Nicolaus Copernicus
Portrait from Toruń, early 16th century
Born	February 19, 1473(1473-02-19), Toruń (Thorn), Royal Prussia, Poland
Died	May 24, 1543 (aged 70), Frombork (Frauenburg), Warmia, Poland
Fields	Mathematician, astronomer, jurist, physician, classical scholar, Catholic cleric, governor, military commander, diplomat, economist
Alma mater	Jagiellonian University, Bologna University, University of Padua, University of Ferrara
Doctoral students	Georg Joachim Rheticus
Known for	Heliocentrism
Religious stance	Roman Catholic
Signature

Nicolaus Copernicus (February 19, 1473 – May 24, 1543) was the first astronomer to formulate a scientifically based heliocentric cosmology that displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. Toruń Lublin Voivodeship Toruń (Thorn Torń Thorunium see also other names) is a city in northern Poland, on the Vistula River with population Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum Toruń Lublin Voivodeship Toruń (Thorn Torń Thorunium see also other names) is a city in northern Poland, on the Vistula River with population Royal Prussia ( Prusy Królewskie was a province of the Kingdom of Poland from 1466 and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772 The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Wladislaus II Jagiełło, Grand Duke of Lithuania, to Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned Frombork ( is a Town in northern Poland, on the Vistula Lagoon, in Braniewo County, Warmia-Masuria Province. Warmia (Warmia Latin: Varmia) or Erm(eland ( is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of Mathematics. Historically Astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky while Astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena JURIST is an online legal news service hosted by the University of Pittsburgh School of Law, written by founder Professor Bernard Hibbitts and a staff of more than A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health "Classical literature" redirects here For literature in Classical languages outside the Graeco-Roman sphere see Ancient literature. A governor is a governing official usually the executive (at least nominally to different degrees also politically and administratively of a non-sovereign level of government Commander is a Military rank which is also sometimes used as a military title depending on the individual customs of a given military service Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting Negotiations between representatives of groups or states An economist is an expert in the Social science of Economics. Alma mater is Latin for "nourishing mother" It was used in Ancient Rome as a title for the mother Goddess, and in Medieval For several academies alternatively called "Krakow Academy" see Education in Kraków The Jagiellonian University (Uniwersytet The University of Bologna (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna UNIBO) is one of the oldest continually operating degree-granting universities in the world The University of Padua ( Italian Università degli Studi di Padova, UNIPD) located in Padua, Italy, was founded in 1222 The University of Ferrara (Università degli Studi di Ferrara is the main University of the city of Ferrara in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Georg Joachim von Lauchen, also known as Rheticus ( February 16 1514 &ndash December 4 1574) was a Mathematician, In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned Historically Astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky while Astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 His epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy and the defining epiphany that began the Scientific Revolution. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study An epiphany is the sudden realization or comprehension of the (larger essence or meaning of something The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published

Although Greek, Indian and Muslim savants had published heliocentric hypotheses centuries before Copernicus, his publication of a scientific theory of heliocentrism, demonstrating that the motions of celestial objects can be explained without putting the Earth at rest in the center of the universe, stimulated further scientific investigations, and became a landmark in the history of modern science that is known as the Copernican Revolution. Greek astronomy is the Astronomy of those who wrote in the Greek language in Classical antiquity. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible Originally a landmark literally meant a Geographic Feature used by explorers and Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers The Copernican Revolution refers to the Paradigm shift away from the Ptolemaic model of the heavens which placed Earth at the center of the Universe

Among the great polymaths of the Renaissance, Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, classical scholar, translator, Catholic cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, diplomat and economist. A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of Mathematics. Historically Astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky while Astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health "Classical literature" redirects here For literature in Classical languages outside the Graeco-Roman sphere see Ancient literature. Translation is the interpreting of the meaning of a text and the subsequent production of an equivalent text likewise called a " translation JURIST is an online legal news service hosted by the University of Pittsburgh School of Law, written by founder Professor Bernard Hibbitts and a staff of more than A governor is a governing official usually the executive (at least nominally to different degrees also politically and administratively of a non-sovereign level of government A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting Negotiations between representatives of groups or states An economist is an expert in the Social science of Economics. Among his many responsibilities, astronomy figured as little more than an avocation — yet it was in that field that he made his mark upon the world. An avocation is an activity that a person does as a Hobby outside their principal occupation

Life

Family

Copernicus House, his birthplace in Toruń (Thorn)

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473, in a house on St. Toruń Lublin Voivodeship Toruń (Thorn Torń Thorunium see also other names) is a city in northern Poland, on the Vistula River with population Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum Anne's Street (now Copernicus Street) in the city of Toruń (Thorn). Toruń Lublin Voivodeship Toruń (Thorn Torń Thorunium see also other names) is a city in northern Poland, on the Vistula River with population Toruń, situated on the Vistula River, was a city in Royal Prussia, an autonomous region of the Kingdom of Poland. Royal Prussia ( Prusy Królewskie was a province of the Kingdom of Poland from 1466 and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772 The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Wladislaus II Jagiełło, Grand Duke of Lithuania, to ^{[1] [2]} Nicolaus was named after his father, who about 1458 had moved from Kraków. Kraków, in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow (ˈkrækaʊ M-W: krăk'ou krāk'ō is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland The father was a wealthy copper trader who had become a respected citizen of that city. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Nicolaus's mother, Barbara Watzenrode (died after 1495), had been born into a wealthy merchant family that was part of the patrician class in Toruń.

Nicolaus's father died between 1483 and 1485. After that, his maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (1447–1512), a church canon who would later become Prince-Bishop governor of the Archbishopric of Warmia, took young Nicolaus under his protection and saw to his education and future career. Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (sometimes also Watzelrode Lukas Watzenrode der Jüngere Łukasz Watzenrode ( 30 October 1447, Thorn (Toruń &ndash A canon (from the Latin canonicus, itself derived from the Greek κανωνικος 'relating to a rule' is a priest who is a member of certain bodies of the A Prince-Bishop is a Bishop who is a territorial Prince of the Church on account of one or more Secular principalities usually pre-existent titles of nobility The Archbishopric of Warmia (Archidiecezja warmińska; Archidioecesis Varmiensis is since 1992 a Roman Catholic Archbishopric in northeastern Poland Nicolaus was the youngest of four children. His brother Andreas became an Augustinian canon at Frombork (Frauenburg). The Augustinians, named after Saint Augustine of Hippo (died AD 430) are several Catholic Monastic orders and congregations A canon (from the Latin canonicus, itself derived from the Greek κανωνικος 'relating to a rule' is a priest who is a member of certain bodies of the Frombork ( is a Town in northern Poland, on the Vistula Lagoon, in Braniewo County, Warmia-Masuria Province. His sister Barbara (named after her mother) became a Benedictine nun. Benedictine refers to the Spirituality and Consecrated life in accordance with the Rule of St Benedict, written by Benedict of Nursia in A Nun is a Woman who has taken special vows committing her to a religious life His sister Katharina married Barthel Gertner, a businessman and city councilor.

Monument in Toruń by Christian Friedrich Tieck (1853)

Name

Numerous variants of Copernicus's name are documented. Christian Friedrich Tieck (14 August 1776 &ndash 24 May 1851 often known only as Friedrich Tieck, was a German Sculptor and a brother of Ludwig Tieck ^[3] Until the mid-1530s, he mostly signed himself Coppernic. Afterward, he followed the academic custom of his time and adopted a Latinized version of his name. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Thus, on the title page of his epochal book, Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium Libri VI, the astronomer's name appears as Nicolaus Copernicus.

In 1776, Johann Gottfried Herder introduced the spelling Nikolaus Kopernikus, which replaced each c with k and changed pp to p. Johann Gottfried von Herder ( August 25, 1744 December 18, 1803) was a German philosopher, Poet, and Literary This spelling became popular in German writings, although scholars argued for Coppernicus. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. The Polish rendering is Mikołaj Kopernik; the surname means "one who works with copper". Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 ^[4]

Education

Courtyard of Kraków University's Collegium Maius

In 1491 Copernicus enrolled at the Kraków Academy (now Jagiellonian University), where he probably first encountered astronomy with Professor Albert Brudzewski. For several academies alternatively called "Krakow Academy" see Education in Kraków The Jagiellonian University (Uniwersytet The Collegium Maius, or Grand College in Kraków, Poland, is the Jagiellonian University 's oldest building dating back to the 15th century For several academies alternatively called "Krakow Academy" see Education in Kraków The Jagiellonian University (Uniwersytet Albert Brudzewski, also Albert of Brudzewo and Wojciech Brudzewski (in Latin, Albertus de Brudzewo; ca Astronomy soon fascinated him, and he began collecting a large library on the subject. Copernicus's library would later be carried off as war booty by the Swedes during "the Deluge" and is now at the Uppsala University Library. The Deluge ( Polish: Potop, full Polish name is Potop Szwedzki Deluge''' is the name commonly assigned in the History Uppsala University Library in Sweden consists of 19 different branch libraries with the largest being that housed in the old main library building Carolina Rediviva

After four years in Kraków, followed by a brief stay back home in Toruń, Copernicus went to study law and medicine at the universities of Bologna and Padua. Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Bologna (boloɲa from Latin Bononia, Bulåggna in Bolognese dialect is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy Padua ( Padova 'padova Latin: Patavium, Padoa) is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy. Copernicus's uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, financed his education and hoped that Copernicus too would become a bishop. Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (sometimes also Watzelrode Lukas Watzenrode der Jüngere Łukasz Watzenrode ( 30 October 1447, Thorn (Toruń &ndash A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight Copernicus, however, while studying canon and civil law at Bologna, met the famous astronomer, Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara. Canon law is internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches and the Anglican Communion of churches Civil law or Romano-Germanic law or Continental law is the predominant system of law in the world. Domenico Maria Novara (1454 - Bologna, 1504 was an Italian scientist Copernicus attended Novara's lectures and became his disciple and assistant. The first observations that Copernicus made in 1497, together with Novara, are recorded in Copernicus's epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on

Copernicus with medicinal plant

Bertel Thorvaldsen's 1830 statue of a seated Copernicus holding an armillary sphere, before the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw

In 1497 Copernicus's uncle was ordained Bishop of Warmia, and Copernicus was named a canon at Frombork Cathedral. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease (Albert Bertel Thorvaldsen ( November 19, 1770 – March 24, 1844) was a Danish / Icelandic sculptor The Polish Academy of Sciences, headquartered in Warsaw, is one of two Polish institutions having the nature of an Academy of sciences. Warsaw (Warszawa; also known by other names) is the Capital and Largest city of Poland. This is a list of Prince-Bishops / Bishops / of the Diocese Warmia/Ermland It was founded in 1243 as Bishopric of Ermland as one of four bishoprics of Prussia A canon (from the Latin canonicus, itself derived from the Greek κανωνικος 'relating to a rule' is a priest who is a member of certain bodies of the But Copernicus remained in Italy, where he attended the great Jubilee of 1500. The concept of the Jubilee is a special year of remission of Sins and universal pardon He also went to Rome, where he observed a lunar eclipse and gave some lectures in astronomy and mathematics. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when one Celestial object moves into the shadow of another

In 1501 Copernicus returned to Frombork. As soon as he arrived, he obtained permission to complete his studies in Padua, where he studied medicine (with Guarico and Fracastoro), and at Ferrara, where in 1503 he received his doctorate in canon law. Padua ( Padova 'padova Latin: Patavium, Padoa) is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Girolamo Fracastoro ( Fracastorius) (1478‑ August 8, 1553) was an Italian Physician, Scholar (in Mathematics Ferrara is a city in Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy, capital city of the Province of Ferrara. Canon law is internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches and the Anglican Communion of churches One of the topics Copernicus must have studied at that time was astrology, since it was then considered to be an important part of a medical education. Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems ^[5] However, unlike most other prominent renaissance astronomers, he appears to have never practiced it, or expressed any subsequent interest in it. ^[6] It has also been surmised that it was in Padua that he encountered passages from Cicero and Plato about opinions of the ancients on the movement of the Earth, and formed the first intuition of his own future theory. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece In 1504 Copernicus began collecting observations and ideas pertinent to his theory.

Work

In 1503 Copernicus returned to Polish Prussia, to the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, where he resided the rest of his life. Prussia is a historical region in Central Europe extending from the south-eastern coast of the Baltic Sea to the Masurian Lake District. A Prince-Bishop is a Bishop who is a territorial Prince of the Church on account of one or more Secular principalities usually pre-existent titles of nobility Warmia (Warmia Latin: Varmia) or Erm(eland ( is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland From 1503 until 1510 he had the position of secretary to his maternal uncle Lucas Watzenrode, Bishop of Warmia, and until 1510 resided in the Bishop's castle at Lidzbark (Heilsberg). For other meanings see Lidzbark (disambiguation. Lidzbark ( is a town with 8670 inhabitants in the Warmia-Masurian Voivodeship It is there that he started work on his heliocentric view of the heavens^[7]

In 1510 he moved to Frombork (Frauenburg), a town in the north and downstream of Toruń on the Vistula Lagoon. Frombork ( is a Town in northern Poland, on the Vistula Lagoon, in Braniewo County, Warmia-Masuria Province. The Vistula Lagoon (Zalew Wiślany or Zatoka Fryska in 1910 Калининградский залив or Kaliningradskiy Zaliv; Frisches Haff Aismarės is a The Bishopric of Warmia, within Royal Prussia, though subject to the Polish crown, enjoyed substantial autonomy, with its own diet, army, monetary unit (the same as in the other parts of Prussia)^[2] and treasury. Autonomy ( Greek: Auto- Nomos - nomos meaning "law" one who gives oneself his/her own Law) is the right to Self-government In Politics, a diet is a formal Deliberative assembly. The term is derived from Medieval Latin dietas, and ultimately comes from Some time before his return to Warmia, he received a position at the Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross in Wrocław (Breslau), Silesia, Bohemia, which he held for many years and only resigned for health reasons shortly before his death. Wrocław (Breslau Vratislav Vratislavia or Wratislavia Yiddish: ברעסלוי) is the chief City of the historical region of Lower Silesia Etymology One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, who were most likely a Vandalic (East Germanic people Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Copernicus remained for the rest of his life a burgher of Warmia (Bishopric of Warmia). The Archbishopric of Warmia (Archidiecezja warmińska; Archidioecesis Varmiensis is since 1992 a Roman Catholic Archbishopric in northeastern Poland During the Protestant Reformation he remained a loyal subject of the Catholic Prince-Bishops and the Catholic Polish King. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time This is a list of Prince-Bishops / Bishops / of the Diocese Warmia/Ermland It was founded in 1243 as Bishopric of Ermland as one of four bishoprics of Prussia Throughout his life he performed astronomical observations and calculations, but only as time permitted, and never in a professional capacity.

Statue at Olsztyn (Allenstein)

Copernicus oversaw the defense of the castle of Olsztyn (Allenstein) at the head of Royal Polish forces when the town was besieged by the Teutonic Knights during the Polish-Teutonic War (1519–1521). Olsztyn (Allenstein Olštynas Old Prussian: Alnāsteini) is a City in northeastern Poland, on the River Łyna. Olsztyn (Allenstein Olštynas Old Prussian: Alnāsteini) is a City in northeastern Poland, on the River Łyna. He also participated in the peace negotiations. ^[8]

Copernicus worked for years with the Royal Prussian diet, and with Duke Albert of Prussia, and advised Poland's King Sigismund I the Old on monetary reform. Albert (Albrecht Albertus 16 May 1490 – 20 March 1568 was the 37th Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights and after converting to Lutheranism, Sigismund I the Old (Zygmunt I Stary Žygimantas II Senasis 1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548) of the Jagiellon dynasty reigned as Monetary Reform describes any movement or theory that proposes a different system of supplying Money and financing the economy than the current system Holding the office of canon, he traveled extensively on government business and as a diplomat on behalf of the Prince-Bishop of Warmia. A canon (from the Latin canonicus, itself derived from the Greek κανωνικος 'relating to a rule' is a priest who is a member of certain bodies of the Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting Negotiations between representatives of groups or states ^[9] He participated in the discussions in the East Prussian diet about coin reform in the Prussian countries. The Duchy of Prussia or Ducal Prussia (Herzogtum Preußen Prūsijos kunigaikštystė Prusy Książęce was a Duchy in the eastern part of Prussia from One issue of concern to participants of the Diet was who had the right to mint coins. main - title Coin keywords numismatics coin review The task required much diplomacy, but proved to be a success. Some of the difficulties came about because of the political upheavals occurring in Prussia at the time, such as the establishment of the Duchy of Prussia as a Protestant state in 1525. Copernicus translated the coin reform treatise into Latin for external use. In 1530 an agreement with Duke Albert was negotiated at Elbląg (Elbing). Elbląg (Elbing Elbinga is a City in northern Poland with 127892 inhabitants (2006

In 1526 Copernicus wrote a study on the value of money, Monetae cudendae ratio. Money is anything that is generally accepted as Payment for Goods and services and repayment of Debts. Monetae cudendae ratio (also spelled Monetæ cudendæ ratio) is a treatise on Money by Nicolaus Copernicus written in 1526 published in 1816 In it, Copernicus formulated an early iteration of the theory, now called "Gresham's Law," that "bad" (debased) coinage drives "good" (un-debased) coinage out of circulation, 70 years before Gresham. Gresham's law is commonly stated "Bad money drives out good Debasement is the practice of lowering the value of Currency. He also formulated a version of quantity theory of money. In Economics, the quantity theory of money is a theory emphasizing the Positive relationship of overall prices or the nominal value of expenditures to the

Two years before Copernicus's death, Duke Albert urgently summoned him to Königsberg to treat one of his counsellors, who was dangerously ill. Königsberg (Karaliaučius Low German: Königsbarg; Królewiec see also other names) was until 1946 the name of Kaliningrad. The patient recovered within a month or so, and Copernicus then returned to Frombork. ^[10]

In 1551, under Duke Albert's patronage, Erasmus Reinhold published the Prutenic Tables, a set of astronomical tables based on Copernicus's work, which astronomers and astrologers quickly adopted in place of those which they had superseded. Erasmus Reinhold ( October 22, 1511 &ndash February 19, 1553) was a German Astronomer and Mathematician The Prutenic Tables (Tabulae prutenicae Prutenische oder Preußische Tafeln were Ephemeris (astronomical tables by astronomer Erasmus Reinhold published ^[11]

Heliocentrism

In 1514 Copernicus made available to friends his Commentariolus (Little Commentary), a six page hand-written text describing his ideas about the heliocentric hypothesis. In the Commentariolus ( Little Commentary) Nicolaus Copernicus outlined his revolutionary Copernican heliocentrism theory of the solar system It contained seven basic assumptions. Thereafter he continued gathering data for a more detailed work.

The astronomer Copernicus: Conversation with God. ^[12] Painting by Jan Matejko

In 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered in Rome a series of lectures outlining Copernicus's theory. Jan Matejko ( (also known as Jan Mateyko; June 24 1838 Free City of Kraków; - November 1 1893 Kraków) was a Polish painter Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter (born 1506 in Nellingen / Blaubeuren near Ulm, died March 28 1557 in Regensburg) was a Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The lectures were heard with interest by Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals. For the Antipope (1378&ndash1394 see Antipope Clement VII. Pope Clement VII ( May 26, 1478 &ndash September A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical official usually a bishop, of the Catholic Church.

On 1 November 1536, Archbishop of Capua Nicholas Schönberg wrote a letter to Copernicus from Rome:

Some years ago word reached me concerning your proficiency, of which everybody constantly spoke. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi Nikolaus von Schönberg ( 11 August 1472 &ndash 7 September 1537) was a German Archbishop of Capua. At that time I began to have a very high regard for you. . . For I had learned that you had not merely mastered the discoveries of the ancient astronomers uncommonly well but had also formulated a new cosmology. In it you maintain that the earth moves; that the sun occupies the lowest, and thus the central, place in the universe. . . Therefore with the utmost earnestness I entreat you, most learned sir, unless I inconvenience you, to communicate this discovery of yours to scholars, and at the earliest possible moment to send me your writings on the sphere of the universe together with the tables and whatever else you have that is relevant to this subject . . . ^[13]

By then Copernicus's work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated people all over Europe. Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed with the publication of his book, perhaps from fear of criticism — a fear delicately expressed in the subsequent Dedication of his masterpiece to Pope Paul III. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on Pope Paul III ( February 29, 1468 &ndash November 10, 1549) born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope of the Roman Scholars disagree on whether Copernicus's concern was limited to physical and philosophical objections from other natural philosophers, or whether he was also concerned about religious objections from theologians. ^[14]

The book

Title page of the 2nd edition of De revolutionibus, printed 1566 in Basel

Melanchthon

Copernicus was still working on De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (even if not convinced that he wanted to publish it) when in 1539 Georg Joachim Rheticus, a Wittenberg mathematician, arrived in Frombork. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on Philipp Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerd) ( February 16, 1497 &ndash April 19, 1560) was a German professor and theologian De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on Georg Joachim von Lauchen, also known as Rheticus ( February 16 1514 &ndash December 4 1574) was a Mathematician, Wittenberg, officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is a Town in Germany in the Bundesland Saxony-Anhalt, on the Elbe A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of Mathematics. Philipp Melanchthon had arranged for Rheticus to visit several astronomers and study with them. Philipp Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerd) ( February 16, 1497 &ndash April 19, 1560) was a German professor and theologian

Rheticus became Copernicus's pupil, staying with him for two years and writing a book, Narratio prima (First Account), outlining the essence of Copernicus's theory. Narratio Prima (first account is an abstract of the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus, published by the young German Astronomer Georg Joachim Rheticus In 1542 Rheticus published a treatise on trigonometry by Copernicus (later included in the second book of De revolutionibus). Circle-trig6svg|300px|thumb|right|All of the Trigonometric functions of an angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on

Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen the favorable first general reception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give De revolutionibus to his close friend, Tiedemann Giese, bishop of Chełmno (Kulm), to be delivered to Rheticus for printing by Johannes Petreius at Nuremberg (Nürnberg). De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on Tiedemann Giese ( June 1, 1480 – October 23, 1550, Heilsberg) was a member of the patrician Giese family of Danzig (Gdańsk For the concentration camp located near a village with a similar name Chełmno nad Nerem see Chełmno extermination camp. Johann(es Petreius aka Hans Peterlein (c 1497 near Bad Kissingen - March 18 1550, Nuremberg) was a German printer

Death

Frombork Cathedral, Copernicus' burial place

Copernicus died on May 24, 1543, in Frombork. Frombork ( is a Town in northern Poland, on the Vistula Lagoon, in Braniewo County, Warmia-Masuria Province. Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned Legend has it that the first printed copy of De revolutionibus was placed in Copernicus's hands on the very day he died, allowing him to take farewell of his opus vitae (life's work). De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on He is reputed to have woken from a stroke-induced coma, looked at his book, and died peacefully. A stroke is the rapidly developing loss of brain functions due to a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain In Medicine, a coma (from the Greek koma, meaning deep sleep is a profound state of Unconsciousness.

Copernicus was reportedly buried in the Cathedral of Frauenburg where archeologists had long searched in vain for his remains. In August 2005, a team of archeologists led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of an archaeology and anthropology institute in Pułtusk, discovered what they believe to be Copernicus's grave and remains, after scanning beneath the floor of the Cathedral. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Pułtusk is a town in Poland by the river Narew, 70 km north of Warsaw. The find came after a year of searching, and the discovery was announced only after further research, on November 3. Gąssowski said he was "almost 100 percent sure it is Copernicus". Forensic expert Capt. Dariusz Zajdel of the Central Forensic Laboratory of the Polish Police used the skull to reconstruct a face that closely resembled the features — including a broken nose and a scar above the left eye — on a Copernicus self-portrait. ^[15] The expert also determined that the skull had belonged to a man who had died about age 70 — Copernicus's age at the time of his death. The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains were found. The archeologists hoped to find deceased relatives of Copernicus in order to attempt DNA identification. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known

Copernican system

Main article: Copernican heliocentrism

Predecessors

Early traces of a heliocentric model are found in several anonymous Vedic Sanskrit texts composed in ancient India before the 7th century BCE. See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. Vedic Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language, the language of the Vedas, the oldest Shruti texts of Hinduism. This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 The 7th century BC started the first day of 700 BC and ended the last day of 601 BC. Additionally, in the sixth century the Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata anticipated elements of Copernicus's work, although he did not maintain heliocentrism. The 6th century is the period from 501 to 600 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Āryabhaṭa ( Devanāgarī: आर्यभट (AD 476 &ndash 550 is the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics

Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BCE elaborated some theories of Heraclides Ponticus (the daily rotation of the Earth on its axis, the revolution of Venus and Mercury around the Sun) to propose what was the first scientific model of a heliocentric solar system: the Earth and all other planets revolving around the Sun, the Earth rotating around its axis daily, the Moon in turn revolving around the Earth once a month. Aristarchus (Ἀρίσταρχος 310 BC - ca 230 BC) was a Greek Astronomer and Mathematician, born on the island of The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC "Heraclides" redirects here The former Butterfly Genus of the same name is now included in Papilio. His heliocentric work has not survived, so we can only speculate about what led him to his conclusions. It is notable that, according to Plutarch, a contemporary of Aristarchus accused him of impiety for "putting the Earth in motion". Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c

Copernicus cited Aristarchus and Philolaus in a surviving early manuscript of his book, stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion. Philolaus (ca 480 BC &ndash ca 385 BC Φιλόλαος was a Greek Pythagorean and Presocratic. Samos (Σάμος is a Greek island in the North Aegean Sea, south of Chios, north of Patmos and the Dodecanese, and off " For reasons unknown (possibly from reluctance to quote pre-Christian sources), he did not include this passage in the published book. It has been argued that in developing the mathematics of heliocentrism Copernicus drew on not just the Greek, but also the work of Muslim astronomers, especially the works of Nasir al-Din Tusi (Tusi-couple), Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma) and Ibn al-Shatir. The Tusi-couple is a mathematical device in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the radius of the smaller circle Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi (d 1266 was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, architect and engineer working at the Maragheh Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer In his major work, Copernicus also discussed the theories of Ibn Battuta and Averroes. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European

Ptolemy

Ptolemy: medieval artist's rendition

Copernicus: a 16th-century portrait

The prevailing theory in Europe as Copernicus was writing was that created by Ptolemy in his Almagest, dating from about A.D. 150. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic name ( الكتاب المجسطي, al-kitabu-l-mijisti, i The Ptolemaic system drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary center of the universe. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in smaller spheres between — a separate one for each planet.

Copernicus

Copernicus's major theory was published in the book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), in the year of his death, 1543, though he had arrived at his theory several decades earlier. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on

In his Commentariolus Copernicus had summarized his system with the following list of seven assumptions:^[16]

1. There is no one center of all the celestial circles or spheres.
2. The center of the earth is not the center of the universe, but only of gravity and of the lunar sphere.
3. All the spheres revolve about the sun as their mid-point, and therefore the sun is the center of the universe.
4. The ratio of the earth's distance from the sun to the height of the firmament is so much smaller than the ratio of the earth's radius to its distance from the sun that the distance from the earth to the sun is imperceptible in comparison with the height of the firmament. Firmament is the usual English translation of the Hebrew "raqiya`" (pronounced rä·kē'·ah meaning an extended solid surface or flat expanse considered to be a hemisphere
5. Whatever motion appears in the firmament arises not from any motion of the firmament, but from the earth's motion. The earth together with its circumjacent elements performs a complete rotation on its fixed poles in a daily motion, while the firmament and highest heaven abide unchanged.
6. What appear to us as motions of the sun arise not from its motion but from the motion of the earth and our sphere, with which we revolve about the sun like any other planet. The earth has, then, more than one motion.
7. The apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but from the earth's. The motion of the earth alone, therefore, suffices to explain so many apparent inequalities in the heavens.

De revolutionibus itself was divided into six books:

1. General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World
2. Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments developed in the subsequent books)
3. Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena
4. Description of the Moon and its orbital motions
5. Concrete exposition of the new system
6. Concrete exposition of the new system

Copernicanism

Copernicus, astronomer

At original publication, Copernicus' epoch-making book caused only mild controversy, and provoked no fierce sermons about contradicting Holy Scripture. It was only three years later, in 1546, that a Dominican, Giovanni Maria Tolosani, denounced the theory in an appendix to a work defending the absolute truth of Scripture. ^[17] He also noted that the Master of the Sacred Palace (i. e. , the Catholic Church's chief censor), Bartolomeo Spina, a friend and fellow Dominican, had planned to condemn De revolutionibus but had been prevented from doing so by his illness and death. Bartolommeo Spina (born at Pisa about 1475 died at Rome, 1546 was an Italian Dominican theologian and scholastic philosopher ^[18]

Arthur Koestler, in his popular book The Sleepwalkers, asserted that Copernicus's book had not been widely read on its first publication. Arthur Koestler CBE ( September 5, 1905, Budapest &ndash March 3, 1983, London) was a This article concerns the nonfiction book by Arthur Koestler For the novel trilogy by Hermann Broch, see The Sleepwalkers (Broch. ^[19] This claim was trenchantly criticised by Edward Rosen,^[20] and has been decisively disproved by Owen Gingerich, who examined every surviving copy of the first two editions and found copious marginal notes by their owners throughout many of them. Dr Owen Jay Gingerich (1930- is a former Research Professor of Astronomy and of the History of Science at Harvard University, and a senior Astronomer Gingerich published his conclusions in 2004 in the ironically-titled The Book Nobody Read. ^[21]

It has been much debated why it was not until six decades after Spina and Tolosani's attacks on Copernicus's work that the Catholic Church took any official action against it. Proposed reasons have included the personality of Galileo Galilei and the availability of evidence such as telescope observations. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation.

Galileo Galilei

In March 1616, in connection with the Galileo affair, the Roman Catholic Church's Congregation of the Index issued a decree suspending De revolutionibus until it could be "corrected," on the grounds that the supposedly Pythagorean doctrine^[22] that the Earth moves and the Sun doesn't was "false and altogether opposed to Holy Scripture. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher The Galileo affair, in which Galileo Galilei came into conflict with the Catholic Church over his support of Copernican astronomy, is often considered a The Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books" was a list of publications prohibited by the Roman Catholic Church. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. "^[23] The same decree also prohibited any work that defended the mobility of the Earth or the immobility of the Sun, or that attempted to reconcile these assertions with Scripture.

On the orders of Pope Paul V, Cardinal Robert Bellarmine gave Galileo prior notice that the decree was about to be issued, and warned him that he could not "hold or defend" the Copernican doctrine. For Napoleon's brother-in-law see Camillo Filippo Ludovico Borghese. Robert Bellarmine ( Roberto Francesco Romolo Cardinale Bellarmino) (4 October 1542 Montepulciano, Siena, Italy – 17 September 1621 ^[24] The corrections to De revolutionibus, which omitted or altered nine sentences, were issued four years later, in 1620. ^[25]

In 1633 Galileo Galilei was convicted of grave suspicion of heresy for "following the position of Copernicus, which is contrary to the true sense and authority of Holy Scripture,"^[26] and was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief In Justice and Law, house arrest (also called home confinement, home detention, or electronic monitoring) is a measure by which

Galileo had gotten off lightly. Another Copernican, Giordano Bruno, had been prosecuted in Rome by the same Cardinal Bellarmine and on February 17, 1600, burned at the stake as a heretic primarily for his theologic views and not necessarily his scientific ones. Giordano Bruno (1548 – February 17, 1600) was an Italian Philosopher best-known as an early proponent of Heliocentrism and Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Bellarmine can refer to Robert Bellarmine The schools named after him Bellarmine University, in Louisville Kentucky Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori

The Catholic Church's 1758 Index of Prohibited Books omitted the general prohibition of works defending heliocentrism,^[27] but retained the specific prohibitions of the original uncensored versions of De revolutionibus and Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. The Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books" was a list of publications prohibited by the Roman Catholic Church. The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems ( Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) was a 1632 book by Galileo, comparing the Those prohibitions were finally dropped from the 1835 Index. ^[28]

It has been asserted^[29] that medieval scholars had known that the Earth was a sphere and that, paradoxically, it might have been Copernicus's criticism of the early Christian author Lactantius (ca. Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius? Firmianus Lactantius was an Early Christian author (ca 240 – ca. 320 C. E. ) in De revolutionibus that later developed into the flat-Earth myth. The idea of a flat Earth is the idea that the surface of the Earth is flat (a plane) rather than the view that it is a very close approximation of

Nationality and ethnicity

Kopernik bust in Kraków's Jordan Park

Both the nationality and ethnicity of Copernicus are disputed. Kraków, in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow (ˈkrækaʊ M-W: krăk'ou krāk'ō is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland Jordan Park, known also as Jordan's Garden, was set up in 1889 as the first public playground in Kraków, Poland, and the first of its kind in Europe His father has been described by some as a Pole, and his mother was most likely of German origin. ^[30] The family came originally from the Silesian village of the same name (Coprnik, Copernik, Copirnik, Copernic, Kopernic, today Koperniki) near Nysa. Etymology One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, who were most likely a Vandalic (East Germanic people Koperniki (Köppernig Köppernick is a Village ( wieś) in Nysa, Nysa County, Opole Voivodeship, Poland. In the 14th century, members of the family had begun moving to Silesian and later to Polish cities: Kraków (1367) and Toruń (1400), and also to Lviv (1439—then the Polish city, Lwów). Kraków, in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow (ˈkrækaʊ M-W: krăk'ou krāk'ō is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland Toruń Lublin Voivodeship Toruń (Thorn Torń Thorunium see also other names) is a city in northern Poland, on the Vistula River with population Lviv ( Ukrainian: Львів, L’viv, Lwów Lemberg Львов L'vov; see also other names) is a major city in western The astronomer's father (probably the son of Jan) came from the Kraków line. He appears in records for the first time in 1448 as a well-to-do merchant who dealt in copper with Gdańsk. Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland In the early period of the Pomeranian cities' struggle for independence from the Teutonic Order, in August 1454, he mediated financial negotiations between Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki and the great Prussian cities regarding repayment of a loan for the Polish-Teutonic war. The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. About 1458 the future astronomer's father moved from Poland's capital, Kraków, to Toruń, where a few years later (before 1464) he married Barbara, daughter of a wealthy Toruń patrician and city councillor, Lucas Watzenrode the elder (died 1462). ^[31]

Copernicus bust at United Nations, New York

The Watzenrodes had likewise come from Silesia, from the Świdnica (Schwednitz) region, and had settled in Toruń after 1360. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The City of New York Świdnica (Schweidnitz Svídnice is a Town in south-western Poland. The astronomer's grandfather Watzenrode was a decided opponent of the Teutonic Order. In 1453 he was the delegate from Toruń at the Grudziądz conference that planned the anti-Teutonic-Order uprising, and during the Thirteen Years' War he actively supported the struggle of the Prussian cities not only with substantial monetary subsidies but with political activity in Toruń and Gdańsk as well as with his own personal participation in battles at Łaszyn and Malbork. Grudziądz (Graudenz Graudensis Грудзёндз is a City in northern Poland on the Vistula River, with 9909 The Thirteen Years' War was also the name of an Austrian-Ottoman War Thirteen Years War in Hungary The Thirteen Years' War (Dreizehnjähriger Krieg Wojna trzynastoletnia Malbork (Marienburg in Westpreußen Civitas Beatae Virginis is a Town in northern Poland in the Żuławy region with 41000 inhabitants (2001 He died in 1462, leaving three children: Lucas (1447–1512), future Bishop of Warmia and the astronomer's patron, and two daughters: Barbara, the astronomer's mother (died after 1495), and Christina (died before 1502), who in 1459 married the merchant and Toruń mayor, Tiedeman von Allen. Warmia (Warmia Latin: Varmia) or Erm(eland ( is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland Through the Watzenrodes' extensive family relationships by marriage, the future astronomer was related both to wealthy burgher families of Kraków, Toruń, Gdańsk and Elbląg and to prominent noble families of Prussia: the Działyński, Kościelicki and Konopacki families. Elbląg (Elbing Elbinga is a City in northern Poland with 127892 inhabitants (2006 ^[32]

It has been suggested that Copernicus's "mother tongue" was German. While he was fluent in German and communicated with many German scholars, no direct evidence survives of the extent of his knowledge of Old Polish. High German Old High German See also Old High German The earliest testimonies of Old High German are from scattered Elder Futhark Old Polish (Old Polish ięzyk Polſki, modern Polish: język staropolski) is a name used to describe the period in the history of the Typically for the time, his main language for written communication was Latin. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It remains a matter of dispute whether a "nationality" should be ascribed to Nicolaus Copernicus retrospectively and, if so, whether he should be considered German or Polish. ^[33] Already in the 123-year period when no Polish state existed (see History of Poland, 1795–1918), the matter was debated in German writings; nevertheless, the 1875 Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie acknowledged the Polish aspects of Copernicus' life. Partitions Summary Although the majority of the Szlachta was reconciled to the end of the Commonwealth in 1795 the possibility of Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB is one of the most important and most comprehensive biographical reference works in the German language. ^[34] Current German sources call the controversy, as reflected in the older literature, superfluous and shameful. ^[35]

Polish 1,000-old-złoty banknote labeled "MIKOŁAJ KOPERNIK"

Encyclopædia Britannica,^[36] Encyclopedia Americana,^[37] and the Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia^[38] identify Copernicus as Polish. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The złoty (/ˈzwɔtɨ/, plural for numbers ending in 2 3 and 4 (except 12 13 and 14 złote /ˈzwɔtɛ/ plural for all other numbers złotych /ˈzwɔtɨx/ A banknote (often known as a bill, paper money or simply a note) is a kind of Negotiable instrument, a Promissory note made by a The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc The Encyclopædia Americana is one of the largest general Encyclopedias in the English language. Microsoft Corporation is an American multinational Computer technology Corporation, which rose to dominate the Home computer Encarta is a Digital Multimedia Encyclopedia published by Microsoft Corporation.

Copernicus was born, grew up, and spent most of his life in Royal Prussia and therefore was a subject of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom. Royal Prussia ( Prusy Królewskie was a province of the Kingdom of Poland from 1466 and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772 ^[39] This is a principal reason why he is generally regarded as Polish. The fact that Copernicus oversaw the defense of Olsztyn Castle at the head of Royal Polish forces when the town was besieged by the Teutonic Knights is used by some to support the claim that his bond with the Kingdom of Poland was much stronger than his German ties. Olsztyn (Allenstein Olštynas Old Prussian: Alnāsteini) is a City in northeastern Poland, on the River Łyna. The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. On the other hand, the urban elites of Royal Prussia comprised German-speaking burghers who had only lately revolted against the Teutonic State with the aid of the Polish Kingdom. It is unlikely that in the short space of 20 years they had been 'Polonized' in any substantial way, at least in the modern sense of the term. It is possible, therefore, that Copernicus's early years were spent in a 'German' environment, while his later years were passed in a more 'Polish' milieu, or to quote the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Thus the child of a German family was a subject of the Polish crown. "^[40] However, in his time "nationality" had yet to play as important a role as it would later, and people generally did not think of themselves primarily as Polish or German. Nationality is a relationship between a Person and their State of Origin, Culture, association Affiliation and/or Loyalty ^[41]. Furthermore, the Teutonic Order itself was not solely composed of Germans but included knights from all of Western Europe.

German stamp featuring DFS Kopernikus TV satellite, now defunct

Nevertheless, some have preferred to assign a single nationality to Copernicus. DFS-Kopernikus meaning Deutscher Fernmeldesatellit Kopernikus) was the name of three Geostationary satellite of Deutsche Bundespost and later Deutsche In 1807, a bust of Copernicus was one of the first busts to be prepared for enshrinement at the Walhalla temple, the German hall of fame built by King Ludwig I of Bavaria. A bust is a sculpted or cast representation of the upper part of the human figure depicting a person's head and Neck, as well as a variable portion of The Walhalla Hall of Fame and Honor is a neo-classical Hall of fame located on the Danube River 10 km east of Regensburg, in Bavaria A hall of fame (sometimes HOF) is a type of Museum established for any a field of endeavor to honor individuals of noteworthy achievement in that field Ludwig I (also rendered in English as Louis I) ( August 25 1786 in Strasbourg &ndash February 29, 1868 in Nice Later, Nazi Germany claimed Copernicus to have been purely German. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers ^[42] After 1945, German public opinion returned to a more balanced view. Some Soviet-bloc-era publications in socialist East Germany pronounced Copernicus a Pole. During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state

Even today, some Germans and Poles continue to regard him as having been exclusively one of their own. In 2003 Copernicus was declared eligible for Unsere Besten ("Our Best"), a ranking of the "200 greatest Germans", organized by ZDF TV. Unsere Besten ("Our Best" was a television series shown in German public television ( ZDF) in November 2003 similar to the BBC series 100 Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen ("Second German Television" ZDF, is a public service German Television channel based in Mainz. Some protests subsequently occurred in Poland at Copernicus being included in a list of great Germans, coming in at number 108. Beginning in 1989, three German TV satellites, now defunct, were named "DFS Kopernikus". DFS-Kopernikus meaning Deutscher Fernmeldesatellit Kopernikus) was the name of three Geostationary satellite of Deutsche Bundespost and later Deutsche In Poland, in 1973, the 500th anniversary of Copernicus' birth saw celebrations of a "great Pole". Poland issued a banknote bearing Copernicus' portrait. A banknote (often known as a bill, paper money or simply a note) is a kind of Negotiable instrument, a Promissory note made by a Thirty years later, on June 12, 2003, the Polish Senate pronounced Copernicus an "exceptional Pole. Events 1381 - Peasants' Revolt: in England, rebels arrive at Blackheath. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. The Senate ( Senat) is the upper house of the Polish Parliament. "

See also

Polish 10-złoty coins with Copernicus on obverse, minted 1968 (left) and 1959. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The złoty (/ˈzwɔtɨ/, plural for numbers ending in 2 3 and 4 (except 12 13 and 14 złote /ˈzwɔtɛ/ plural for all other numbers złotych /ˈzwɔtɨx/

• Copernican principle
• Dedication to Pope Paul III
• List of things named after Copernicus
• Inferior and superior planets
• History of philosophy in Poland
• Copernicus Airport Wrocław
• Scientific revolution

Notes

References

• Armitage, Angus (1951). The World of Copernicus. New York, NY: Mentor Books. ISBN 0-8464-0979-8.  
• Coyne, George V. , S. J. (2005). The Church's Most Recent Attempt to Dispel the Galileo Myth, In McMullin (2005, pp.340–59).  
• DeMarco, Peter (2004-04-13). "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 1111 - Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 1204 - The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople Book quest took him around the globe. Boston Globe. Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
• Dobrzycki, Jerzy, and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj," Polski słownik biograficzny (Polish Biographical Dictionary), vol. Polski Słownik Biograficzny ( PSB; Polish Biographical Dictionary is a Polish-language Biographical dictionary, comprising an alphabetically XIV, Wrocław, Polish Academy of Sciences, 1969, pp. The Polish Academy of Sciences, headquartered in Warsaw, is one of two Polish institutions having the nature of an Academy of sciences. 3–16.
• Fantoli, Annibale (2005). The Disputed Injunction and its Role in Galileo's Trial, In McMullin (2005, pp.117–49).  
• Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (1989). The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06662-6.  
• Gagné, Marc (2005). Texts from The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History edited and translated by Maurice A. Finocchiaro. West Chester University course ESS 362/562 in History of Astronomy. Retrieved on 2008-01-15. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 588 BC - Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon lays siege to Jerusalem under Zedekiah 's reign (Extracts from Finocchiaro (1989))
• Gingerich, Owen (2004). Dr Owen Jay Gingerich (1930- is a former Research Professor of Astronomy and of the History of Science at Harvard University, and a senior Astronomer The Book Nobody Read. London: William Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-01315-3.  
• David C. Goodman and Colin A. David Goodman may refer to David Goodman (politician, member of the Ohio Senate David A Russell, eds. (1991). The Rise of Scientific Europe, 1500-1800. Dunton Green, Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder & Stoughton: The Open University. ISBN 0-340-55861-X.
• Heilbron, John L. (2005). Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo, In McMullin (2005, pp.279–322).  
• Koestler, Arthur [1959] (1963). Arthur Koestler CBE ( September 5, 1905, Budapest &ndash March 3, 1983, London) was a The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. This article concerns the nonfiction book by Arthur Koestler For the novel trilogy by Hermann Broch, see The Sleepwalkers (Broch. New York, NY: Grosset & Dunlap. ISBN 0448001594.   Original edition published by Hutchinson (1959, London).
• Koyré, Alexandre (1973). Alexandre Koyré ( August 29, 1892, Taganrog &ndash April 28, 1964, Paris) sometimes anglicised as Alexander The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus – Kepler – Borelli. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0504-1.  
• Kuhn, Thomas (1957). Thomas Samuel Kuhn (surname ˈkuːn July 18, 1922  &ndash June 17, 1996) was an American intellectual who wrote extensively The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-17100-4.  
• Lindberg, David C. and Numbers, Ronald L. . Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science. American Scientific Affiliation article. Retrieved on 2007-04-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1500 - Portuguese Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral becomes the first European to sight Brazil. - Paper originally published in Church History (Vol. 55, No. 3, Sept. 1986).
• McMullin, Ernan, ed. (2005). The Church and Galileo. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0-268-03483-4.  
• Rabin, Sheila (2005). Copernicus. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed. ). Retrieved on 2008-05-26. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 451 - The Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sassanid Empire takes place
• Rosen, Edward (1995). Copernicus and his Successors. London: Hambledon Press. ISBN 1 85285 071 X.  
• Rosen, Edward (translator) [1939] (2004). Three Copernican Treatises:The Commentariolus of Copernicus; The Letter against Werner; The Narratio Prima of Rheticus, Second Edition, revised, New York, NY: Dover Publications. Johann(es Werner ( 14 February 1468 in Nuremberg, Germany &ndash May 1522 (also Ioannis Verneri ISBN 0486436055.  
• Russell, Jeffrey Burton [1991] (1997). Jeffrey Burton Russell (born 1934 is an American historian and religious studies scholar who received his undergraduate degree from the University of California Berkeley in 1955 and his Inventing the Flat Earth—Columbus and Modern Historians. New York, NY: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-95904-X.  

Further reading

• Danielson, Dennis Richard (2006). The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution. New York: Walker & Company. ISBN 0-8027-1530-3.  
• Prowe, Leopold (1884). Leopold Friedrich Prowe (1821 - 1887 was a German Historian and gymnasium instructor born as the son of a town councillor of Thorn (Toruń Nicolaus Coppernicus (in German). Berlin: Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung.  
• Repcheck, Jack (2007). Copernicus' Secret: How the Scientific Revolution Began. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-8951-X.  
• Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe (Nicolaus Copernicus Complete Edition) (1974-2004), 9 vols. The Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe ( gesamtausgabe means complete edition) is a comprehensive commented collection of works by about and related to , various editors (in German and Latin). Berlin: Akademie Verlag. A large collection of writings by and about Copernicus.
• Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe: Biographies and Portraits of Copernicus from 16th to 18th century, Biographia Copernicana, 2004, ISBN 3-05-003848-9 [10] [11]
• Schmauch, Hans: Copernicus, Nicolaus. The Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe ( gesamtausgabe means complete edition) is a comprehensive commented collection of works by about and related to In: Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB ( literally New German Biography) is a biographical Reference work published in German language by the Bd.  3, Berlin 1957, S.  348–355. (German)
• Bruhns, Christian: Copernicus, Nicolaus. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB is one of the most important and most comprehensive biographical reference works in the German language. Bd.  4, Leipzig 1876, S.  461–469. (German)

External links

Primary Sources

• Works by Nicolaus Copernicus at Project Gutenberg
• De Revolutionibus, autograph manuscript — Full digital facsimile, Jagiellonian University
• (Polish) Copernicus's letters to various celebrities, among others the King Sigmundus I of Poland

General

• O'Connor, John J. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works & Robertson, Edmund F. , “Nicolaus Copernicus”, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive 
• Copernicus in Torun
• Nicolaus Copernicus Museum in Frombork
• Portraits of Copernicus: Copernicus' face reconstructed; Portrait; Nicolaus Copernicus
• Copernicus and Astrology — Cambridge University: Copernicus had – of course – teachers with astrological activities and his tables were later used by astrologers. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive is an award-winning website maintained by John J
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
• Find-A-Grave profile for Nicolaus Copernicus
• 'Body of Copernicus' identified — BBC article including image of Copernicus using facial reconstruction based on located skull
• Copernicus and Astrology
• Nicolaus Copernicus on the 1000 Polish Zloty banknote.
• Parallax and the Earth's orbit [12]
• Copernicus's model for Mars [13]
• Retrograde Motion[14]
• Copernicus's explanation for retrograde motion [15]
• Geometry of Maximum Elongation [16]
• Copernican Model [17]

About De Revolutionibus

• The Copernican Universe from the De Revolutionibus
• De Revolutionibus, 1543 first edition — Full digital facsimile, Lehigh University
• The front page of the De Revolutionibus
• The text of the De Revolutionibus
• A java applet about Retrograde Motion
• The Antikythera Calculator (Italian and English versions)
• Pastore Giovanni, ANTIKYTHERA E I REGOLI CALCOLATORI, Rome, 2006, privately published

Legacy

• (Italian) Copernicus in Bologna — in Italian
• Chasing Copernicus: The Book Nobody Read — Was One of the Greatest Scientific Works Really Ignored? All Things Considered. NPR
• Copernicus and his Revolutions — A detailed critique of the rhetoric of De Revolutionibus
• Article which discusses Copernicus's debt to the Arabic tradition

German-Polish cooperation

• (German)(Polish) German-Polish school project on Copernicus
• (German)(English)(Polish) Büro Kopernikus - An initiative of German Federal Cultural Foundation
• (German)(Polish) German-Polish "Copernicus Prize" awarded to German and Polish scientists (DFG website) (FNP website)