Nobel Prize
Awarded for	Outstanding contributions in Physics, Chemistry, Literature, Peace, and Physiology or Medicine. The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Nobelpriset i kemi is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of Chemistry. The Nobel Prize in Literature (Nobelpriset i litteratur is awarded annually since 1901 to an author from any country who has in the words from the will of Alfred The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin is awarded once a year by the Swedish Karolinska Institute. The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, commonly "identified with" the Nobel Prize, is awarded for outstanding contributions in Economics. The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially named The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
Presented by	Swedish Academy Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Karolinska Institutet Norwegian Nobel Committee
Country	Sweden, Norway
First awarded	1901
Official website

The Nobel Prize (Swedish: Nobelpriset) was established in Alfred Nobel's will in 1895, and it was first awarded in Peace, Literature, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Physics in 1901. The Swedish Academy (Svenska Akademien founded in 1786 by King Gustav III, is one of the Royal Academies of Sweden. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences or Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien is one of the Royal Academies of Sweden. Karolinska Institutet (often translated from Swedish into English as the Karolinska Institute, and in older texts often as the Royal Caroline The Norwegian Nobel Committee ( Den norske Nobelkomité) awards the Nobel Peace Prize each year "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the (21 October 1833 Stockholm, Sweden – 10 December 1896 Sanremo, Italy) was a Swedish chemist engineer innovator armaments manufacturer The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor The Nobel Prize in Literature (Nobelpriset i litteratur is awarded annually since 1901 to an author from any country who has in the words from the will of Alfred The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Nobelpriset i kemi is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of Chemistry. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin is awarded once a year by the Swedish Karolinska Institute. The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. An associated prize, The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, was instituted by Sweden's central bank in 1968 and first awarded in 1969. The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially named The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk Sveriges Riksbank, or simply Riksbanken, is the Central bank of Sweden and the world's oldest central bank ^[1] The Nobel Prizes in the specific disciplines (Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature) and the Prize in Economics, which is commonly "identified with" them, are widely regarded as the most prestigious award one can receive in those fields. ^[1] The Nobel Peace Prize conveys social prestige, and that award also is often politically controversial. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor With the exception of the Nobel Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economics are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death. ('stɔkhɔlm is Sweden 's Capital and its largest City. It is the site of the national Swedish government, the parliament, and the "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V An anniversary (from the Latin anniversarius, from the words for year and to turn meaning (returning yearly known in English since c. The recipients' lectures are presented in the days prior to the award ceremony. ^[2] The Nobel Peace Prize and its recipients' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, also on December 10. (called Christiania from 1624 to 1878 and Kristiania from 1878 to 1924 is the Capital and largest city of Norway. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V ^[3][4] "Since the Nobel Prize is regarded by far as the most prestigious prize in the world, the Award Ceremonies as well as the Banquets in Stockholm and Oslo on 10 December have been transformed from local Swedish and Norwegian arrangements into major international events that receive worldwide coverage by the print media, radio and television. Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V "^[2]

Contents 1 Alfred Nobel's will 2 Nomination and selection 2.1 Recognition time lag 3 Award ceremonies 4 Nobel Prize medals 5 Controversies and criticisms 5.1 Overlooked achievements 5.2 Lack of a Nobel Prize in Mathematics 6 Specially distinguished laureates 6.1 Multiple laureates 6.2 Family laureates 6.3 Age extremes 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links

Alfred Nobel's will

The five Nobel Prizes were instituted by the final will of Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist and industrialist, who was the inventor of the high explosive dynamite. In Common law, a will or testament is a document by which a person (the Testator) regulates the rights of others over his or her Property (21 October 1833 Stockholm, Sweden – 10 December 1896 Sanremo, Italy) was a Swedish chemist engineer innovator armaments manufacturer "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. An inventor is a person who creates or discovers a new method form device or other useful means Dynamite is an explosive based on the explosive potential of Nitroglycerin, initially using Diatomaceous earth (kieselgur US Spelling kieselguhr Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on November 27, 1895. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont Year 1895 ( MDCCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million Swedish Kronor, to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. A bequest is the act of receiving Property by will. Strictly "bequest" is used of Personal property, and "devise" of Real property ^[5]

“

The whole of my remaining realizable estate shall be dealt with in the following way: The capital shall be invested by my executors in safe securities and shall constitute a fund, the interest on which shall be annually distributed in the form of prizes to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. The said interest shall be divided into five equal parts, which shall be apportioned as follows: one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics; one part to the person who shall have made the most important chemical discovery or improvement; one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery within the domain of physiology or medicine; one part to the person who shall have produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency; and one part to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity among nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses. The prizes for physics and chemistry shall be awarded by the Swedish Academy of Sciences; that for physiological or medical works by Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm; that for literature by the Academy in Stockholm; and that for champions of peace by a committee of five persons to be elected by the Norwegian Storting. Karolinska Institutet (often translated from Swedish into English as the Karolinska Institute, and in older texts often as the Royal Caroline The Storting ( Stortinget, literally "the Great Thing /Assembly" is the Norwegian Parliament, and is located in the capital city It is my express wish that in awarding the prizes no consideration whatever shall be given to the nationality of the candidates, so that the most worthy shall receive the prize, whether he be Scandinavian or not. [6]

”

Although Nobel's will established the prizes, his plan was incomplete and, due to various other hurdles, it took five years before the Nobel Foundation could be established and the first prizes awarded on December 10, 1901. The Nobel Foundation (Nobelstiftelsen is a private institution founded on 29 June 1900 to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. ^[7]

Nomination and selection

Compared with some other prizes, the Prize nomination and selection process is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why the Prizes have grown in importance over the years to become the most important prizes in their field. ^[8]

The Nobel Laureates are selected by their respective committees. This is a list of Nobel Prize Laureates awarded for their outstanding contributions to Humanitarian causes for Peace, work in Literature For the Prizes in Chemistry, Physics and Economics, a committee consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; for the Prize in Literature, a committee of four to five members of the Swedish Academy; for the Prize in Physiology or Medicine, the committee consists of five members selected by The Nobel Assembly, which consists of 50 members elected by Karolinska Institutet; for the Peace Prize, the Norwegian Nobel Committee consists of five members elected by the Norwegian Storting (the Norwegian parliament). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences or Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien is one of the Royal Academies of Sweden. Karolinska Institutet (often translated from Swedish into English as the Karolinska Institute, and in older texts often as the Royal Caroline The Norwegian Nobel Committee ( Den norske Nobelkomité) awards the Nobel Peace Prize each year The Storting ( Stortinget, literally "the Great Thing /Assembly" is the Norwegian Parliament, and is located in the capital city ^[9] In its first stage, several thousand people are asked to nominate candidates. These names are scrutinized and discussed by experts in their specific disciplines until only the winners remain. This slow and thorough process, insisted upon by Alfred Nobel, is arguably what gives the prize its importance. (21 October 1833 Stockholm, Sweden – 10 December 1896 Sanremo, Italy) was a Swedish chemist engineer innovator armaments manufacturer Despite this, there have been questionable awards and questionable omissions over the prize's century-long history.

Forms, which amount to a personal and exclusive invitation, are sent to about three thousand selected individuals to invite them to submit nominations. For the peace prize, inquiries are sent to such people as governments of states, members of international courts, professors and rectors at university level, former Peace Prize laureates, current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, among others. International courts are formed by Treaties between nations or under the authority of an International organization such as the United Nations — this The Norwegian Nobel Committee then bases its assessment on nominations sent in before 3 February. Events 1112 - Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona and Douce I of Provence marry uniting the fortunes of those two states ^[10] The submission deadline for nominations for Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, Literature and Economics is January 31. Events 1504 - France cedes Naples to Aragon. 1606 - Gunpowder Plot: Guy Fawkes ^[11] Self-nominations and nominations of deceased people are disqualified.

The names of the nominees are never publicly announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the Prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years. In practice some nominees do become known. It is also common for publicists to make such a claim, founded or not.

After the deadline has passed, the nominations are screened by committee, and a list is produced of approximately two hundred preliminary candidates. This list is forwarded to selected experts in the relevant field. They remove all but approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations to the appropriate institution. The Assembly for the Medicine Prize, for example, has fifty members. The institution members then select prize winners by vote.

The selection process varies slightly between the different disciplines. The Literature Prize is rarely awarded to more than one person per year, whereas other Prizes now often involve collaborators of two or three.

While posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can occur if the individual died in the months between the nomination and the decision of the prize committee. The scenario has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize of Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. Erik Axel Karlfeldt ( July 20, 1864 — April 8, 1931) was a Swedish Poet whose highly symbolist Poetry masquerading The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjöld ( (29 July 1905 &ndash 18 September 1961 was a Swedish Diplomat, Christian mystic, and the second Secretary-General As of 1974, laureates must be alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate—William Vickrey (1996, Economics)—who died after the prize was announced but before it could be presented. William Spencer Vickrey ( June 21, 1914, Victoria British Columbia - October 11, 1996, New York State), US citizen

Recognition time lag

The interval between the accomplishment of the achievement being recognized and the awarding of the Nobel Prize for it varies from discipline to discipline. Prizes in Literature are typically awarded to recognize a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. In this case the notion of "lag" does not directly apply. Prizes in Peace, on the other hand, are often awarded within a few years of the events they recognize. For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the UN. Kofi Atta Annan, GCMG (born 8 April 1938 is a Ghanaian Diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations

Awards in the scientific disciplines of physics and chemistry require that the significance of achievements being recognized is "tested by time. " In practice it means that the lag between the discovery and the award is typically on the order of 20 years and can be much longer. For example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on stellar structure and evolution from the 1930s. Padma Vibhushan Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, FRS ( Tamil: சுப்பிரமணியன் சந்திரசேகர் English ˌtʃʌndrəˈʃeɪkɑr( The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Unfortunately, not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognized. Some important scientific discoveries are never considered for a Prize if the discoverers have died by the time the impact of their work is realized.

Award ceremonies

The committees and institutions serving as the selection boards for the Nobel Prizes typically announce the names of the laureates in October, with the Prizes awarded at formal ceremonies held annually on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death. Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V (21 October 1833 Stockholm, Sweden – 10 December 1896 Sanremo, Italy) was a Swedish chemist engineer innovator armaments manufacturer ^[2] In 2005 and 2006, these Prize ceremonies were held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel Banquet following immediately in the Blue Hall of Stockholm City Hall. The Stockholm Concert Hall ( Konserthuset) is the main hall for orchestral music in Stockholm, Sweden. Stockholm City Hall ( Swedish: Stockholms stadshus or Stadshuset locally is the building of the Municipal Council for the City of Previously, the Nobel Prizes ceremony was held in a ballroom in Stockholm's Grand Hotel. ^[2]

The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905-1946); at the Aula of the University of Oslo (1947-1990); and most recently at the Oslo City Hall. The Norwegian Nobel Institute (Det Norske Nobelinstitutt was established in 1904 in Kristiania (today Oslo) Norway. Aula may refer to Atrium (architecture Avola, a city in Sicily ( Àula in Sicilian Aula Eritrea, a The University of Oslo (Universitetet i Oslo Universitas Osloensis is the oldest and largest University in Norway, situated in the Norwegian capital Oslo City Hall houses the City Council, City administration and art studios and galleries ^[2]

A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Each award can be given to a maximum of three recipients per year. Each "Nobel Prize Award" consists of a gold medal, a diploma, and a monetary grant:

The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel Laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of His Majesty the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Under the eyes of a watching world, the Nobel Laureate receives three things: a diploma, a medal and a document confirming the prize amount. ^[12]

The grant is currently 10 million SEK, slightly more than US$1. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been 5 million. ^[13]

If there are two winners in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others. It is not uncommon for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural or humanitarian causes.

Since 1902, the King of Sweden has, with the exception of the Peace Prize, presented all the prizes in Stockholm. The monarch is the Head of state of the Kingdom of Sweden. Sweden being a Constitutional monarchy with a Representative democracy based on a ('stɔkhɔlm is Sweden 's Capital and its largest City. It is the site of the national Swedish government, the parliament, and the At first King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners, but is said to have changed his mind once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden. Early life At his birth in Stockholm Oscar Frederik was created Duke of Östergötland.

Until the Norwegian Nobel Committee was established in 1904, the President of Norwegian Parliament made the formal presentation of the Nobel Peace Prize. The Norwegian Nobel Committee ( Den norske Nobelkomité) awards the Nobel Peace Prize each year The Committee's five members are entrusted with researching and adjudicating the Prize as well as awarding it. Although appointed by the Norwegian Parliament (Stortinget), they are independent and answer to no legislative authority. The Storting ( Stortinget, literally "the Great Thing /Assembly" is the Norwegian Parliament, and is located in the capital city Members of the Norwegian government are not permitted to sit on the Committee.

Nobel Prize medals

The Nobel Prize medals, which have been minted by Myntverket^[14] in Sweden and the Mint of Norway since 1902, are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Myntverket (officially AB Myntverket) is a private Swedish company that produces coins and medals most notably the Swedish national coins and the Nobel Prize The Nobel Foundation (Nobelstiftelsen is a private institution founded on 29 June 1900 to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. Their engraved designs are internationally-recognized symbols of the prestige of the Nobel Prize. All of these medal designs feature an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on their front sides (the "face" of the medal). (21 October 1833 Stockholm, Sweden – 10 December 1896 Sanremo, Italy) was a Swedish chemist engineer innovator armaments manufacturer Four of the five Nobel Prize medals (Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature) feature the same design on their faces (front sides). The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Nobelpriset i kemi is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of Chemistry. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin is awarded once a year by the Swedish Karolinska Institute. The Nobel Prize in Literature (Nobelpriset i litteratur is awarded annually since 1901 to an author from any country who has in the words from the will of Alfred The reverse sides of the Nobel Prize medals for Chemistry and Physics share a design. ^[15][12][16] Both sides of the Nobel Peace Prize Medal^[17] and the Medal for The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel are unique designs. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially named The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk ^[15][12]

The Nobel Prize medals in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine and Literature are identical on the face: it shows the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833-1896). Nobel's portrait also appears on the Nobel Peace Prize Medal and the Medal for the Prize in Economics, but with a slightly different design. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially named The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk The image on the reverse varies according to the institution awarding the prize. All medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Today, they are made from 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. ^[15][12]

Controversies and criticisms

Main article: Nobel Prize controversies

Main article: Nobel Prize in Literature#Non-laureates_and_controversies

Alfred Nobel became increasingly uneasy with the military use of the explosives which he had created in the course of his jobs; his discomfort increased apparently after he read his own premature obituary, published in error in 1888 by a French newspaper on the occasion of the death of Nobel's brother Ludvig, which condemned Alfred as a "merchant of death. The Nobel Prize controversies are contentious disputes regarding the Nobel Prize. The Nobel Prize in Literature (Nobelpriset i litteratur is awarded annually since 1901 to an author from any country who has in the words from the will of Alfred A premature Obituary is an obituary published whose subject is not actually deceased Year 1888 ( MDCCCLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a "^[18]

Since the first Nobel Prize was awarded in 1901, the proceedings, nominations, awards and exclusions have generated criticism and engendered much controversy.

Overlooked achievements

Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize five times between 1937 and 1948 but never received the prize, being assassinated on 30 January 1948 two days before the closing date for the 1948 Peace Prize nominations. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Norwegian Nobel Committee had very likely planned to give him the Peace Prize in 1948 as they considered a posthumous award, but ultimately decided against it and instead chose not to award the prize that year. ^[19]

The strict rules against a prize being awarded to more than three people at once is also a cause for controversy. Where a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, inevitably one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, a Prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that failed to recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt. Koichi Tanaka (田中 耕一 Tanaka Kōichi, born August 3, 1959) is a Japanese scientist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2002 for developing John Bennett Fenn (born June 15, 1917, New York City New York) is a research professor of analytical chemistry who was awarded the Nobel Prize Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that identifies the chemical composition of a compound or sample based on the Mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl The Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main (also known as Frankfurt University) was founded in 1914 as a Citizens' University which means that while it was ^[20]

Similarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by a collaborator who happens to die before the prize is awarded. Rosalind Franklin, who was key in the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, died of ovarian cancer in 1958, four years before Francis Crick, James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins (one of Franklin's collaborators) were awarded the Prize for Medicine or Physiology in 1962. Rosalind Elsie Franklin ( 25 July, 1920 Notting Hill, London – 16 April, 1958 Chelsea London) was an Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Ovarian cancer is a cancerous growth arising from an Ovary. The cancer most commonly forms in the lining of the ovary (resulting in epithelial Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins CBE FRS ( 15 December 1916 – 5 October 2004) was a New Zealand -born British ^[21] Franklin's significant and relevant contribution was only briefly mentioned in Crick and Watson's Nobel Prize-winning paper: "We have also been stimulated by a knowledge of the general nature of the unpublished experimental results and ideas of Dr. M. H. F. Wilkins, Dr. R. E. Franklin, and co-workers. . . . "^[22]

In some cases, awards have arguably omitted similar discoveries made earlier. For example, the 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "the discovery and development of conductive organic polymers" (1977) ignored the much earlier discovery of highly-conductive charge transfer complex polymers: the 1963 series of papers by Weiss, et al. A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds A charge-transfer complex (or CT complex, electron-donor-acceptor-complex) is a chemical association of two or more molecules or of different parts of one very large reported even higher conductivity in similarly iodine-doped oxidized polypyrrole. ^[23][24]

Lack of a Nobel Prize in Mathematics

Although there is no Nobel Prize in Mathematics, leading to considerable speculation about why Alfred Nobel omitted it,^[25][26] some mathematicians have won the Nobel Prize in other fields: Bertrand Russell for literature (1950); Max Born and Walther Bothe for physics (1954); Andrew Fire for physiology or medicine (2006). Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and (21 October 1833 Stockholm, Sweden – 10 December 1896 Sanremo, Italy) was a Swedish chemist engineer innovator armaments manufacturer Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian Max Born (11 December 1882 &ndash 5 January 1970 was a German Physicist and Mathematician who was instrumental in the development of Quantum Walther Wilhelm Georg Bothe (8 January 1891 in Oranienburg &ndash 8 February 1957 in Heidelberg) was a German nuclear physicst Andrew Zachary Fire (born April 27, 1959) is an American biologist and Professor of pathology and of genetics at the Stanford University Other mathematicians have won the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel: Kenneth Arrow (1972), Leonid Kantorovich (1975), John Forbes Nash (1994), Clive W. J. Granger (2003), Robert J. Aumann and Thomas C. Schelling (2005), Roger Myerson and Eric Maskin (2007). The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially named The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk Kenneth Joseph Arrow (born August 23, 1921) is an American Economist and joint winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics Leonid Vitaliyevich Kantorovich ( January 19, 1912 in Saint Petersburg April 7, 1986 in Moscow) (Леонид Витальевич Sir Clive William John Granger (born September 4, 1934) is a Welsh Economist, and Professor Emeritus at the University of California Robert John Aumann ( Hebrew name: Yisrael Aumann he ישראל אומן (born June 8, 1930) is an Israeli Mathematician and a Thomas Crombie Schelling (born 14 April 1921) is an American Economist and professor of Foreign affairs, National security Roger Bruce Myerson (born March 29 1951) is an American Economist and Nobel laureate recognised with Leonid Hurwicz Eric Stark Maskin (born December 12, 1950) is a American Economist and Nobel laureate recognized with Leonid Hurwicz

Several prizes in mathematics have some similarities to the Nobel Prize. The Fields Medal is often described as the "Nobel Prize of mathematics", but it differs in being awarded only once every four years to people younger than forty years old. The Fields Medal is a prize awarded to two three or four Mathematicians not over 40 years of age at each International Congress of the International Mathematical Other prestigious prizes in mathematics are the Crafoord Prize, awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences since 1982; the Abel Prize, awarded by the Norwegian government beginning in 2001; the Shaw Prize in mathematical sciences awarded since 2004; and the Gauss Prize, granted jointly by the International Mathematical Union and the German Mathematical Society for "outstanding mathematical contributions that have found significant applications outside of mathematics," and introduced at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 2006. The annual Crafoord Prize is a science prize established in 1980 by Holger Crafoord, a Swedish industrialist and his wife Anna-Greta Crafoord The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences or Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien is one of the Royal Academies of Sweden. The Abel Prize is an international prize presented annually by the King of Norway to one or more outstanding Mathematicians The prize is named after Norwegian The Shaw Prize, established by Sir Run Run Shaw (邵逸夫 b 1907 a leader in the media industry in Hong Kong and a long-time Philanthropist Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and The Carl Friedrich Gauss Prize for Applications of Mathematics is a Mathematics award granted jointly by the International Mathematical Union and the German The International Mathematical Union is an international Non-governmental organization devoted to international cooperation in the field of Mathematics. The German Mathematical Society ( German:Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung - DMV is the main professional society of German Mathematicians. The International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM is the largest congress in the Mathematics community The Clay Mathematics Institute has devised seven "Millennium Problems," whose solution results in a significant cash award:^[27] since it has a clear, predetermined objective for its award and since it can be awarded whenever a problem is solved, this prize also differs from the Nobel Prizes. The Clay Mathematics Institute (CMI is a private Non-profit foundation, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Millennium Prize Problems are seven problems in Mathematics that were stated by the Clay Mathematics Institute in 2000

Specially distinguished laureates

Multiple laureates

Since the establishment of the Nobel Prize, four people have received two Nobel Prizes:^[28]

• Maria Skłodowska-Curie: in Physics 1903, for the discovery of radioactivity; and in Chemistry 1911, for the isolation of pure radium
• Linus Pauling: in Chemistry 1954, for the hybridized orbital theory; and Peace 1962, for nuclear test-ban treaty activism; he "remains the only person to have won two unshared Nobel Prizes. Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. Radium (ˈreɪdiəm is a radioactive Chemical element which has the symbol Ra and Atomic number 88 Linus Carl Pauling (February 28 1901 – August 19 1994 was an American Scientist, Peace activist, Author and educator. -->In Chemistry "^[29]
• John Bardeen: in Physics 1956, for the invention of the transistor; and Physics 1972, for the theory of superconductivity; and
• Frederick Sanger: in Chemistry 1958, for structure of the insulin molecule; and in Chemistry 1980, for virus nucleotide sequencing. John Bardeen ( May 23 1908 – January 30 1991) was an American Physicist and Electrical engineer, who won In Electronics, a transistor is a Semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals Superconductivity is a phenomenon occurring in certain Materials generally at very low Temperatures characterized by exactly zero electrical resistance Frederick Sanger, OM, CH, CBE, FRS (born 13 August 1918) is an English biochemist and twice Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable

Although Otto Heinrich Warburg was nominated for a second Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1944, he was not selected that time. Otto Heinrich Warburg ( October 8, 1883, Freiburg im Breisgau &ndash August 1, 1970, Berlin) son of physicist ^[30]

As a group, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) has received the Nobel Peace Prize three times: in 1917, 1944, and 1963. "ICRC" redirects here For other uses see ICRC (disambiguation. The first two prizes were specifically in recognition of the group's work during the world wars.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has won the Peace Prize twice: in 1954 and 1981. Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR (established December 14, 1950) is a

Family laureates

A number of families have included multiple laureates. ^[28] The Curie family claim the most Nobel Prizes, with five:

• Maria Skłodowska-Curie, Physics 1903 and Chemistry 1911
• Her husband Pierre Curie, Physics 1903
• Their daughter Irène Joliot-Curie, Chemistry 1935
• Their son-in-law Frederic Joliot-Curie, Chemistry 1935

In addition, Henry Labouisse, the husband of the Curies' second daughter Ève, was the director of UNICEF when it won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965. Pierre Curie (15 May 1859 &ndash 19 April 1906 was a French physicist, a pioneer in Crystallography, Magnetism, Piezoelectricity Irène Joliot-Curie ( 12 September 1897 &ndash 17 March 1956) was a French scientist the Daughter of Marie Skłodowska-Curie Jean Frédéric Joliot-Curie born Joliot ( March 19, 1900 &ndash August 14, 1958) was a French Physicist and Henry Richardson Labouisse Jr ( February 11, 1904 - March 25, 1987) Ève Denise Curie Labouisse ( 6 December 1904 &ndash 22 October 2007) was a French - American Author and The United Nations Children's Fund (or UNICEF) was created by the United Nations General Assembly on December 11, 1946

• C.V. Raman won the Nobel prize in Physics in 1930; he was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar who won the Nobel prize in Physics in 1983. Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, FRS (சந்திரசேகர வெங்கடராமன ( 7 November 1888 &ndash 21 November Padma Vibhushan Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, FRS ( Tamil: சுப்பிரமணியன் சந்திரசேகர் English ˌtʃʌndrəˈʃeɪkɑr(

• Manne Siegbahn won the Nobel prize in Physics in 1924; he was the father of Kai Siegbahn who shared the Nobel prize in Physics in 1981. Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn ( December 3, 1886 - September 26, 1978) was a Swedish Physicist, and Nobel laureate Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn ( April 20, 1918 &ndash July 20, 2007) was a Swedish physicist.

• William Henry Bragg shared the Nobel prize in Physics in 1915 with his son, William Lawrence Bragg. Sir William Henry Bragg OM, KBE (2 July 1862 – 10 March 1942 was a British Physicist and Chemist who uniquely shared the Sir William Lawrence Bragg CH, FRS, ( 31 March 1890 – 1 July 1971) was an Australian Physicist

• Niels Bohr won the Nobel prize in Physics in 1922, and his son Aage Bohr won the Nobel prize in Physics in 1975. Niels Henrik David Bohr (nels ˈb̥oɐ̯ˀ in Danish 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962 was a Danish Physicist who made fundamental contributions to understanding Aage Niels Bohr (ˈɔːʊ̯̩ nels ˈb̥oɐ̯ˀ = OH-weh (born June 19 1922 in Copenhagen) is a Danish Physicist and the son of Margrethe and

• Arthur Kornberg shared with Severo Ochoa the 1959 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid. Arthur Kornberg ( March 3, 1918 &ndash October 26, 2007) was an American Biochemist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology Severo Ochoa de Albornoz ( September 24, 1905 &ndash November 1, 1993) was a Spanish - American biochemist ^[31] Kornberg's son Roger won the 2006 Nobel prize in Chemistry for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription. Roger David Kornberg (born) is an American Biochemist and Professor of Structural biology at Stanford University School of Medicine ^[32]

• J. J. Thomson, awarded the Nobel prize for Physics in 1906, was the father of George Paget Thomson who was awarded the Nobel prize for Physics in 1937. Sir Joseph John “JJ” Thomson, OM, FRS (18 December 1856 &ndash 30 August 1940 was a British Physicist and Nobel laureate Sir George Paget Thomson, FRS ( May 3, 1892 &ndash September 10, 1975) was an English Physicist and

• Jan Tinbergen, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen who shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physioogy or Medicine with Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch. Jan Tinbergen ( The Hague, April 12, 1903 June 9, 1994 The Hague) Dutch Economist, was awarded Nikolaas "Niko" Tinbergen ( April 15, 1907 &ndash December 21, 1988) was a Dutch ethologist and Ornithologist Konrad Zacharias Lorenz ( November 7, 1903 in Vienna &ndash February 27, 1989 in Vienna) was an Austrian Karl Ritter von Frisch ( November 20 1886 &ndash June 12 1982) was an Austrian ethologist who received the Nobel Prize

Age extremes

William Lawrence Bragg, who was only 25 when he shared the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics with his father William Henry Bragg, is the youngest person ever to win a Nobel Prize. Sir William Lawrence Bragg CH, FRS, ( 31 March 1890 – 1 July 1971) was an Australian Physicist Sir William Henry Bragg OM, KBE (2 July 1862 – 10 March 1942 was a British Physicist and Chemist who uniquely shared the ^[33] Leonid Hurwicz, 90, is the oldest Nobel Laureate at the time of the award in the 2007 Prize in Economics. Leonid “Leo” Hurwicz ( August 21, 1917 June 24, 2008) was an American Economist and Mathematician. The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially named The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk ^[34]

See also

• Alternative Nobel Prize
• Female Nobel Prize laureates
• List of prizes, medals, and awards
• List of Nobel laureates
• Nobel laureates by country
• Nobel laureates by university affiliation
• Nobel Library
• Nobel Museum
• Nobel Peace Center

Notes

References

• "Annan, U.N. Cited for Peace Work, Win Nobel". In Nobel Centennial. CNN.com. Cable News Network, usually referred to by its Initialism CNN, is a major English language Television network founded in 1980 by Ted Turner Copyright © 2003 Cable News Network LP, LLLP 2003. Accessed November 5, 2007. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany) Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. (Concerns the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize awarded to Kofi Annan and the United Nations. Kofi Atta Annan, GCMG (born 8 April 1938 is a Ghanaian Diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security )
• "The Definitive Guide to The Nobel Prizes". The Local ("Sweden's News in English"), November 6, 2007. Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Copyright © The Local Europe AB 2007. Accessed November 5, 2007. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany) Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
• Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to the Nobel Prizes. britannica. com. Copyright © 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Accessed November 5, 2007. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany) Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
• Lemmel, Birgitta. "The Nobel Prize Medals and the Medal for the Prize in Economics". nobelprize. org. Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 2006. The Nobel Foundation (Nobelstiftelsen is a private institution founded on 29 June 1900 to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. Accessed November 9, 2007. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
• Liljestrand, Göran, and Carl Gustaf Bernhard. "The Prize in Physiology or Medicine". 139-278 of Nobel: The Man and His Prizes. 1950. Ed. Nobel Foundation and Wilhelm Odelberg (Coordinating Ed. ). 3rd ed. New York: American Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc. Elsevier, the world's largest Publisher of Medical and Scientific literature, forms part of the Reed Elsevier group , 1972. ISBN 0444001174.
• "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies". nobelprize. org. Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007. Accessed November 9, 2007. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
• Odelberg, Wilhelm. "Foreword: Alfred Nobel: The Man and His Prizes". The Who's Who of Nobel Prize Winners: 1901-2000. Ed. Louise S. Sherby. 4th ed. Westport, CT: Oryx Press, 2002. ISBN 1573564141 (10). ISBN 9781573564144 (13).
• Schück, Henrik, Ragnar Sohlman, Anders Österling, Carl Gustaf Bernhard, the Nobel Foundation, and Wilhelm Odelberg, eds. Nobel: The Man and His Prizes. 1950. 3rd ed. Coordinating Ed. , Wilhelm Odelberg. New York: American Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc. Elsevier, the world's largest Publisher of Medical and Scientific literature, forms part of the Reed Elsevier group , 1972. ISBN 0444001174 (10). ISBN 9780444001177 (13). (Originally published in Swedish as Nobelprisen 50 år: forskare, diktare, fredskämpar. Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the )
• "What the Nobel Laureates Receive". nobelprize. org. Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007. Accessed November 9, 2007. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.

External links

• "The Nobel Committees of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences". The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences or Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien is one of the Royal Academies of Sweden. (English version; also accessible in Swedish. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the )
• The Nobel Foundation – Official website of the Nobel Foundation. The Nobel Foundation (Nobelstiftelsen is a private institution founded on 29 June 1900 to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. (English index page; hyperlink to Swedish site. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the )
• The Norwegian Nobel Committee – Nobel Peace Prize official website. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor (English version; also accessible in Norwegian. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Norwegian ( norsk) is a North Germanic Language spoken primarily in Norway, where it is an official language )
• "Prizes and Awards at Karolinska Institutet: The Nobel Prize" – Official webpage of the Karolinska Institute; (English version; also accessible in Swedish. Karolinska Institutet (often translated from Swedish into English as the Karolinska Institute, and in older texts often as the Royal Caroline English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the )
• The Swedish Academy – Official website. (English version; also accessible in Swedish. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the )

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic