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Norepinephrine[1]
IUPAC name 4-(2-Amino-1-hydroxyethyl)
benzene-1,2-diol
Other names Noradrenaline
Identifiers
CAS number D: [149-95-1]
L: [51-41-2]
D/L: [138-65-8]
Properties
Molecular formula C8H11NO3
Molar mass 169. IUPAC Nomenclature is a system of naming Chemical compounds and of describing the science of Chemistry in general CAS registry numbers are unique numerical identifiers for Chemical compounds Polymers biological sequences mixtures and Alloys They are also referred to A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the Atoms that constitute a particular Chemical compound, and how the relationship between those atoms changes Molar mass, symbol M, is the Mass of one mole of a substance ( Chemical element or Chemical compound) 18 g/mol
Melting point

L: 216. The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid. 5-218 °C (decomp. )
D/L: 191 °C (decomp. )
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for
materials in their standard state
(at 25 °C, 100 kPa)
Infobox disclaimer and references

Norepinephrine (INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline (BAN) is a catecholamine with dual roles as a hormone and a neurotransmitter. In Chemistry, the standard state of a material is its state at 1 bar (100 Kilopascals exactly An International Nonproprietary Name ( INN; also known as rINN, for recommended International Nonproprietary Name or pINN for proposed A British Approved Name ( BAN) is the official non-proprietary or generic name given to a Pharmaceutical Substance, as defined in the British Pharmacopoeia Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body See Chemical synapse for an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article

As a stress hormone, norepinephrine affects parts of the brain where attention and responding actions are controlled. Stress hormones such as Cortisol and Norepinephrine are released at periods of high stress Attention is the Cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things Along with epinephrine, norepinephrine also underlies the fight-or-flight response, directly increasing heart rate, triggering the release of glucose from energy stores, and increasing blood flow to skeletal muscle. The fight-or-flight response', also called the fright, fight or flight response, hyperarousal or the acute stress response, was first Measuring heart rate The Pulse rate (which in most people is identical to the heart rate can be measured at any point on the body where an Artery 's pulsation Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Skeletal muscle is a type of Striated muscle, which usually attaches to tendons

However, when norepinephrine acts as a drug it will increase blood pressure, triggering a compensatory reflex that overcomes its direct stimulatory effects on the heart. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Blood pressure is also the title of a short story by Damon Runyan in Guys and Dolls and Other Stories A reflex action, also known as a reflex, is an involuntary and almost instant movement in response to stimulus. The reflex, called the baroreceptor reflex, results in a drop in heart rate called reflex bradycardia. In Cardiovascular physiology, the baroreflex or baroreceptor reflex is one of the body's homeostatic mechanisms for maintaining Blood pressure Reflex bradychardia is an abnormal Bradycardia (decrease in body Pulse rate) in response to certain stimuli

Norepinephrine is synthesized from dopamine by dopamine β-hydroxylase. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH is an Enzyme that converts Dopamine to Norepinephrine:Synonyms Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase ( Tryptophan [2] It is released from the adrenal medulla into the blood as a hormone, and is also a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and sympathetic nervous system where it is released from noradrenergic neurons. The adrenal medulla is part of the Adrenal gland. It is located at the center of the gland being surrounded by the Adrenal cortex. Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body See Chemical synapse for an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article In Vertebrates the central nervous system ( CNS) is the part of the Nervous system which is enclosed in the Meninges. The Sympathetic Nervous System ( SNS) is a branch of the Autonomic nervous system along with the Enteric nervous system and Parasympathetic nervous Neurons (ˈnjuːɹɒn also known as neurones and nerve cells) are responsive cells in the Nervous system that process and transmit information The actions of norepinephrine are carried out via the binding to adrenergic receptors. The adrenergic receptors (or adrenoceptors) are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of the Catecholamines Adrenergic receptors

Contents

Origins

Norepinephrine is released when a host of physiological changes are activated by a stressful event. Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical

In the brain, this is caused in part by activation of an area of the brain stem called the locus ceruleus. The brain stem (or brainstem) is the lower part of the Brain, adjoining and structurally continuous with the Spinal cord. The Locus ceruleus also spelled locus caeruleus or locus coeruleus (Latin for 'the blue spot' is a nucleus in the Brain stem involved with physiological This nucleus is the origin of most norepinephrine pathways in the brain. Noradrenergic neurons project bilaterally (send signals to both sides of the brain) from the locus ceruleus along distinct pathways to many locations, including the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and the spinal cord, forming a neurotransmitter system. The cerebral cortex is a structure within the Brain that plays a key role in Memory, Attention, perceptual Awareness, Thought, The limbic system, or Paleomammalian brain is a term for a set of brain structures including the Hippocampus and Amygdala and anterior thalamic nuclei and a limbic The spinal cord is a long thin tubular bundle of Nerves that is an extension of the Central nervous system from the brain and is enclosed in and protected In neuroscience neuromodulation is the process in which several classes of Neurotransmitters in the nervous system regulate diverse populations of Neurons (one

Norepinephrine is also released from postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system, to transmit the fight-or-flight response in each tissue respectively. In the Autonomic nervous system, fibers from the Ganglion to the effector organ are called postganglionic fibers. The Sympathetic Nervous System ( SNS) is a branch of the Autonomic nervous system along with the Enteric nervous system and Parasympathetic nervous The fight-or-flight response', also called the fright, fight or flight response, hyperarousal or the acute stress response, was first The adrenal medulla can also be counted to such postganglionic nerve cells, although they release norepinephrine into the blood. The adrenal medulla is part of the Adrenal gland. It is located at the center of the gland being surrounded by the Adrenal cortex.

Norepinephrine system

The noradrenergic neurons in the brain form a neurotransmitter system, that, when activated, exerts effects on large areas of the brain. In neuroscience neuromodulation is the process in which several classes of Neurotransmitters in the nervous system regulate diverse populations of Neurons (one The effects are alertness and arousal, and influences on the reward system. Arousal is a physiological and psychological state of being awake In neuroscience the reward system is a collection of brain structures which attempts to regulate and control behavior by inducing pleasurable effects

Anatomically, the noradrenergic neurons originate both in the locus coeruleus and the lateral tegmental field. The axons of the neurons in the locus coeruleus act on adrenergic receptors in:

On the other hand, axons of neurons of the lateral tegmental field act on adrenergic receptors in hypothalamus, for example. The adrenergic receptors (or adrenoceptors) are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of the Catecholamines Adrenergic receptors The la amygdalae ( Latin, also la corpus amygdaloideum, singular la amygdala, from Greek el αμυγδαλή grc-Latn amygdalē, 'almond' Cingulate gyrus (belt ridge in eng is a Gyrus in the medial part of the Brain. The hippocampus is a part of the Forebrain, located in the medial Temporal lobe. The hypothalamus links the Nervous system to the Endocrine system via the Pituitary gland (hypophysis The neocortex ( Latin for "new Bark " or "new Rind " is a part of the Brain of Mammals It is the outer layer of The spinal cord is a long thin tubular bundle of Nerves that is an extension of the Central nervous system from the brain and is enclosed in and protected The striatum is a subcortical (ie inside rather than on the outside part of the Telencephalon. The thalamus (from Greek θάλαμος = room chamber, IPA= /ˈθæləməs/ is a pair and symmetric part of the brain The tegmentum (from Latin for "covering" is a general area within the Brainstem. The adrenergic receptors (or adrenoceptors) are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of the Catecholamines Adrenergic receptors The hypothalamus links the Nervous system to the Endocrine system via the Pituitary gland (hypophysis

This structure explains some of the clinical uses of norepinephrine, since a modification of the system affects large areas of the brain.

Mechanism

Norepinephrine is synthesized from tyrosine as a precursor, and packed into synaptic vesicles. It performs its action by being released into the synaptic cleft, where it acts on adrenergic receptors, followed by the signal termination, either by degradation of norepinephrine, or by uptake by surrounding cells.

Biosynthesis

Norepinephrine is synthesized by a series of enzymatic steps in the adrenal medulla from the amino acid tyrosine:

Tyrosine

Levodopa

Dopamine

Norepinephrine

Vesicular transport

Between the decarboxylation and the final β-oxidation, norepinephrine is transported into synaptic vesicles. Tyrosine (abbreviated as Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 Amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates In a Neuron, synaptic vesicles, also called neurotransmitter vesicles, store the various Neurotransmitters that are released during Calcium -regulated This is accomplished by vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) in the lipid bilayer. The vesicular monoamine transporter is a Transport protein located within the presynaptic cell. A lipid bilayer or bilayer lipid membrane ( BLM) is a membrane composed of Lipid molecules (usually Phospholipids. This transporter has equal affinity for norepinephrine, epinephrine and isoprenaline. Isoprenaline ( INN) or isoproterenol ( USAN, trade names Medihaler-Iso and Isuprel) is a Sympathomimetic beta Adrenergic [3]

Release

To perform its functions, norepinephrine needs to be released from synaptic vesicles. Many substances modulate this release, some inhibiting it and some stimulating it.

For instance, there are inhibitory α2 adrenergic receptors presynaptically, that gives negative feedback on release by homotropic modulation. The α2 receptor is a type of Adrenergic receptor. Effect The α2 receptor has several general functions in common with other α-receptors but also Negative Feedback feeds part of a System 's output inverted into the system's input generally with the result that fluctuations are attenuated Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands

Receptor binding

Further reading: Adrenergic receptor

Norepinephrine performs its actions on the target cell by binding to and activating adrenergic receptors. The adrenergic receptors (or adrenoceptors) are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of the Catecholamines Adrenergic receptors The target cell expression of different types of receptors determines the ultimate cellular effect, and thus epinephrine has different actions on different cell types. A cell type is a distinct morphological or functional form of cell.

Termination

Signal termination is both a result of degradation and reuptake.

Degradation

In mammals, norepinephrine is rapidly degraded to various metabolites. Metabolomics is the "systematic study of the unique chemical fingerprints that specific cellular processes leave behind" - specifically the study of their small-molecule metabolite The principal metabolites are:

Uptake

Uptake is either done presynaptically (uptake 1) or by non-neuronal cells in the vicinity (uptake 2). Normetanephrine is a metabolite of Norepinephrine created by action of Catechol-O-methyl transferase on norepinephrine Catechol- O -methyl transferase ( COMT;) is one of several Enzymes that degrade Catecholamines such as Dopamine, Epinephrine 34-Dihydroxymandelic acid ( DHMA, DOMA) is a metabolite of Norepinephrine. 3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol ( MHPG, MOPEG) is a Metabolite of Norepinephrine degradation. Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase ( PNMT) is an Enzyme found in the Adrenal medulla that converts Norepinephrine (Noradrenalin to Epinephrine

Comparison of norepinephrine uptake
Uptake Rate (nmol/g/min)[5] KM[5] Specificity[6] Location Other substrates[6]
Uptake 1 1. Method of Lines (MoL refers to a computational technique in Electromagnetics, used to solve the Maxwells equations. 2 0. 3 noradrenaline > adrenaline > isoprenaline presynaptic
Uptake 2 100 250 adrenaline > noradrenaline > isoprenaline cell membrane of non-neuronal cells[3]

Noradrenergic agents

By indication

Norepinephrine may be used for the indications attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, depression and hypotension. Norepinephrine ( INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline ( BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a Isoprenaline ( INN) or isoproterenol ( USAN, trade names Medihaler-Iso and Isuprel) is a Sympathomimetic beta Adrenergic Levonordefrin is a nasal Decongestant and a local Vasoconstrictor for use in dentistry A decongestant is a broad class of Medications used to relieve Nasal congestion. In organic Chemistry tyramine (4-hydroxy- Phenethylamine, para-tyramine p-tyramine is a Monoamine compound derived from the Guanethidine is an Antihypertensive drug that reduces the release of Catecholamines, such as noradrenaline Norepinephrine ( INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline ( BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a Isoprenaline ( INN) or isoproterenol ( USAN, trade names Medihaler-Iso and Isuprel) is a Sympathomimetic beta Adrenergic The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma, or "phospholipid bilayer" is a Selectively permeable Lipid bilayer Neurons (ˈnjuːɹɒn also known as neurones and nerve cells) are responsive cells in the Nervous system that process and transmit information Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons Histamine is a Biogenic amine involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a Neurotransmitter Norepinephrine, as with other catecholamines, itself cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, so drugs such as amphetamines are necessary to increase brain levels.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Norepinephrine, along with dopamine, has come to be recognized as playing a large role in attention and focus. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates For people with ADD/ADHD, psychostimulant medications such as methylphenidate (Ritalin/Concerta), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), and Adderall (a mixture of dextroamphetamine and racemic amphetamine salts) are prescribed to help increase levels of norepinephrine and dopamine. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD is a neurobehavioral developmental disorder affecting about 3-5% of the world's population Dextroamphetamine is a Psychostimulant which produces increased wakefulness energy and self-confidence in association with decreased fatigue and appetite Adderall is a brand-name pharmaceutical Psychostimulant composed of mixed Amphetamine salts, the actions of which are Sympathomimetic In Chemistry, a racemic mixture, or racemate, is one that has equal amounts of left- and right-handed enantiomers of a chiral Amphetamine, and related drugs such as Methamphetamine are a group of drugs that act by increasing levels of Norepinephrine, Serotonin, and Dopamine Atomoxetine (Strattera) is a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, and is a unique ADD/ADHD medication, as it affects only norepinephrine, rather than dopamine. Atomoxetine is a non- Stimulant drug approved for the treatment of Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors ( NRIs) also known as noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors ( NARIs) are compounds that elevate the extracellular level of As a result, Strattera has a lower abuse potential. However, it may not be as effective as the psychostimulants are with many people who have ADD/ADHD. Consulting with a physician or nurse practitioner is needed to find the appropriate medication and dosage. A Nurse Practitioner (NP is a Registered nurse who has completed specific advanced Nursing education (generally a Master's degree) and training in the (Other SNRIs, currently approved as antidepressants, have also been used off-label for treatment of ADD/ADHD. Off-label use is the practice of prescribing drugs for a purpose outside the scope of the drug's approved label most often concerning the drug's indication. )

Depression

Differences in the norepinephrine system are implicated in depression. Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors are antidepressants that treat depression by increasing the amount of serotonin and norepinephrine available to postsynaptic cells in the brain. Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs are a class of Antidepressant used in the treatment of major depression and other mood disorders An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands There is some recent evidence, implying that SNRIs may also increase dopamine transmission. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates This is because SNRIs work by inhibiting reuptake, i. e. preventing the serotonin and norepinephrine transporters from taking their respective neurotransmitters back to their storage vesicles for later use. Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons See Chemical synapse for an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article If the norepinephrine transporter normally recycles some dopamine too, then SNRIs will also enhance dopaminergic transmission. The Norepinephrine transporter or NET (or noradrenaline transporter (NAT is a Monoamine transporter that transports the Neurotransmitter Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Dopaminergic means "related to the Neurotransmitter Dopamine " Therefore, the antidepressant effects associated with increasing norepinephrine levels may also be partly or largely due to the concurrent increase in dopamine (particularly in the prefrontal cortex of the brain). An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) increase norepinephrine activity as well. Tricyclic antidepressants (abbreviation TCAs) are a class of Antidepressant drugs first used in the 1950s Most of them also increase serotonin activity, but tend to have side effects due to the nonspecific activation of histamine and acetylcholine receptors. Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons Histamine is a Biogenic amine involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a Neurotransmitter The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central Side effects include tiredness, increased hunger, dry mouth, and blurred vision. For this reason, they have largely been replaced by newer selective reuptake drugs such as fluoxetine (Prozac).

Hypotension

Norepinephrine is also used as a vasopressor medication (for example, brand name Levophed) for patients with critical hypotension. Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels particularly the large Arteries, Arterioles In Physiology and Medicine, hypotension refers to an abnormally low Blood pressure. It is given intravenously and acts on both alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenergic receptors to cause vasoconstriction. Its effect in vitro is often limited to the increasing of blood pressure through agonistic activity on alpha-1 and alpha-2 receptors and causing a resultant increase in peripheral vascular resistance. Total peripheral resistance (TPR is the sum of the resistance of all peripheral vasculature in the systemic circulation At high doses, and especially when it is combined with other vasopressors, it can lead to limb ischemia and limb death. In Medicine, ischemia ( Greek ισχαιμία, isch- is restriction hema or haema is Blood) is a restriction Thus, in many nursing and paramedic schools, the phrase "Levophed'll leave them dead" is used. Norepinephrine is mainly used to treat patients in vasodilatory shock states such as septic shock and neurogenic shock and has shown a survival benefit over dopamine. Septic shock is a very serious medical condition caused by decreased tissue perfusion and oxygen delivery as a result of Infection and Sepsis, though the Neurogenic shock is shock caused by the sudden loss of the Autonomic nervous system signals to the Smooth muscle in vessel walls Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates

By site of action

Different medications affecting norepinephrine function have their targets at different points in the mechanism, from synthesis to signal termination. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease

Synthesis modulators

α-methyltyrosine is a substance that intervenes in norepinephrine synthesis by substituting tyrosine for tyrosine hydroxylase, and blocking this enzyme. Tyrosine hydroxylase or tyrosine 3-monooxygenase is the Enzyme responsible for catalyzing the conversion of the Amino acid L-tyrosine to

Vesicular transport modulators

This transportation can be inhibited by reserpine and tetrabenazine. Reserpine is an Indole Alkaloid Antipsychotic and Antihypertensive drug that has been used for the control of high blood pressure Tetrabenazine is a drug for the symptomatical treatment of hyperkinetic Movement disorder and is marketed under the trade names Nitoman in Canada and [3]

Release modulators

Inhibitors of norepinephrine release
Substance[7] Receptor[7]
acetylcholine muscarinic receptor
norepinephrine (itself)/epinephrine α2 receptor
5-HT 5-HT receptor
adenosine P1 receptor
PGE EP receptor
histamine H2 receptor
enkephalin δ receptor
dopamine D2 receptor
ATP P2 receptor
Stimulators of norepinephrine release
Substance[7] Receptor[7]
adrenaline β2 receptor
angiotensin II AT1 receptor

Receptor binding modulators

Examples include alpha blockers for the α-receptors, and beta blockers for the β-receptors. The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central Muscarinic receptors, or mAChRs, are Acetylcholine receptors that form Metabotropic Ion channels in the Plasma membranes of certain The α2 receptor is a type of Adrenergic receptor. Effect The α2 receptor has several general functions in common with other α-receptors but also Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons In the field of Neurochemistry, 5-HT receptors are receptors for the Neurotransmitter and peripheral signal mediator Serotonin, also Adenosine is a Nucleoside composed of a Molecule of Adenine attached to a Ribose sugar molecule ( Ribofuranose) moiety via a β-N9- The adenosine receptors (or P1 receptors) are a class of Purinergic receptors, G-protein coupled receptors with Adenosine as Endogenous Prostaglandin E is a family of naturally occurring Prostaglandins Types include Alprostadil (E1 Dinoprostone (E2 Prostaglandin E2 receptor (53kDa also known as PTGER2, subtype EP2 or Prostaglandin E receptor 2, is a Prostaglandin receptor for Prostaglandin Histamine is a Biogenic amine involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a Neurotransmitter H2 receptors positively coupled to Adenylate cyclase via Gs. It is a potent stimulant of cAMP production An enkephalin is a Pentapeptide involved in regulating Pain and Nociception in the body The δ-opioid receptors, also known as delta opioid receptor or simply delta receptor, abbreviated DOR, is an Opioid receptor that has Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Dopamine receptor D2, also known as DRD2, is a Protein that is a receptor Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy P2 receptor may refer to P2Y receptors P2X receptors The beta-2 adrenergic receptor (β2 adrenoreceptor also known as ADRB2, is an Beta-adrenergic receptor, and also denotes the human Gene encoding Angiotensin causes blood vessels to constrict and drives blood pressure up Angiotensin II receptor type 1 or AT1 receptor is an Angiotensin receptor. Alpha blockers (or adrenergic alpha-antagonists) are agents that act as antagonists of alpha adrenergic receptors Classification They can be divided Beta blockers (sometimes written as β-blocker) are a class of drugs used for various indications but particularly for the management of Cardiac arrhythmias

Termination modulators

Uptake modulators

Inhibitors[3] of uptake 1 include:

Inhibitors[3] of uptake 2 include:

Chemistry

Norepinephrine is a catecholamine and a phenethylamine. Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant Tricyclic antidepressants (abbreviation TCAs) are a class of Antidepressant drugs first used in the 1950s Desipramine is a Tricyclic antidepressant (TCA that inhibits the reuptake of Norepinephrine. Phenoxybenzamine (marketed under the trade name Dibenzyline is a non-specific irreversible Alpha blocker. Amphetamine, and related drugs such as Methamphetamine are a group of drugs that act by increasing levels of Norepinephrine, Serotonin, and Dopamine Normetanephrine is a metabolite of Norepinephrine created by action of Catechol-O-methyl transferase on norepinephrine Steroid hormones are Steroids which act as Hormones Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind Phenoxybenzamine (marketed under the trade name Dibenzyline is a non-specific irreversible Alpha blocker. Phenethylamine, or β -phenylethylamine or 2-phenylethylamine is an Alkaloid and Monoamine. The natural stereoisomer is L-(−)-(R)-norepinephrine. Stereoisomers are isomeric molecules that have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms (constitution but which differ in the three dimensional orientations The prefix nor-, is derived from the German abbreviation for "N ohne Radikal" (N, the symbol for nitrogen, without radical),[8] referring to the absence of the methyl functional group at the nitrogen atom of epinephrine. nor- is a chemical acronym and prefix It comes from the German nitrogen ohne Rest, "no residues at Nitrogen. In Chemistry, radicals (often referred to as free radicals) are atoms molecules or ions with Unpaired electrons on an otherwise Open shell In Chemistry, a methyl group is a Hydrophobic Alkyl Functional group named after Methane (4 In Organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of Atoms within Molecules that are responsible for the characteristic Chemical reactions

Natural sources

Protein from such sources as meat, nuts and egg whites are broken down by the digestive system into amino acids such as l-tyrosine, which is a precursor of norepinephrine. This is one reason (also l-tryptophan from protein for serotonin) that dieters and non-dieters alike need to get sufficient protein in their diet to provide sufficient precursor l-tryptophan for norepinephrine synthesis. Otherwise depression could result.

Banana peels contain significant amounts of norepinephrine and dopamine. For the fruit see Banana. For other meanings see Banana (disambiguation. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates [9]

References

  1. ^ Merck Index, 11th Edition, 6612.
  2. ^ Introduction to Autonomic Pharmacology. Elsevier International.
  3. ^ a b c d e Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-07145-4.   Page 167
  4. ^ "Endokrynologia Kliniczna" ISBN 83-200-0815-8, page 502
  5. ^ a b These values are from rat heart. Unless else specified in table, then ref is: Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-07145-4.   Page 167
  6. ^ a b Unless else specified in table, then ref is: Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-07145-4.   Page 167
  7. ^ a b c d Unless else specified in table, then ref is: Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-07145-4.   Page 129
  8. ^ TIHKAL on "nor"
  9. ^ Kanazawa, Kazuki; Hiroyuki Sakakibara (2000). "High content of Dopamine, a strong antioxidant, in Cavendish banana". Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 48: 844–848.  

External links

Dictionary

norepinephrine

-noun

  1. (biochemistry) A neurotransmitter found in the locus coeruleus which is synthesized from dopamine.
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