better regulation of appetite and blood sugar. This article is about the unit of energy For its use in Nutrition and Food labelling regulations, see the article on Food energy. Mitosis is the process in which a Eukaryotic cell separates the Chromosomes in its Cell nucleus, into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei Regularly scheduled meals (every few hours) have also proven more wholesome than infrequent, haphazard ones.
Nutrients
There are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fiber, minerals, proteins, vitamins, and water. A nutrient is food or chemicals that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water Fiber or fibre is a class of Materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces similar to lengths of thread. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl A vitamin is an Organic compound required as a Nutrient in tiny amounts by an Organism. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life.
These nutrient classes can be generally grouped into the categories of macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts), and micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). Dietary minerals are the Chemical elements required by living Organisms other than the four elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins and water. The other nutrient classes are micronutrients.
The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide energy, which is measured in kilocalories, often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them from small calories. Bioenergetics is the subject of a field of Biochemistry that concerns Energy flow through living systems This article is about the unit of energy For its use in Nutrition and Food labelling regulations, see the article on Food energy. Carbohydrates and proteins provide four (4) Calories of energy per gram, while fats provide nine (9) Calories per gram. [1] Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are necessary for other reasons.
Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The nitrogen-containing components of protein, called amino acids, fulfill many roles other than energy metabolism, and when they are used as fuel, getting rid of the nitrogen places a burden on the kidneys. In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this
Other micronutrients not categorized above include antioxidants, essential fatty acids, and phytochemicals. An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules Essential fatty acids, or EFAs are Fatty acids that cannot be constructed within an organism from other components (generally all references are to humans by any known chemical Phytochemicals are plant-derived chemical compounds under scientific research for their potential health-promoting properties but with unproved benefits
Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes. Some nutrients are required on a regular basis, while others are needed less frequently. Poor health can be caused by an imbalance of nutrients, whether an excess or a deficiency.
Carbohydrates
Calories/gram: 4
Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides by the number of sugar units they contain. Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Monosaccharides contain 1 sugar unit, disaccharides contain 2, and polysaccharides contain 3 or more. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are long chains of sugar units, whereas monosaccharides and disaccharides are simple carbohydrates. The difference is important to nutritionists because complex carbohydrates take longer to metabolize since their sugar units are processed one-by-one off the ends of the chains. Simple carbohydrates are metabolized quickly and thus raise blood sugar levels more quickly resulting in rapid increases in blood insulin levels compared to complex carbohydrates.
Fat
Calories/gram: 9
Fats are composed of fatty acids (long carbon/hydrogen chains) bonded to a glycerol. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water Fat may be classified as saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fats have all of their carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of their carbon atoms double-bonded in place of a hydrogen atom. Generally, saturated fat is solid at room temperature while unsaturated fat is a liquid. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as mono-unsaturated (one double-bond) or poly-unsaturated (many double-bonds). Trans fats are saturated fats which are typically created from unsaturated fat by adding the extra hydrogen atoms in a process called hydrogenation (also called hydrogenated fat).
Fibre
Calories/gram: 0
Dietary fibre consists mainly of cellulose that is indigestible because we do not have enzymes to digest it. Dietary fibers are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the Digestive system, absorbing water and easing Defecation. Fruits and vegetables are rich in dietary fiber.
Importance of dietary fibre:
- provides bulk to the intestinal contents
- stimulates peristalsis (rhythmic muscular contractions passing along the digestive tract)
Lack of dietary fiber in the diet leads to constipation (failure to pass motions). In the Esophagus After food is chewed into a bolus it is swallowed to move it into the esophagus Constipation, costiveness, or irregularity, is a condition of the Digestive system in which a person (or animal experiences hard Feces that
Protein
Calories/gram: 4
Protein is composed of amino acids, that are body's structural (muscles, skin, hair etc. In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this ) materials. The body requires amino acids to produce new body protein (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance) that are lost in the urine. In animals amino acid requirements are classified in terms of essential (an animal cannot produce them) and non-essential (the animal can produce them from other nitrogen containing compounds) amino acids. An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an Amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an Amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to Consuming a diet that contains adequate amounts of essential (but also non-essential) amino acids is particularly important for growing animals, who have a particularly high requirement. Dietary sources of protein include meats, eggs, grains, legumes, and dairy products such as milk and cheese. In modern English usage meat most often refers to Animal tissue used as food mostly Skeletal muscle and associated Fat, but it may also refer An egg is a round or oval body laid by the female of many animals consisting of an Ovum surrounded by layers of Membranes and an outer casing which acts to nourish A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants Dairy products are generally defined as Foodstuffs produced from Milk. Milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the Mammary glands of female Mammals (including Monotremes. Cheese is a Food made from Milk, usually the milk of cows, Buffalo, Goats or sheep, by coagulation. Proteins can be converted into carbohydrates through a process called gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such
Minerals
Calories/gram: 0
Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen which are present in common organic molecules. Dietary minerals are the Chemical elements required by living Organisms other than the four elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and A chemical element is a type of Atom that is distinguished by its Atomic number; that is by the number of Protons in its nucleus. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Organic chemistry is a discipline within Chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure properties composition reactions, and preparation The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent of the definition is to describe ions, not chemical compounds or actual minerals. A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed proportion by Mass. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Some dietitians recommend that these heavier elements should be supplied by ingesting specific foods (that are enriched in the element(s) of interest), compounds, and sometimes including even minerals, such as calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula Ca[[Carbon C]] O 3 Sometimes these "minerals" come from natural sources such as ground oyster shells. The common name oyster is used for a number of different groups of Bivalve Mollusks most of which live in marine habitats or Brackish water. Sometimes minerals are added to the diet separately from food, such as mineral supplements, the most famous being iodine in "iodized salt. "
- Macrominerals
A variety of elements are required to support the biochemical processes, many play a role as electrolytes or in a structural role. An electrolyte is any substance containing free Ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium [2] In Human nutrition, the dietary bulk "mineral elements" (RDA > 200 mg/day) are in alphabetical order (parenthetical comments on folk medicine perspective):
- Calcium (for muscle and digestive system health, builds bone, neutralizes acidity, clears toxins, helps blood stream)
- Chloride
- Magnesium required for processing ATP and related reactions (health, builds bone, causes strong peristalsis, increases flexibility, increases alkalinity)
- Phosphorus required component of bones (see apatite) and energy processing and many other functions (bone mineralization)[3]
- Potassium required electrolyte (heart and nerves health)
- Sodium electrolyte
- Sulfur for three essential amino acids and many proteins and cofactors (skin, hair, nails, liver, and pancreas health)
- Trace minerals
A variety of elements are required in trace amounts, unusually because they play a role in catalysis in enzymes. Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support The Dietary Reference Intake (or DRI is a system of Nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine (IOM of the US National Academy of Sciences Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20 The chloride Ion is formed when the element Chlorine picks up one Electron to form an Anion (negatively-charged ion Cl&minus Magnesium (mægˈniːziəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Mg, Atomic number 12 Atomic weight 24 Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 An electrolyte is any substance containing free Ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium Sodium (ˈsoʊdiəm is an element which has the symbol Na( Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) atomic number 11 atomic mass 22 Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins [4] Some trace mineral elements (RDA < 200 mg/day) are (alphabetical order):
- Cobalt required for biosynthesis of vitamin B12 family of coenzymes
- Copper required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase
- Chromium required for sugar metabolism
- Iodine required for the biosynthesis of thyroxin
- Iron required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin
- Manganese (processing of oxygen)
- Molybdenum required for xanthine oxidase and related oxidases
- Nickel present in urease
- Selenium reqiured for peroxidase (antioxidant proteins)
- Vanadium (There is no established RDA for vanadium. Cobalt (ˈkoʊbɒlt is a hard lustrous silver-grey Metal, a Chemical element with symbol Co. Coenzymes are small organic non- Protein Molecules that carry chemical groups between Enzymes Coenzymes are sometimes referred to as cosubstrates Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 The Enzyme cytochrome c oxidase or Complex IV () is a large Transmembrane protein complex found in Bacteria and the Mitochondrion Chromium (ˈkroʊmiəm is a Chemical element which has the symbol Cr and Atomic number 24 Iodine (ˈaɪədaɪn ˈaɪədɪn or /ˈaɪədiːn/ from ιώδης iodes "violet" is a Chemical element that has the symbol I and Atomic Thyroxine, or 353'5'-tetraiodothyronine (often abbreviated as T4) a form of Thyroid hormones is the major Hormone secreted by the Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Hemoglobin ( also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the Iron -containing Oxygen -transport Metalloprotein Manganese (ˈmæŋgəniːz is a Chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn. Molybdenum (məˈlɪbdənəm from the Greek word for the metal " Lead " is a Group 6 Chemical element with the symbol Mo The Enzyme xanthine oxidase, or XO, (bovine milk enzyme is,) catalyzes the Oxidation of Hypoxanthine to Xanthine and can further Nickel (ˈnɪkəl is a metallic Chemical element with the symbol Ni and Atomic number 28 Urease ( is an Enzyme that catalyzes the Hydrolysis of Urea into Carbon dioxide and Ammonia. Selenium (səˈliniəm is a Chemical element with the Atomic number 34 represented by the chemical symbol Se, an atomic mass of 78 Peroxidases ( EC number 1111x are a large family of Enzymes A majority of peroxidase protein sequences can be found in the PeroxiBase database Vanadium (vəˈneɪdiəm is a Chemical element that has the symbol V and Atomic number 23 No specific biochemical function has been identified for it in humans, although vanadium is found in lower organisms. )
- Zinc required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase. Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 Carboxypeptidase ( EC number 3416 - 3418 is an enzyme that hydrolyzes the carboxy-terminal (C-terminal end of a peptide bond Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH is an enzyme discovered in the mid-1960s in Drosophila melanogaster. The carbonic anhydrases (or carbonate dehydratases) form a family of Enzymes that catalyze the rapid conversion of Carbon dioxide to Bicarbonate Zinc is pervasive.
Iodine is required in larger quantities than the other trace minerals in this list and is sometimes classified with the bulk minerals. Sodium is not generally found in dietary supplements, despite being needed in large quantities, because the ion is very common in food.
Vitamins
Calories/gram: 0
Mineral and/or vitamin deficiency or excess may yield symptoms of diminishing health such as goitre, scurvy, osteoporosis, weak immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health (including eating disorders), among many others. A vitamin is an Organic compound required as a Nutrient in tiny amounts by an Organism. Dietary minerals are the Chemical elements required by living Organisms other than the four elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and A vitamin is an Organic compound required as a Nutrient in tiny amounts by an Organism. A goitre ( BrE) or goiter ( AmE) ( Latin struma) also called a bronchocele, is a swelling in the neck (just below the Scurvy (NLat scorbutus is a disease resulting from a deficiency of Vitamin C, which is required for the synthesis of Collagen in humans Osteoporosis is a Disease of Bone that leads to an increased risk of fracture. An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. Ageing or aging (American English is the accumulation of changes in an organism Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and An eating disorder is a compulsion to eat or avoid eating that negatively affects both one's physical and mental health [5]
As of 2005, twelve vitamins and about the same number of minerals are recognized as "essential nutrients", meaning that they must be consumed and absorbed - or, in the case of vitamin D, alternatively synthesized via UVB radiation - to prevent deficiency symptoms and death. Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble Prohormones, the two major forms of which are vitamin D2 (or Ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (or Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays Certain vitamin-like substances found in foods, such as carnitine, have also been found essential to survival and health, but these are not strictly "essential" to eat because the body can produce them from other compounds. Carnitine is a quaternary ammonium compound biosynthesized from the Amino acids Lysine and Methionine. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which have many known and yet to be explored properties including antioxidant activity (see below). Phytochemicals are plant-derived chemical compounds under scientific research for their potential health-promoting properties but with unproved benefits An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules Other essential nutrients include essential amino acids, choline and the essential fatty acids. An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an Amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to Choline is an Organic compound, classified as a water-soluble Essential nutrient and usually grouped within the Vitamin B complex Essential fatty acids, or EFAs are Fatty acids that cannot be constructed within an organism from other components (generally all references are to humans by any known chemical
Water
Calories/gram: 0
About 70% of the non-fat mass of the human body is made of water. For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump. Water of sufficient quality to serve as drinking water is termed potable water whether it is used for drinking or not Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus To function properly, the body requires between one and seven liters of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of Volume. A day (symbol d is a unit of Time equivalent to 24 Hours and the duration of a single Rotation of planet Earth with respect to the Dehydration ( hypohydration) is the removal of Water ( hydro in ancient Greek) from an object With physical exertion and heat exposure, water loss will increase and daily fluid needs may increase as well.
It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people, although some experts assert that 8–10 glasses of water (approximately 2 liters) daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. [6] The notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced back to a scientific source. [7] The effect of water on weight loss and constipation is also still unknown. [8] Original recommendation for water intake in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods. "[9] The latest dietary reference intake report by the United States National Research Council in general recommended (including food sources): 2. The National Research Council (NRC of the USA is the working arm of the United States National Academy of Sciences and the United States National Academy of 7 liters of water total for women and 3. 7 liters for men. [10] Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need additional fluids to stay hydrated. Pregnancy ( Latin graviditas) is the carrying of one or more offspring known as a Fetus or Embryo, inside the Uterus of a Female Breastfeeding is the feeding of an Infant or young Child with Breast milk directly from human Breasts, not from a Baby bottle or other According to the Institute of Medicine—who recommend that, on average, women consume 2. The Institute of Medicine (IOM is one of the United States National Academies, and is a not-for-profit non-governmental American organization chartered in 1970 as a part of the United 2 litres and men 3. 0 litres—this is recommended to be 2. 4 litres (approx. 9 cups) for pregnant women and 3 litres (approx. 12. 5 cups) for breastfeeding women since an especially large amount of fluid is lost during nursing. [11]
For those who have healthy kidneys, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but (especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) it is dangerous to drink too little. People can drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of water intoxication, which can be fatal. Water intoxication (also known as hyperhydration or water poisoning) is a potentially fatal disturbance in Brain functions that results when the
Normally, about 20 percent of water intake comes from food, while the rest comes from drinking water and beverages (caffeinated included). Caffeine is a bitter white crystalline Xanthine Alkaloid that acts as a Psychoactive Stimulant Drug and a mild Diuretic Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; through urine and feces, through sweating, and by exhalation of water vapor in the breath. Urine is a liquid waste product of the body secreted by the Kidneys by a process of filtration from Blood and Excreted through the Urethra. Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animal's digestive tract expelled through the Anus General properties of water vapor Evaporation/sublimation Whenever a water molecule leaves a surface it is said to have evaporated
Other nutrients
Calories/gram: 0
Other micronutrients include antioxidants, essential fatty acids, and phytochemicals. These substances are generally more recent discoveries which: have not yet been recognized as vitamins; are still under investigation; or contribute to health but are not necessary for life. Phytochemicals may act as antioxidants, but not all phytochemicals are antioxidants.
Antioxidants
Antioxidants are recent discovery. An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules As cellular metabolism/energy production requires oxygen, potentially damaging (e. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. g. mutation causing) compounds known as radical oxygen species or free radicals form as a result. In biology mutations are changes to the Nucleotide sequence of the Genetic material of an organism In Chemistry, radicals (often referred to as free radicals) are atoms molecules or ions with Unpaired electrons on an otherwise Open shell For normal cellular maintenance, growth, and division, these free radicals must be sufficiently neutralized by antioxidant compounds, some produced by the body with adequate precursors (glutathione, Vitamin C in most animals) and those that the body cannot produce may only be obtained through the diet through direct sources (Vitamin C in humans, Vitamin A, Vitamin K) or produced by the body from other compounds (Beta-carotene converted to Vitamin A by the body, Vitamin D synthesized from cholesterol by sunlight). In Chemistry, a precursor is a compound that participates in the Chemical reaction that produces another compound Glutathione ( GSH) is a Tripeptide. It contains an unusual Peptide linkage between the amine group of Cysteine and the Carboxyl Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian Vitamin A refers to a family of similarly shaped molecules the Retinoids. Vitamin K (K from "Koagulations-Vitamin" in German Danish Swedish and Norwegian denotes a group of Lipophilic, Hydrophobic Vitamins that Beta-carotene is an Organic compound - a Terpenoid, a red-orange pigment abundant in plants and fruits Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble Prohormones, the two major forms of which are vitamin D2 (or Ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (or Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian Sunlight, in the broad sense is the total spectrum of the Electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. Phytochemicals (Section Below) and their subgroup polyphenols comprise of the majority of antioxidants, some 4,000 known, and therefore there is much overlap. Different antioxidants are now known to function in a cooperative network, e. g. vitamin C can reactivate free radical-containing glutathione or vitamin E by accepting the free radical itself, and so on. Glutathione ( GSH) is a Tripeptide. It contains an unusual Peptide linkage between the amine group of Cysteine and the Carboxyl Some antioxidants are more effective than others at neutralizing different free radicals. Some cannot neutralize certain free radicals. Some cannot be present in certain areas of free radical development (Vitamin A is fat-soluble and protects fat areas, Vitamin C is water soluble and protects those areas). Lipophilicity, fat-liking, refers to the ability of a Chemical compound to dissolve in fats oils lipids and non-polar solvents such as Hexane or Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. When interacting with a free radical, some antioxidants produce a different free radical compound that is less dangerous or more dangerous than the previous compound. Having a variety of antioxidants allows any byproducts to be safely dealt with by more efficient antioxidants in neutralizing a free radical's butterfly effect. The butterfly effect is a phrase that encapsulates the more technical notion of sensitive dependence on initial conditions in Chaos theory.
Essential fatty acids
Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, however, at least two fatty acids are essential and must be consumed in the diet. Essential fatty acids, or EFAs are Fatty acids that cannot be constructed within an organism from other components (generally all references are to humans by any known chemical An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids - omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids - has been discovered to be important for maintaining health. n −3 fatty acids (popularly referred to as ω−3 fatty acids or omega-3 fatty acids) are a family of unsaturated Fatty acids that n −6 fatty acids (popularly referred to as ω−6 fatty acids or omega-6 fatty acids) are a family of unsaturated Fatty acids Both of these unique "omega" long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins which function as hormones. An unsaturated fat is a Fat or Fatty acid in which there are one or more Double bonds in the fatty acid chain In biochemistry eicosanoids are signaling molecules made by Oxygenation of twenty-carbon Essential fatty acids (EFAs A prostaglandin is any member of a group of Lipid compounds that are derived enzymatically from Fatty acids and have important functions in the Animal body The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (which can be made in the body from the omega-3 essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (LNA), or taken in through marine food sources), serves as building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA or also icosapentaenoic acid is an Omega-3 fatty acid. α -Linolenic acid ( ALA) is an organic compound found in many common vegetable oils. g. weakly-inflammation PGE3). Inflammation ( Latin, inflamatio, to set on fire is the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli such as Pathogens The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as building block for series 1 prostaglandins (e. g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e. g. pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA are made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the body, or can be taken in directly through food. Linoleic acid (LA is an unsaturated Omega-6 fatty acid. It is a colorless liquid An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of different prostaglandins, which partly explains the importance of omega-3/omega-6 balance for cardiovascular health. In industrialised societies, people generally consume large amounts of processed vegetable oils that have reduced amounts of essential fatty acids along with an excessive amount of omega-6 relative to omega-3.
The rate of conversions of omega-6 DGLA to AA largely determines the production of the respective prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2. Omega-3 EPA prevents AA from being released from membranes, thereby skewing prostaglandin balance away from pro-inflammatory PGE2 made from AA toward anti-inflammatory PGE1 made from DGLA. Moreover, the conversion (desaturation) of DGLA to AA is controlled by the enzyme delta-5-desaturase, which in turn is controlled by hormones such as insulin (up-regulation) and glucagon (down-regulation). A Desaturase is an Enzyme which removes two Hydrogen atoms from an Organic compound, creating a Carbon /carbon double bond. Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance Glucagon is an important Hormone involved in Carbohydrate metabolism. Because different types and amounts of food eaten/absorbed affect insulin, glucagon and other hormones to varying degrees, not only the amount of omega-3 versus omega-6 eaten but also the general composition of the diet therefore determine health implications in relation to essential fatty acids, inflammation (e. Inflammation ( Latin, inflamatio, to set on fire is the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli such as Pathogens g. immune function) and mitosis (i. Mitosis is the process in which a Eukaryotic cell separates the Chromosomes in its Cell nucleus, into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei e. cell division).
Phytochemicals
A growing area of interest is the effect upon human health of trace chemicals, collectively called phytochemicals. Phytochemicals are plant-derived chemical compounds under scientific research for their potential health-promoting properties but with unproved benefits The BlackBerry is a Wireless Handheld device introduced in 1999 as a two-way pager A polyphenol antioxidant is a type of Antioxidant containing a Polyphenolic substructure Phytochemicals are plant-derived chemical compounds under scientific research for their potential health-promoting properties but with unproved benefits These nutrients are typically found in edible plants, especially colorful fruits and vegetables, but also other organisms including seafood, algae, and fungi. The effects of phytochemicals increasingly survive rigorous testing by prominent health organizations. One of the principal classes of phytochemicals are polyphenol antioxidants, chemicals which are known to provide certain health benefits to the cardiovascular system and immune system. A polyphenol antioxidant is a type of Antioxidant containing a Polyphenolic substructure This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor These chemicals are known to down-regulate the formation of reactive oxygen species, key chemicals in cardiovascular disease. Reactive oxygen species (ROS are ions or very small molecules that include Oxygen Ions free radicals, and Peroxides both inorganic and Cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular diseases refers to the class of diseases that involve the Heart or Blood vessels ( arteries and
Perhaps the most rigorously tested phytochemical is zeaxanthin, a yellow-pigmented carotenoid present in many yellow and orange fruits and vegetables. Zeaxanthin is one of the two Carotenoids contained within the Retina of the Eye. Repeated studies have shown a strong correlation between ingestion of zeaxanthin and the prevention and treatment of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Macular degeneration is a medical condition usually of older adults which results in a loss of vision in the center of the visual field (the Macula) because [12] Less rigorous studies have proposed a correlation between zeaxanthin intake and cataracts. A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity [13] A second carotenoid, lutein, has also been shown to lower the risk of contracting AMD. Both compounds have been observed to collect in the retina when ingested orally, and they serve to protect the rods and cones against the destructive effects of light.
Another caretenoid, beta-cryptoxanthin, appears to protect against chronic joint inflammatory diseases, such as arthritis. Cryptoxanthin is a natural Carotenoid pigment It has been isolated from a variety of sources including the petals and flowers of plants in the genus Physalis Arthritis (from Greek arthro-, joint + -itis, inflammation plural arthritides is a group of conditions involving damage to the Joints of the body While the association between serum blood levels of beta-cryptoxanthin and substantially decreased joint disease has been established, neither a convincing mechanism for such protection nor a cause-and-effect have been rigorously studied. [14] Similarly, a red phytochemical, lycopene, has substantial credible evidence of negative association with development of prostate cancer. Lycopene is a bright red Carotenoid pigment and Phytochemical found in Tomatoes and other red fruits
The correlations between the ingestion of some phytochemicals and the prevention of disease are, in some cases, enormous in magnitude.
Even when the evidence is obtained, translating it to practical dietary advice can be difficult and counter-intuitive. Lutein, for example, occurs in many yellow and orange fruits and vegetables and protects the eyes against various diseases. However, it does not protect the eye nearly as well as zeaxanthin, and the presence of lutein in the retina will prevent zeaxanthin uptake. Additionally, evidence has shown that the lutein present in egg yolk is more readily absorbed than the lutein from vegetable sources, possibly because of fat solubility. [15] At the most basic level, the question "should you eat eggs?" is complex to the point of dismay, including misperceptions about the health effects of cholesterol in egg yolk, and its saturated fat content.
As another example, lycopene is prevalent in tomatoes (and actually is the chemical that gives tomatoes their red color). It is more highly concentrated, however, in processed tomato products such as commercial pasta sauce, or tomato soup, than in fresh "healthy" tomatoes. Tomato soup is a Soup made from Tomatoes It is commonly used as an ingredient in more complex dishes and unlike most savory soups it may be served either hot or Yet, such sauces tend to have high amounts of salt, sugar, other substances a person may wish or even need to avoid.
The following table presents phytochemical groups and common sources, arranged by family:
| Family | Sources | Possible Benefits |
|---|---|---|
| flavonoids | berries, herbs, vegetables, wine, grapes, tea | general antioxidant, oxidation of LDLs, prevention of arteriosclerosis and heart disease |
| isoflavones (phytoestrogens) | soy, red clover, kudzu root | general antioxidant, prevention of arteriosclerosis and heart disease, easing symptoms of menopause, cancer prevention[16] |
| isothiocyanates | cruciferous vegetables | cancer prevention |
| monoterpenes | citrus peels, essential oils, herbs, spices, green plants, atmosphere[17] | cancer prevention, treating gallstones |
| organosulfur compounds | chives, garlic, onions | cancer prevention, lowered LDLs, assistance to the immune system |
| saponins | beans, cereals, herbs | Hypercholesterolemia, Hyperglycemia, Antioxidant, cancer prevention, |
| capsaicinoids | all capiscum (chile) peppers | topical pain relief, cancer prevention, cancer cell apoptosis |
Intestinal bacterial flora
It is now also known that the human digestion system contains a population of a range of bacteria and yeast such as Bacteroides, L. acidophilus and E. coli which are essential to digestion, and which are also affected by the food we eat. The term flavonoid (or bioflavonoid refers to a class of Plant Secondary metabolites According to the IUPAC nomenclature they can be classified into The word berry has two meanings one based on a botanical definition the other on common identification A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice For the Tokyo University supercomputer see Gravity Pipe. GRAPE, or GRA phics P rogramming E nvironment is Tea refers to the cured agricultural product of the leaves leaf buds and internodes of Camellia sinensis, which have been prepared and cured for the market An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules Low-density lipoprotein ( LDL) is a type of Lipoprotein that transports Cholesterol and Triglycerides from the Liver to peripheral Arteriosclerosis refers to a hardening of medium and large Arteries. Heart disease is an Umbrella term for a variety for different diseases affecting the Heart. Phytoestrogens, sometimes called "dietary estrogens" are a diverse group of naturally occurring non steroidal plant compounds that because of their structural similarity with Trifolium pratense ( Red Clover) is a species of Clover, native to Europe, western Asia and northwest Africa, but planted Pueraria lobata (syn P montana P thunbergiana) (sometimes known as foot a night vine, mile a minute vine, Gat Gun, Ge Gan and An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules Arteriosclerosis refers to a hardening of medium and large Arteries. Heart disease is an Umbrella term for a variety for different diseases affecting the Heart. Menopause is the permanent shutting down of the female Reproductive system, a considerable length of time before the end of the lifespan Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Isothiocyanate is the Chemical group - N = C = S, formed by substituting Sulfur for Oxygen in the Isocyanate Edible plants in the family Brassicaceae (also called Cruciferae are termed Cruciferous vegetables. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Monoterpenes are a class of Terpenes that consist of two Isoprene units and have the molecular formula C10H16 Citrus is a common term and Genus of Flowering plants in the family Rutaceae, originating in tropical and subtropical southeast regions of An essential oil is a concentrated Hydrophobic Liquid containing volatile Aroma compounds from Plants They are also known as volatile A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. An atmosphere (from Greek ατμός - atmos, " Vapor " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled In Medicine, gallstones (choleliths are Crystalline bodies formed within the body by accretion or concretion of normal or abnormal Bile component Organosulfur compounds are Organic compounds that contain Sulfur (sulphur Chives ( Allium schoenoprasum) are the smallest Species of the Onion family Alliaceae, native to Europe, Asia and Allium sativum L, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the Onion family Alliaceae. Organicsalsajpg||thumb|right|Onions used in salsa.]]Cooked onions in frying pan Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Low-density lipoprotein ( LDL) is a type of Lipoprotein that transports Cholesterol and Triglycerides from the Liver to peripheral An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor Saponins are a class of chemical compounds one of very many Secondary metabolites found in natural sources with saponins found in particular abundance in various plant Bean is a common name for large plant Seeds of several genera of the family Fabaceae (formerly Leguminosae used for human food or animal A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like Hypercholesterolemia (literally high blood cholesterol is the presence of high levels of Cholesterol in the blood. Hyperglycemia, hyperglycaemia, or high blood sugar is a condition in which an excessive amount of Glucose circulates in the Blood plasma An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Anti-inflammatory refers to the property of a substance or treatment that reduces Inflammation. Capsaicin /ˌkæpˈseˌɪsɪn/ (8- Methyl - N - Vanillyl -6-nonen Amide) is the active component of Chili peppers The chili pepper, chilli pepper, or chili, is the fruit of the plants from the Genus Capsicum, which are members of the nightshade Pain management (also called pain medicine is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of Pain. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled The gut flora are the Microorganisms that normally live in the Digestive tract and can perform a number of useful functions for their hosts The gut flora are the Microorganisms that normally live in the Digestive tract and can perform a number of useful functions for their hosts Bacteroides is a Genus of Gram-negative, bacillis bacteria. Bacteroides species are non- Endospore -forming anaerobes Lactobacillus acidophilus is one Species in the genus Lactobacillus. Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed Bacteria in the gut fulfill a host of important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; and defending against some diseases.
Balanced diet
Balanced diet is a diet which consists of all the nutrients in a required proportion with water and roughage.
Junk food
Junk food is a slang name for food items containing limited nutritional value. It includes food high in salts, fats, sugar, and calories, and low nutrient content.
Sports nutrition
Protein
The protein requirements of athletes, once the source of great controversy, has settled into a current consensus. Sports nutrition is applied in most sports training however it is most dominant in strength sports (for example Weight lifting and Bodybuilding) and endurance sports (for Sedentary people and recreational athletes[18] have similar protein requirements, about 1 gram of protein per kilogram of body mass. These needs are easily met by a balanced diet containing about 70 grams of protein for a 70 kg (150 pound) man or 60 grams of protein for a 60 kg (130 pound) woman.
People who exercise at greater intensity, and especially those whose activity grows muscle bulk, have significantly higher protein requirements. According to Clinical Sports Nutrition (see footnote above), active athletes playing power sports (such as football), those engaged in muscle-development training, and elite endurance athletes, all require approximately 2 grams of protein per day per kilogram of body weight, roughly double that of a sedentary persons. Older athletes seeking primarily to maintain developed muscle mass require 2 to 3 g per day per kg.
Protein intake in excess of that required to build muscle (and other) tissue is broken-down by gluconeogenesis to be used as energy. Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such
Water and salts
Maintaining hydration during periods of physical exertion is key to good performance. While drinking too much water during activities can lead to physical discomfort, dehydration in excess of 2% of body mass (by weight) markedly hinders athletic performance. It is recommended that an athlete drink about 400-600 mL 2-3 hours before activity, during exercise he or she should drink 150-350mL every 15 to 20 minutes and after exercise that he or she replace sweat loss by drinking 450-675 mL for every 0. 5 kg body weight loss during activity. Some studies have shown that an athlete that drinks before they feel thirsty stays cooler and performs better than one who drinks on thirst cues, although recent studies of such races as the Boston Marathon have indicated that this recommendation can lead to the problem of overhydration. Additional carbohydrates and protein before, during, and after exercise increase time to exhaustion as well as speed recovery. Dosage is based on work performed, lean body mass, and environmental factors, especially ambient temperature and humidity.
Carbohydrates
The main fuel used by the body during exercise is carbohydrates, which is stored in muscle as glycogen- a form of sugar. During exercise, muscle glycogen reserves can be used up, especially when activities last longer than 90 min. When glycogen is not present in muscles, the muscle cells perform anaerobic respiration producing lactic acid, which is responsible for fatigue and burning sensation, and post exercise stiffness in muscles. Because the amount of glycogen stored in the body is limited, it is important for athletes to replace glycogen by consuming a diet high in carbohydrates. Meeting energy needs can help improve performance during the sport, as well as improve overall strength and endurance.
There are different kinds of carbohydrates--simple or refined, and unrefined. A typical American consumes about 50% of their carbohydrates as simple sugars, which are added to foods as opposed to sugars that come naturally in fruits and vegetables. These simple sugars come in large amounts in sodas and fast food. Over the course of a year, the average American consumes 54 gallons of soft drinks, which contain the highest amount of added sugars. [19] Even though carbohydrates are necessary for humans to function, they are not all equally healthful. When machinery has been used to remove bits of high fiber, the carbohydrates are refined. These are the carbohydrates found in white bread and fast food. [20]
Longevity
Whole plant food diet
Heart disease, cancer, obesity, and diabetes are commonly called "Western" diseases because these maladies were once rarely seen in developing countries. A healthy diet is one that is arrived at with the intent of improving or maintaining optimal Health. One study in China found some regions had essentially no cancer or heart disease, while in other areas they reflected "up to a 100-fold increase" coincident with diets that were found to be entirely plant-based to heavily animal-based, respectively. The China Study (ISBN 1-932100-38-5 is a 2005 book by T Colin Campbell of Nutritional Biochemistry at Cornell University, and one of the directors of the China [21] In contrast, diseases of affluence like cancer and heart disease are common throughout the United States. Adjusted for age and exercise, large regional clusters of people in China rarely suffered from these "Western" diseases possibly because their diets are rich in vegetables, fruits and whole grains. [21]
The United Healthcare/Pacificare nutrition guideline recommends a whole plant food diet, and recommends using protein only as a condiment with meals. A National Geographic cover article from November, 2005, entitled The Secrets of Living Longer, also recommends a whole plant food diet. Overview The NGS's historical mission is "to increase and diffuse geographic knowledge while promoting the conservation of the world's cultural historical and natural The article is a lifestyle survey of three populations, Sardinians, Okinawans, and Adventists, who generally display longevity and "suffer a fraction of the diseases that commonly kill people in other parts of the developed world, and enjoy more healthy years of life. Sardinia (sɑrˈdɪnɪə Sardegna Sardigna or Sardinnya is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily) is one of Japan 's southern prefectures, and consists of hundreds of the Ryukyu Islands in a chain over 1000 km long which extends southwest from Kyūshū The Seventh-day Adventist (abbreviated " Adventist " Church is a Christian denomination which is distinguished mainly by its observance In sum, they offer three sets of 'best practices' to emulate. The rest is up to you. " In common with all three groups is to "Eat fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. "
The National Geographic article noted that an NIH funded study of 34,000 Seventh-day Adventists between 1976 and 1988 ". "NIH" redirects here For other meanings of NIH see NIH (disambiguation. The Seventh-day Adventist (abbreviated " Adventist " Church is a Christian denomination which is distinguished mainly by its observance . . found that the Adventists' habit of consuming beans, soy milk, tomatoes, and other fruits lowered their risk of developing certain cancers. It also suggested that eating whole grain bread, drinking five glasses of water a day, and, most surprisingly, consuming four servings of nuts a week reduced their risk of heart disease. "
The French "paradox"
It has been discovered that people living in France live longer. The French paradox refers to the observation that the French suffer a relatively low incidence of Coronary heart disease, despite having a diet relatively rich in Even though they consume more saturated fats than Americans, the rate of heart disease is lower in France than in North America. A number of explanations have been suggested:
- Reduced consumption of processed carbohydrate and other junk foods;
- Ethnic genetic differences allowing the body to be harmed less by fats;
- Regular consumption of red wine; or
- Living in the South requires the body to produce less heat, allowing a slower, and therefore healthier, metabolic rate. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice
- More active lifestyles involving plenty of daily exercise, especially walking; the French are much less dependent on cars than Americans are.
- Higher consumption of artificially produced trans-fats by Americans, which has been shown to have greater lipoprotein impacts per gram than saturated fat. [22]
However, a growing number of French health researchers doubt the theory that the French are healthier than other populations. Statistics collected by the WHO from 1990-2000 show that the incidence of heart disease in France may have been underestimated and in fact be similar to that of neighboring countries. [23]
Malnutrition
Malnutrition refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients. Malnutrition is a general term for a medical condition caused by an improper or insufficient diet. In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption. Although there are more people in the world who are malnurished due to excessive consumption, according to the United Nations World Health Organization, the real challenge in developing nations today, more than starvation, is insufficient malnutrition — the lack of nutrients necessary for growth and the maintenance of vital functions.
Illnesses caused by improper nutrient consumption
Mental agility
Research indicates that improving the awareness of nutritious meal choices and establishing long-term habits of healthy eating has a positive effect on a cognitive and spatial memory capacity, potentially increasing a student's potential to process and retain academic information. This article is about the unit of energy For its use in Nutrition and Food labelling regulations, see the article on Food energy. Starvation (also called inanition) is a severe reduction in Vitamin, Nutrient, and Energy intake and is the most extreme form of Obesity is a condition in which excess Body fat has accumulated to such an extent that health may be negatively affected Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc Cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular diseases refers to the class of diseases that involve the Heart or Blood vessels ( arteries and Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single sacchar: sugar are the most basic unit of Carbohydrates They consist of one sugar and Marasmus is a form of severe Protein-energy malnutrition characterized by Energy deficiency. Starvation (also called inanition) is a severe reduction in Vitamin, Nutrient, and Energy intake and is the most extreme form of Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc Polysaccharides are relatively complex Carbohydrates They are Polymers made up of many Monosaccharides joined together by Glycosidic bonds Marasmus is a form of severe Protein-energy malnutrition characterized by Energy deficiency. Starvation (also called inanition) is a severe reduction in Vitamin, Nutrient, and Energy intake and is the most extreme form of Obesity is a condition in which excess Body fat has accumulated to such an extent that health may be negatively affected Saturated fat is Fat that consists of Triglycerides containing only saturated Fatty acids Explanation Fat that occurs Trans fat is the common name for a type of Unsaturated fat with trans - isomer Fatty acid (s Cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular diseases refers to the class of diseases that involve the Heart or Blood vessels ( arteries and An unsaturated fat is a Fat or Fatty acid in which there are one or more Double bonds in the fatty acid chain Rabbit starvation is the form of acute Malnutrition caused by excess consumption of any lean meat (specifically Rabbit) coupled with a lack of other sources of nutrients Obesity is a condition in which excess Body fat has accumulated to such an extent that health may be negatively affected Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian Cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular diseases refers to the class of diseases that involve the Heart or Blood vessels ( arteries and Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Marasmus is a form of severe Protein-energy malnutrition characterized by Energy deficiency. Ketoacidosis is a type of metabolic Acidosis which is caused by high concentrations of Ketone bodies, formed by the Deamination of Amino acids Rabbit starvation is the form of acute Malnutrition caused by excess consumption of any lean meat (specifically Rabbit) coupled with a lack of other sources of nutrients Nephrology (from Greek nephros, " Kidney " and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Sodium (ˈsoʊdiəm is an element which has the symbol Na( Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) atomic number 11 atomic mass 22 Hyponatremia ( British: hyponatraemia) is an Electrolyte disturbance (disturbance of the salts in the blood in which the Sodium ( Natrium Hypernatremia is an Electrolyte disturbance that is defined by an elevated Sodium level in the blood Hypertension, also referred to as high blood pressure, HTN or HPN, is a medical condition in which the Blood pressure is chronically elevated Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Anemia ( AmE) or anæmia/anaemia ( BrE) (from the Ancient Greek grc-Latn anaîmia, meaning “without blood” is defined as a qualitative Hepatitis C is a blood-borne infectious disease that is caused by the Hepatitis C virus ( HCV) affecting the Liver. Cirrhosis is a consequence of chronic Liver Disease characterized by replacement of liver tissue by fibrous Scar tissue as well as regenerative Heart disease is an Umbrella term for a variety for different diseases affecting the Heart. Iodine (ˈaɪədaɪn ˈaɪədɪn or /ˈaɪədiːn/ from ιώδης iodes "violet" is a Chemical element that has the symbol I and Atomic A goitre ( BrE) or goiter ( AmE) ( Latin struma) also called a bronchocele, is a swelling in the neck (just below the Hypothyroidism is the disease state in humans and animals caused by insufficient production of Thyroid hormone by the Thyroid gland. Iodine (ˈaɪədaɪn ˈaɪədɪn or /ˈaɪədiːn/ from ιώδης iodes "violet" is a Chemical element that has the symbol I and Atomic Vitamin A refers to a family of similarly shaped molecules the Retinoids. Hypervitaminosis A refers to the effects of excessive Vitamin A (specifically retinoid intake Beriberi (pronounced Berry-berry) is a Nervous system ailment caused by Thiamine (vitamin B1 deficiency Riboflavin ( E101) also known as vitamin B2, is an easily absorbed Micronutrient with a key role in maintaining Health Niacin, also known as vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin which prevents the deficiency disease Pellagra. Pellagra is a Vitamin Deficiency disease caused by dietary lack of Niacin (B3 and Protein, especially proteins containing the Dyspepsia (from the Greek "δυς-" (Dys- and "πέψη" (Pepse known in plain English as indigestion, meaning hard Dysrhythmia redirects here For the American band see Dysrhythmia (band. Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian Scurvy (NLat scorbutus is a disease resulting from a deficiency of Vitamin C, which is required for the synthesis of Collagen in humans Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble Prohormones, the two major forms of which are vitamin D2 (or Ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (or Rickets is a softening of the bones in children potentially leading to fractures and deformity Hypervitaminosis D is a state of Vitamin D toxicity The recommended daily allowance is 400 IU per day See also Tocopherol, Tocotrienol Vitamin E is the collective name for a set of 8 related Tocopherols and Tocotrienols which are fat-soluble Hypervitaminosis E is a state of Vitamin E toxicityBecause vitamin E can act as an Anticoagulant and may increase the risk of bleeding problems many agencies have Vitamin K (K from "Koagulations-Vitamin" in German Danish Swedish and Norwegian denotes a group of Lipophilic, Hydrophobic Vitamins that Bleeding, technically known as hemorrhaging / haemorrhaging (see American and British spelling differences) is the loss of Blood from '''Nootropics''' popularly referred to as " smart drugs " " smart nutrients " " cognitive enhancers " and " brain enhancers
Some organizations have begun working with teachers, policymakers, and managed foodservice contractors to mandate improved nutritional content and increased nutritional resources in school cafeterias from primary to university level institutions. Health and nutrition have been proven to have close links with overall educational success (Behrman, 1996). Currently less than 10% of American college students report that they ate the recommended five servings of fruit and vegetables daily. [24] Better nutrition has been shown to have an impact on both cognitive and spatial memory performance; a study showed those with higher blood sugar levels performed better on certain memory tests. [25] In another study, those who consumed yogurt performed better on thinking tasks when compared to those who consumed caffeine free diet soda or confections. [26] Nutritional deficiencies have been shown to have a negative effect on learning behavior in mice as far back as 1951. [27]
- "Better learning performance is associated with diet induced effects on learning and memory ability". [28]
The "nutrition-learning nexus" demonstrates the correlation between diet and learning and has application in a higher education setting.
- "We find that better nourished children perform significantly better in school, partly because they enter school earlier and thus have more time to learn but mostly because of greater learning productivity per year of schooling. "[29]
- 91% of college students feel that they are in good health while only 7% eat their recommended daily allowance of fruits and vegetables. [24]
- More "engaged" learning models that encompass nutrition is an idea that is picking up steam at all levels of the learning cycle. [32]
There is limited research available that directly links a student's Grade Point Average (G. P. A. ) to their overall nutritional health. Additional substantive data is needed to prove beyond a shadow of a doubt that overall intellectual health is closely linked to a person's diet, rather than just another correlation fallacy.
Mental disorders
Nutritional supplement treatment may be appropriate for major depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive compulsive disorder, the four most common mental disorders in developed countries. Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD is a Chronic Anxiety disorder most commonly characterized by obsessive Distressing Intrusive thoughts [33]
Cancer
Cancer is now common in developing countries. According a study by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, "In the developing world, cancers of the liver, stomach and esophagus were more common, often linked to consumption of carcinogenic preserved foods, such as smoked or salted food, and parasitic infections that attack organs. The International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC, or CIRC in its French Acronym) is an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health " Lung cancer rates are rising rapidly in poorer nations because of increased use of tobacco. Developed countries "tended to have cancers linked to affluence or a 'Western lifestyle' – cancers of the colon, rectum, breast and prostate – that can be caused by obesity, lack of exercise, diet and age. "[34]
Metabolic syndrome
Several lines of evidence indicate lifestyle-induced hyperinsulinemia and reduced insulin function (i. Hyperinsulinemia, present in people with Diabetes mellitus type 2 or Insulin resistance where excess levels of circulating Insulin are in the blood e. insulin resistance) as a decisive factor in many disease states. Insulin resistance is the condition in which normal amounts of Insulin are inadequate to produce a normal Insulin response from Fat, Muscle For example, hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are strongly linked to chronic inflammation, which in turn is strongly linked to a variety of adverse developments such as arterial microinjuries and clot formation (i. A thrombus, or blood clot, is the final product of the Blood coagulation step in Hemostasis. e. heart disease) and exaggerated cell division (i. e. cancer). Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance (the so-called metabolic syndrome) are characterized by a combination of abdominal obesity, elevated blood sugar, elevated blood pressure, elevated blood triglycerides, and reduced HDL cholesterol. Metabolic syndrome is a combination of medical disorders that increase the risk of developing Cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Obesity is a condition in which excess Body fat has accumulated to such an extent that health may be negatively affected Blood sugar, used in a physiological context is a misnomer and misleading Blood pressure is also the title of a short story by Damon Runyan in Guys and Dolls and Other Stories (more properly known as, TAG or triacylglyceride) is Glyceride in which the Glycerol is Esterified with three Fatty acids It is the Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian The negative impact of hyperinsulinemia on prostaglandin PGE1/PGE2 balance may be significant.
The state of obesity clearly contributes to insulin resistance, which in turn can cause type 2 diabetes. Obesity is a condition in which excess Body fat has accumulated to such an extent that health may be negatively affected Diabetes mellitus type 2 or Type 2 Diabetes (formerly called non - Insulin -dependent Diabetes mellitus (NIDDM or adult-onset diabetes is a metabolic Virtually all obese and most type 2 diabetic individuals have marked insulin resistance. Although the association between overweight and insulin resistance is clear, the exact (likely multifarious) causes of insulin resistance remain less clear. Importantly, it has been demonstrated that appropriate exercise, more regular food intake and reducing glycemic load (see below) all can reverse insulin resistance in overweight individuals (and thereby lower blood sugar levels in those who have type 2 diabetes). The glycemic load (GL is a ranking system for Carbohydrate content in food portions based on their Glycemic index (GI and the portion size
Obesity can unfavourably alter hormonal and metabolic status via resistance to the hormone leptin, and a vicious cycle may occur in which insulin/leptin resistance and obesity aggravate one another. Leptin (Greek leptos meaning thin is a 16 kDa The vicious cycle is putatively fuelled by continuously high insulin/leptin stimulation and fat storage, as a result of high intake of strongly insulin/leptin stimulating foods and energy. Both insulin and leptin normally function as satiety signals to the hypothalamus in the brain; however, insulin/leptin resistance may reduce this signal and therefore allow continued overfeeding despite large body fat stores. The hypothalamus links the Nervous system to the Endocrine system via the Pituitary gland (hypophysis In addition, reduced leptin signalling to the brain may reduce leptin's normal effect to maintain an appropriately high metabolic rate.
There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors -- e. g. intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals -- contribute to the development of insulin- and leptin resistance. In any case, analogous to the way modern man-made pollution may potentially overwhelm the environment's ability to maintain 'homeostasis', the recent explosive introduction of high Glycemic Index- and processed foods into the human diet may potentially overwhelm the body's ability to maintain homeostasis and health (as evidenced by the metabolic syndrome epidemic). Homeostasis (from Greek: ὅμος hómos, "equal" and ιστημι istēmi, "to stand" lit The Glycemic index (also glycaemic index) or GI is a measure of the effects of Carbohydrates on Blood glucose levels
Hyponatremia
Excess water intake, without replenishment of sodium and potassium salts, leads to hyponatremia, which can further lead to water intoxication at more dangerous levels. Hyponatremia ( British: hyponatraemia) is an Electrolyte disturbance (disturbance of the salts in the blood in which the Sodium ( Natrium Water intoxication (also known as hyperhydration or water poisoning) is a potentially fatal disturbance in Brain functions that results when the A well-publicized case occurred in 2007, when Jennifer Strange died while participating in a water-drinking contest. [35] More usually, the condition occurs in long-distance endurance events (such as marathon or triathlon competition and training) and causes gradual mental dulling, headache, drowsiness, weakness, and confusion; extreme cases may result in coma, convulsions, and death. The marathon is a long-distance foot race with an official distance of 42 A triathlon is an endurance sports event consisting of Swimming, cycling and Running over various distances The primary damage comes from swelling of the brain, caused by increased osmosis as blood salinity decreases. Effective fluid replacement techniques include Water aid stations during running/cycling races, trainers providing water during team games such as Soccer and devices such as Camel Baks which can provide water for a person without making it too hard to drink the water.
Processed foods
Since the Industrial Revolution some two hundred years ago, the food processing industry has invented many technologies that both help keep foods fresh longer and alter the fresh state of food as they appear in nature. Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw Ingredients into Food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Cooling is the primary technology used to maintain freshness, whereas many more technologies have been invented to allow foods to last longer without becoming spoiled. These latter technologies include pasteurisation, autoclavation, drying, salting, and separation of various components, and all appear to alter the original nutritional contents of food. Pasteurization is the process of heating Liquids for the purpose of destroying bacteria, Protozoa, Molds and Yeasts The process was An autoclave is a pressurized device designed to heat aqueous solutions above their Boiling point at normal atmospheric pressure to achieve sterilization Drying is a Mass transfer process resulting in the removal of water Moisture or moisture from another Solvent, by Evaporation from a Solid Pasteurisation and autoclavation (heating techniques) have no doubt improved the safety of many common foods, preventing epidemics of bacterial infection. But some of the (new) food processing technologies undoubtedly have downfalls as well.
Modern separation techniques such as milling, centrifugation, and pressing have enabled upconcentration of particular components of food, yielding flour, oils, juices and so on, and even separate fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of the Centrifugal force for the separation of mixtures used in industry and in laboratory settings This article is about the method of execution See Crusher for a description of the manufacturing process and mechanisms for it Inevitably, such large scale upconcentration changes the nutritional content of food, saving certain nutrients while removing others. Heating techniques may also reduce food's content of many heat-labile nutrients such as certain vitamins and phytochemicals, and possibly other yet to be discovered substances. [36] Because of reduced nutritional value, processed foods are often 'enriched' or 'fortified' with some of the most critical nutrients (usually certain vitamins) that were lost during processing. Nonetheless, processed foods tend to have an inferior nutritional profile compared to whole, fresh foods, regarding content of both sugar and high GI starches, potassium/sodium, vitamins, fibre, and of intact, unoxidized (essential) fatty acids. Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 Sodium (ˈsoʊdiəm is an element which has the symbol Na( Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) atomic number 11 atomic mass 22 In addition, processed foods often contain potentially harmful substances such as oxidized fats and trans fatty acids.
A dramatic example of the effect of food processing on a population's health is the history of epidemics of beri-beri in people subsisting on polished rice. Beriberi (pronounced Berry-berry) is a Nervous system ailment caused by Thiamine (vitamin B1 deficiency Removing the outer layer of rice by polishing it removes with it the essential vitamin thiamine, causing beri-beri. For the similarly spelled pyrimidine see Thymine Thiamin or thiamine, also known as Vitamin B1 Another example is the development of scurvy among infants in the late 1800s in the United States. Scurvy (NLat scorbutus is a disease resulting from a deficiency of Vitamin C, which is required for the synthesis of Collagen in humans It turned out that the vast majority of sufferers were being fed milk that had been heat-treated (as suggested by Pasteur) to control bacterial disease. Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and Pasteurisation was effective against bacteria, but it destroyed the vitamin C.
As mentioned, lifestyle- and obesity-related diseases are becoming increasingly prevalent all around the world. There is little doubt that the increasingly widespread application of some modern food processing technologies has contributed to this development. The food processing industry is a major part of modern economy, and as such it is influential in political decisions (e. g. nutritional recommendations, agricultural subsidising). In any known profit-driven economy, health considerations are hardly a priority; effective production of cheap foods with a long shelf-life is more the trend. In general, whole, fresh foods have a relatively short shelf-life and are less profitable to produce and sell than are more processed foods. Thus the consumer is left with the choice between more expensive but nutritionally superior whole, fresh foods, and cheap, usually nutritionally inferior processed foods. Because processed foods are often cheaper, more convenient (in both purchasing, storage, and preparation), and more available, the consumption of nutritionally inferior foods has been increasing throughout the world along with many nutrition-related health complications.
Advice and guidance
Governmental policies
In the US, dietitians. are registered (RD) or licensed (LD) with the Commission for Dietetic Registration and the American Dietetic Association, and are only able to use the title "dietitian," as described by the business and professions codes of each respective state,when they have met specific educational and experiential prerequisites and passed a national registration or licensure examination, respectively. In California, registered dietitions must abide by the Business and Professions Code of Section 2585-2586.8. Anyone may call themselves a nutritionist, including unqualified personnel, as this term is unregulated. Some states, such as the State of Florida, have begun to include the title "nutritionist" in state licensure requirements. Most governments provide guidance on nutrition, and some also impose mandatory disclosure/labeling requirements for processed food manufacturers and restaurants to assist consumers in complying with such guidance. Mandatory labelling or labeling (see Spelling differences) is the requirement of consumer products to state their ingredients or components
In the US, nutritional standards and recommendations are currently controlled by the US Department of Agriculture. Dietary and exercise guidelines from the USDA are presented in the concept of a food pyramid, which superseded the Four Food Groups. MyPyramid, released by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA on April 19, 2005, is an update on the ubiquitous U The Senate committee currently responsible for oversight of the USDA is the Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry Committee. Committee hearings are often televised on C-SPAN as seen here. C-SPAN (officially the Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network) is an American Cable television network dedicated to airing non-stop coverage
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services provides a sample week-long menu which fulfills the nutritional recommendations of the government. The United States Department of Health and Human Services ( HHS) is a Cabinet department of the United States government with the goal of protecting [2]
Canada's Food Guide is another governmental recommendation. Canada's Food Guide is a diet planning tool produced by Health Canada.
Teaching
Nutrition is taught in schools in many countries. In Education, a teacher is one who helps Students or pupils often in a School, as well as in a Family, religious or In England and Wales the Personal and Social Education and Food Technology curricula include nutrition, stressing the importance of a balanced diet and teaching how to read nutrition labels on packaging. History The Roman occupation of Britain was the first period in which the area of present-day England and Wales was administered as a single unit (with the exception Personal and Social Education (PSE is a component of the State school Curriculum in Wales and Scotland.
History
Humans have evolved as omnivorous hunter-gatherers over the past 250,000 years. Omnivores (from Latin omne all everything vorare to devour are species that eat both Plants and Animals as their primary A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting The diet of early modern humans varied significantly depending on location and climate. The diet in the tropics tended to be based more heavily on plant foods, while the diet at higher latitudes tended more towards animal products. Analysis of postcranial and cranial remains of humans and animals from the Neolithic, along with detailed bone modification studies have shown that cannibalism was also prevalent among prehistoric humans. [37]
Agriculture developed about 10,000 years ago in multiple locations throughout the world, providing grains such as wheat, rice, and maize, with staples such as bread and pasta. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Bread is a Staple food prepared by Baking a Dough of Flour and Water. Pasta ( Italian for "dough" is a generic term for Italian variants of Noodles. Farming also provided milk and dairy products, and sharply increased the availability of meats and the diversity of vegetables. The importance of food purity was recognized when bulk storage led to infestation and contamination risks. Cooking developed as an often ritualistic activity, due to efficiency and reliability concerns requiring adherence to strict recipes and procedures, and in response to demands for food purity and consistency. Cooking is the process of preparing Food by applying Heat, selecting measuring and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure for producing safe and edible [38]
Antiquity through 1900
- The first recorded nutritional experiment is found in the Bible's Book of Daniel. The Book of Daniel (דניאל, originally written in Hebrew and Aramaic, is a Book in both the Hebrew Bible ( Tanakh) and the Christian Daniel and his friends were captured by the king of Babylon during an invasion of Israel. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Selected as court servants, they were to share in the king's fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables (pulses) and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions. Pulses are annual leguminous crops yielding from one to twelve Grains or Seeds of variable size shape and color within a Pod, according PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The king's chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for 10 days and were then compared to the king's men. Appearing healthier, they were allowed to continue with their diet.
- c. 475 BC: Anaxagoras states that food is absorbed by the human body and therefore contained "homeomerics" (generative components), thereby deducing the existence of nutrients. Anaxagoras ( Greek: Ἀναξαγόρας c 500 BC &ndash 428 BC was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher famous for introducing the Cosmological
- c. 400 BC: Hippocrates says, "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food. Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca "[39]
- 1500s: Scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci compared metabolism to a burning candle. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life.
- 1747: Dr. James Lind, a physician in the British navy, performed the first scientific nutrition experiment, discovering that lime juice saved sailors who had been at sea for years from scurvy, a deadly and painful bleeding disorder. James Lind or Jim Lind is the name of James Lind (physician (1716 - 1794 British doctor James F Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Lime is a term referring to a number of different fruits (generally Citruses, both Species and hybrids, which are typically round green to yellow Scurvy (NLat scorbutus is a disease resulting from a deficiency of Vitamin C, which is required for the synthesis of Collagen in humans The discovery was ignored for forty years, after which British sailors became known as "limeys. " The essential vitamin C within lime juice would not be identified by scientists until the 1930s. Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian
- 1770: Antoine Lavoisier, the "Father of Nutrition and Chemistry" discovered the details of metabolism, demonstrating that the oxidation of food is the source of body heat. Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state
- 1790: George Fordyce recognized calcium as necessary for fowl survival. George Fordyce ( 18 November 1736 - 25 May 1802) was a distinguished Scottish physician lecturer on medicine and chemist who was Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20
- Early 1800s: The elements carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen were recognized as the primary components of food, and methods to measure their proportions were developed. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the
- 1816: François Magendie discovers that dogs fed only carbohydrates and fat lost their body protein and died in a few weeks, but dogs also fed protein survived, identifying protein as an essential dietary component. François Magendie ( October 6, 1783 &ndash October 7, 1855) was French physiologist considered a pioneer in experimental physiology Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl
- 1840: Justus Liebig discovers the chemical makeup of carbohydrates (sugars), fats (fatty acids) and proteins (amino acids. Justus von Liebig ( May 12, 1803 &ndash April 18, 1873) was a German Chemist Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this )
- 1860s: Claude Bernard discovers that body fat can be synthesized from carbohydrate and protein, showing that the energy in blood glucose can be stored as fat or as glycogen. Claude Bernard ( July 12, 1813 – February 10, 1878) was a French Physiologist. Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells
- Early 1880s: Kanehiro Takaki observed that Japanese sailors (whose diets consisted almost entirely of white rice) developed beriberi (or endemic neuritis, a disease causing heart problems and paralysis) but British sailors and Japanese naval officers did not. was a Japanese naval Physician. Early life Born in Hyuga Province (present-day Miyazaki Prefecture) as the son of a Beriberi (pronounced Berry-berry) is a Nervous system ailment caused by Thiamine (vitamin B1 deficiency Adding various types of vegetables and meats to the diets of Japanese sailors prevented the disease.
- 1896: Baumann observed iodine in thyroid glands. Iodine (ˈaɪədaɪn ˈaɪədɪn or /ˈaɪədiːn/ from ιώδης iodes "violet" is a Chemical element that has the symbol I and Atomic
- 1897: Christiaan Eijkman worked with natives of Java, who also suffered from beriberi. Christiaan Eijkman ( August 11, 1858, Nijkerk &ndash November 5, 1930, Utrecht) was a Dutch Physician Java (Jawa is an Island of Indonesia and the site of its Capital city Jakarta. Eijkman observed that chickens fed the native diet of white rice developed the symptoms of beriberi, but remained healthy when fed unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact. Eijkman cured the natives by feeding them brown rice, discovering that food can cure disease. Over two decades later, nutritionists learned that the outer rice bran contains vitamin B1, also known as thiamine. For the similarly spelled pyrimidine see Thymine Thiamin or thiamine, also known as Vitamin B1
1900 through 1941
- Early 1900s: Carl Von Voit and Max Rubner independently measure caloric energy expenditure in different species of animals, applying principles of physics in nutrition. Max Rubner ( June 2, 1854, Munich - April 27, 1932, Berlin) was a German Physiologist and Hygienist This article is about the unit of energy For its use in Nutrition and Food labelling regulations, see the article on Food energy.
- 1906: Wilcock and Hopkins showed that the amino acid tryptophan was necessary for the survival of mice. Tryptophan (abbreviated as Trp or W) is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an Essential amino acid in the Human diet Gowland Hopkins recognized "accessory food factors" other than calories, protein and minerals, as organic materials essential to health but which the body cannot synthesise. Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins OM FRS ( June 20, 1861 Eastbourne, Sussex - May 16, 1947 Cambridge Dietary minerals are the Chemical elements required by living Organisms other than the four elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon.
- 1907: Stephen M. Babcock and Edwin B. Hart conduct the single-grain experiment. Stephen Moulton Babcock (1843–1931 was a US agricultural Chemist. Edwin B Hart (1874-1953 was an American biochemist. A native of Michigan, Hart studied physiological chemistry under Albrecht Kossel The single-grain experiment was an experiment carried out at the University of Wisconsin-Madison from May 1907 to 1911 This experiment runs through 1911.
- 1912: Casimir Funk coined the term vitamin, a vital factor in the diet, from the words "vital" and "amine," because these unknown substances preventing scurvy, beriberi, and pellagra, were thought then to be derived from ammonia. Kazimierz Funk ( February 23, 1884 – January 19, 1967) commonly anglicized as Casimir Funk, was a Polish biochemist A vitamin is an Organic compound required as a Nutrient in tiny amounts by an Organism. Pellagra is a Vitamin Deficiency disease caused by dietary lack of Niacin (B3 and Protein, especially proteins containing the
- 1913: Elmer McCollum discovered the first vitamins, fat soluble vitamin A, and water soluble vitamin B (in 1915; now known to be a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and names vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. Elmer McCollum ( March 3, 1879 &ndash November 15, 1967) was an American biochemist Vitamin A refers to a family of similarly shaped molecules the Retinoids. The B vitamins are eight water-soluble Vitamins that play important roles in cell Metabolism. Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Osborne also perform pioneering work on vitamin A and B. Lafayette Benedict Mendel ( February 5, 1872 &ndash December 9, 1935) was an American Biochemist known for his work in
- 1919: Sir Edward Mellanby incorrectly identified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency, because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil. Professor Edward Mellanby, GBE, KCB, MD, FRCP, FRS (1884 - 1955 discovered Vitamin D and the role of the vitamin in preventing Rickets is a softening of the bones in children potentially leading to fractures and deformity [40]
- 1922: McCollum destroys the vitamin A in cod liver oil but finds it still cures rickets, naming vitamin D
- 1922: H. Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble Prohormones, the two major forms of which are vitamin D2 (or Ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (or M. Evans and L. S. Bishop discover vitamin E as essential for rat pregnancy, originally calling it "food factor X" until 1925. Tocopherol, a class of chemical compounds of which many have Vitamin E activity describes a series of Organic compounds consisting of various methylated phenols
- 1925: Hart discovers trace amounts of copper are necessary for iron absorption. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26
- 1927: Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus synthesizes vitamin D, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928. Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus ( December 25, 1876 &ndash June 9, 1959) was a German Chemist who won a Nobel Prize The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature
- 1928: Albert Szent-Györgyi isolates ascorbic acid, and in 1932 proves that it is vitamin C by preventing scurvy. Albert Szent-Györgyi de Nagyrápolt ( September 16, 1893 &ndash October 22, 1986) was a Hungarian Physiologist who This article deals with the molecular aspects of ascorbic acid In 1935 he synthesizes it, and in 1937 he wins a Nobel Prize for his efforts. Szent-Györgyi concurrently elucidates much of the citric acid cycle. The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely the Szent-Györgyi–Krebs cycle
- 1930s: William Cumming Rose identifies essential amino acids, necessary protein components which the body cannot synthesize. William Cumming Rose ( April 4, 1887 &ndash September 25, 1985) was an American Nutritionist whose research in the 1930s discovered An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an Amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to
- 1935: Underwood and Marston independently discover the necessity of cobalt. Cobalt (ˈkoʊbɒlt is a hard lustrous silver-grey Metal, a Chemical element with symbol Co.
- 1936: Eugene Floyd Dubois shows that work and school performance are related to caloric intake.
- 1938: The chemical structure of vitamin E is discovered by Erhard Fernholz, and it is synthesised by Paul Karrer. Paul Karrer ( April 21, 1889 &ndash June 18, 1971) was a Swiss Organic chemist best known for his work on Vitamins
- 1940 UK institutes rationing according to nutritional principles drawn up by Elsie Widdowson and others
- 1941: The first Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were established by the National Research Council. Rationing in the United Kingdom is the series of Food rationing policies put in place by the government of the United Kingdom during certain wartime periods of Dr Elsie Widdowson ( 1908 - June 14 2000, Cambridge, England) was a British Scientist responsible for overseaing The Dietary Reference Intake (or DRI is a system of Nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine (IOM of the US National Academy of Sciences The National Research Council (NRC of the USA is the working arm of the United States National Academy of Sciences and the United States National Academy of
Recent
- 1992 The U. S. Department of Agriculture Introduces Food Guide Pyramid
- 2002 Study shows relation between nutrition and violent behavior
- 2005 Obesity may be caused by adenovirus in addition to bad nutrition[41]
See also
- Main list: List of basic nutrition topics
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Biology: Dangers of poor nutrition
Food:
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Lists: |
Profession: Tools: Organizations: Related topics |
Further reading
- Galdston, I. Boron deficiency is a Pathology which may occur in Animals due to a lack of Boron. Chromium deficiency is a disorder that results from an insufficient dietary intake of Chromium. For a more specific and detailed discussion of Anemia caused by iron deficiency see the Wikipedia article Iron deficiency anemia. Iodine is an essential Trace element; the Thyroid hormones Thyroxine and Triiodotyronine contain iodine Magnesium deficiency refers to an absolute lack of Magnesium, the result of numerous conditions Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc An eating disorder is a compulsion to eat or avoid eating that negatively affects both one's physical and mental health Many Diseases in humans are directly or indirectly caused by improper eating habits and Malnutrition. Malnutrition is a general term for a medical condition caused by an improper or insufficient diet. Obesity is a condition in which excess Body fat has accumulated to such an extent that health may be negatively affected Childhood Obesity is a condition where excess body fat negatively affects a child's health or wellbeing Starvation (also called inanition) is a severe reduction in Vitamin, Nutrient, and Energy intake and is the most extreme form of Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an 5 A Day is the name of a number of programs in various countries especially the United States and the United Kingdom, to encourage the consumption of at least five Canada's Food Guide is a diet planning tool produced by Health Canada. Fast food is the term given to food that can be prepared and served very quickly Food groups refers to a method of classification for the various Foods that Humans consume in their everyday lives based on the nutritional properties of these types The food guide pyramid was the previous nutritional guide (created at Tufts University School of Medicine of the USDA, replaced in April 2005 by the new USDA nutrition A food supplement is typically a nutrient added to a foodstuff which would otherwise not contain that nutrient The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. Functional food or medicinal food is any fresh or processed Food claimed to have a health-promoting and/or disease-preventing property beyond the basic Nutritional Junk food is a broad term that is used to describe a variety of Food products from Sweets that contain little to no Nutritional value to products used in In modern English usage meat most often refers to Animal tissue used as food mostly Skeletal muscle and associated Fat, but it may also refer The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however A healthy diet is one that is arrived at with the intent of improving or maintaining optimal Health. Dieting is the practice of ingesting food in a regulated fashion to achieve or maintain a controlled weight In general terms eating (formally ingestion) is the process of consuming Food to provide for the Nutritional needs of an Animal, particularly The healthy eating pyramid is a Nutrition guide developed by the Harvard School of Public Health, suggesting how much of each food category one should eat each day Nutritional rating systems are methods of ranking or rating food products or food categories to communicate the nutritional value of food in a simplified manner to a target audience The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine (PCRM is a Non-profit organization based in Washington D The China Study (ISBN 1-932100-38-5 is a 2005 book by T Colin Campbell of Nutritional Biochemistry at Cornell University, and one of the directors of the China Well-known nutritional diets 1 100-Mile Diet A Abs This is an alphabetical list of Food additives For related lists see also List of food additives Codex Alimentarius and E number. Many Diseases in humans are directly or indirectly caused by improper eating habits and Malnutrition. Following is a list of topics related to Life extension: 0–9 15 Global Challenges A Foundations De Materia Medica This list of unrefined sweeteners includes all natural unrefined or low-processed Sweeteners Sweeteners are usually made with the fruit or sap of plants A nutrient is food or chemicals that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Dietary minerals are the Chemical elements required by living Organisms other than the four elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Dietary minerals are the Chemical elements required by living Organisms other than the four elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and An essential nutrient is a Nutrient required for normal body functioning that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from a dietary source Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water Essential fatty acids, or EFAs are Fatty acids that cannot be constructed within an organism from other components (generally all references are to humans by any known chemical Micronutrients are Nutrients needed for life in small quantities '''Nootropics''' popularly referred to as " smart drugs " " smart nutrients " " cognitive enhancers " and " brain enhancers Nutraceutical, a Portmanteau of Nutrition and Pharmaceutical, refers to extracts of foods claimed to have a medicinal effect on human health Phytochemicals are plant-derived chemical compounds under scientific research for their potential health-promoting properties but with unproved benefits Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl See also Protein in nutrition A complete protein (or whole protein) is a Protein that contains all of the Essential amino acids for An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an Amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to Protein combining (also protein complementing) is a controversial theory that Vegetarians particlarly Vegans must eat certain complementary foods like Protein combining (also protein complementing) is a controversial theory that Vegetarians particlarly Vegans must eat certain complementary foods like Proteins are broken down in the Stomach during Digestion by Enzymes known as Proteases into smaller Polypeptides to provide A vitamin is an Organic compound required as a Nutrient in tiny amounts by an Organism. Megavitamin therapy is the use of large amounts of Vitamins often many times greater than the Recommended dietary allowance (RDA in the attempt to prevent or treat Vitamin C megadosage is the consumption of Vitamin C (ascorbate in doses well beyond the current Dietary Reference Intake. A dietitian (also 'dietician' though 'dietitian' is used consistently by professionals is an expert in Food and Nutrition. The term nutritionist is subject to several interpretations In many jurisdictions a nutritionist is a health specialist who devotes professional activity to food and Nutritional A Nutrition scale is a weighing instrument that output precise nutritional information for foods or liquids The American Dietetic Association ( ADA) is the United States ' largest organization of Food and Nutrition professionals with nearly 67000 members The British Dietetic Association (BDA is a Professional association and Trade union for Dieticians in the United Kingdom. Health is a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity Auxology, sometimes called Auxanology (from Greek grc αὔξω auxō, or grc αὐξάνω auxanō, "growth" and grc -λογία General fitness training works towards broad goals of overall health and well-being rather than narrow goals of sport competition larger muscles or concerns over appearance Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging. Orthomolecular medicine is a form of Complementary and alternative medicine which aims to prevent and treat disease with substances which are natural to the body Physical fitness is used in two close meanings general fitness (a state of Health and well-being and specific fitness (a task-oriented definition based on the ability , Human Nutrition Historic and Scientific (New York: International Universities Press, 1960)
- Mahan, L. K. and Escott-Stump, S. eds. (2000) Krause's Food, Nutrition, and Diet Therapy. 10th ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Harcourt Brace)
- Thiollet, J-P, Vitamines & minéraux (Paris, Anagramme, 2001)
- Walter C. Willett and Meir J. Stampfer. 2003. Rebuilding the Food Pyramid. Scientific American January 2003.
References
- ^ Berg J, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L (2002). Biochemistry, 5th ed. , San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, page 603. ISBN 0716746840.
- ^ Nelson, D. L. ; Cox, M. M. "Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry" 3rd Ed. Worth Publishing: New York, 2000. ISBN 1-57259-153-6.
- ^ D. E. C. Corbridge "Phosphorus: An Outline of its Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Technology" 5th Edition Elsevier: Amsterdam 1995. ISBN 0-444-89307-5.
- ^ Lippard, S. J. and Berg, J. M. , Principles of Bioinorganic Chemistry, University Science Books: Mill Valley, CA, 1994.
- ^ Shils et al. (2005) Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-4133-5.
- ^ Healthy Water Living. Retrieved on 2007-02-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen
- ^ "Drink at least eight glasses of water a day." Really? Is there scientific evidence for "8 × 8"? by Heinz Valdin, Department of Physiology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, New Hampshire
- ^ Drinking Water - How Much?, Factsmart. New Hampshire ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. org web site and references within
- ^ Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances, revised 1945. National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122, 1945 (Aug), p. 3-18.
- ^ Dietary Reference Intakes: Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate, Food and Nutrition Board
- ^ Water: How much should you drink every day? - MayoClinic.com
- ^ Seddon JM et al. JAMA. 1994; 272: 1413-1420; Schepens Eye Institute/Harvard Medical School, Nov. 11, 2003. See http://www.mdsupport.org/library/zeaxanthin.html.
- ^ Lyle, B. J. , J. A. Mares-Perlman, et al. (1999). "Antioxidant intake and risk of incident age-related nuclear cataracts in the Beaver Dam Eye Study. " Am J Epidemiol 149(9): 801-9; Yeum, K. J. , A. Taylor, et al. (1995). "Measurement of carotenoids, retinoids, and tocopherols in human lenses. " Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 36(13): 2756-61; Chasan-Taber, L. , W. C. Willett, et al. (1999). "A prospective study of carotenoid and vitamin A intakes and risk of cataract extraction in US women. " Am J Clin Nutr 70(4): 509-16; Brown, L. , E. B. Rimm, et al. (1999). "A prospective study of carotenoid intake and risk of cataract extraction in US men. " Am J Clin Nutr 70(4): 517-24.
- ^ Am J Clin Nutr, Vol. 82, No. 2, 451-455, August, 2005 (inflammatory polyarthritis); Am J Epidemiology 2006 163(1).
- ^ Am J Clin Nutr, Vol. 70, No. 2, 247-251, August 1999.
- ^ Note that some isoflavone studies have linked isoflavones to increased cancer risk.
- ^ Monoterpenes are enormously widespread among green plant life (including algae). Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms Many plants, notably coniferous trees, emit beneficial monoterpenes into the atmosphere.
- ^ The definition of recreational athlete here is taken from Burke and Deakin's Clinical Sports Nutrition(3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd, 2006 ): people exercising two to three hours a week at less than 55% maximum VO2 uptake.
- ^ William D. McArdle, Frank I. Katch, Victor L. Katch. Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.
- ^ BBC - Health - Healthy living - Bread, cereals and potatoes
- ^ a b Campbell T. , Campbell T. The China Study, Dallas: Benella Books, 2005
- ^ Ducimetière, Pierre. Understanding the Complexity of Trans Fatty Acid Reduction in the American Diet. BMJ.
- ^ Ducimetière, Pierre. Rates of coronary events are similar in France and southern Europe. BMJ.
- ^ a b American College Health Association. (2007) American College Health Association national college health assessment spring 2006 reference group data report (abridged). Journal of American College Health, 55(4), 195-206.
- ^ Benton, D. , & Sargent, J. (1992/7). Breakfast, blood glucose and memory. Biological Psychology, 33(2-3), 207-210.
- ^ Kanarek, R. B. , & Swinney, D. (1990/2). Effects of food snacks on cognitive performance in male college students. Appetite, 14(1), 15-27.
- ^ Whitley, J. , O'Dell, B. , & Hogan, A. (1951). Effect of diet on maze learning in second-generation rats. folic acid deficiency. Journal of Nutrition, 45(1), 153.
- ^ Umezawa, M. , Kogishi, K. , Tojo, H. , Yoshimura, S. , Seriu, N. , Ohta, A. , et al. (1999). High-linoleate and high-alpha-linolenate diets affect learning ability and natural behavior in SAMR1 mice. The Journal of Nutrition, 129(2), 431-437.
- ^ Glewwe, P. , Jacoby, H. , & King, E. (2001). Early childhood nutrition and academic achievement: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Public Economics, 81(3), 345-368.
- ^ Managed food service contractors react quickly to the demands of their clients achievement: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Public Economics, 81(3), 345-368.
- ^ Guernsey, L. (1993). Many colleges clear their tables of steak, substitute fruit and pasta. Chronicle of Higher Education, 39(26), A30.
- ^ Duster, T. , & Waters, A. (2006). Engaged learning across the curriculum: The vertical integration of food for thought. Liberal Education, 92(2), 42.
- ^ Lakhan SE, Vieira KF (2008). "Nutritional therapies for mental disorders". Nutr J 7: 2. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 18208598.
- ^ Coren, Michael (2005-03-10). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing Study: Cancer no longer rare in poorer countries. CNN. Cable News Network, usually referred to by its Initialism CNN, is a major English language Television network founded in 1980 by Ted Turner Retrieved on 2007-01-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC
- ^ BBC NEWS | Magazine |Why is too much water dangerous?
- ^ Morris, Audrey; Audia Barnett, Olive-Jean Burrows (2004). "Effect of Processing on Nutrient Content of Foods" (PDF). CAJANUS 37 (3): pp. 160-164.
- ^ Paola Villa, et al. "Cannibalism in the Neolithic" Science 233 July 1986.
- ^ History of the Study of Nutrition in Western Culture (copy at [1])
- ^ "Let food by thy medicine... Richard Smith, BMJ 2004;328 (24 January),, Accessed May 2008
- ^ Unraveling the Enigma of Vitamin D - a paper funded by the United States National Academy of Sciences
- ^ "Can a virus make you fat?" at BBC News; "Contagious obesity? Identifying the human adenoviruses that may make us fat" at Science Blog
External links
- Diet, Nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases by a Joint WHO/FAO Expert consultation (2003)
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Frequently asked questions
- Nutritional Status Assessment and Analysis - e-learning from FAO
Databases and search engines
- Nutrition Data
- USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Search By Food
- USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Nutrient Lists Search By Nutrient
Governmental agencies and intergovernmental bodies
- UN Standing Committee on Nutrition - In English, French and Portuguese
Dictionary
nutrition
-noun
- The organic process by which an organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and maintenance.
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