Nicolas Steno
Nicolas Steno
Born	January 10, 1638 Copenhagen
Died	November 25, 1686
Nationality	Danish
Fields	anatomy and geology
Religious stance	Roman Catholicism (converted from Lutheranism)[1]

Nicolas Steno (Danish: Niels Stensen; latinized to Nicolaus Stenonis) (January 10, 1638 - November 25, 1686) was a pioneer in both anatomy and geology. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war. Copenhagen (ˌkəʊpənˈheɪgən ˌkəʊpənˈhɑːgən ˈkəʊpənˌheɪgən ˈkəʊpənˌhɑːgən kʰøb̥ənˈhɑʊ̯ˀn kʰøb̥m̩ˈhɑʊ̯ˀn is the capital and largest city Events 1034 - Máel Coluim mac Cináeda, King of Scots dies Donnchad, the Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Danish ( d̥ænsɡ̊ is one of the North Germanic languages (also called Scandinavian languages a sub-group of the Germanic branch of the Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war. Events 1034 - Máel Coluim mac Cináeda, King of Scots dies Donnchad, the Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Already in 1659 he decided not to accept anything simply written in a book, instead resolving to do research himself. ^[2] He is considered the father of geology and stratigraphy. Stratigraphy, a branch of Geology, studies rock layers and layering ( stratification) ^[1]

Early career

Steno was born in Copenhagen on New Year's Day (Julian calendar), as a son of a Lutheran goldsmith, regularly working for the king, Christian IV of Denmark. Copenhagen (ˌkəʊpənˈheɪgən ˌkəʊpənˈhɑːgən ˈkəʊpənˌheɪgən ˈkəʊpənˌhɑːgən kʰøb̥ənˈhɑʊ̯ˀn kʰøb̥m̩ˈhɑʊ̯ˀn is the capital and largest city The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and came into force in 45 BC (709 Ab urbe condita Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Christian IV ( 12 April, 1577 &ndash 28 February, 1648) was the king of Denmark and Norway from 1588 until his death Stensen grew up in isolation in his childhood, because of an unknown disease. In 1644 his father died, his mother remarried to another goldsmith. In 1654-1655, 240 pupils of his school died because of the plague. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia Across the street lived Peder Schumacher, (who would offer Steno a post as professor in Copenhagen in 1671). Count Peder Griffenfeld (before ennoblement Peder Schumacher) ( August 24, 1635 - March 12 After completing his university education, he set out to travel through Europe; in fact, he would be on the move for the rest of his life. In the Netherlands, France, and Italy he came into contact with prominent physicians and scientists. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest These influences led him to use his own powers of observation to make important scientific discoveries. At a time when scientific questions were mostly answered by appeal to ancient authorities, Steno was bold enough to trust his own eyes, even when his observations differed from traditional doctrines.

On instigation of Thomas Bartholin Steno first travelled to Rostock, then to Amsterdam and studied anatomy under Gerard Blasius, focusing again on the Lymphatic system. Thomas Bartholin ( Thomas Bartolinus) ( October 20, 1616 – December 4, 1680) was a Danish Physician, Mathematician Rostock (ˈʁɔstɔk from Polabian Roz toc, literally "to flow apart" is the largest City in the north German state The lymphatic system in Vertebrates is a network of conduits that carry a clear fluid called Lymph. Steno discovered a previously undescribed structure, the "ductus stenonianus" (the duct of the parotid salivary gland) in sheep, dog and rabbit heads. The parotid duct, also known as Stensen's duct, is the route that Saliva takes from the Parotid gland into the mouth For the toad wart see Parotoid gland. The parotid gland is the largest of the Salivary glands It is found wrapped around the Mandibular ramus A dispute with Blasius over credit for the discovery arose, but Steno's name is associated with this structure. ^[3] Within a few months Steno moved to Leiden. There Steno met Jan Swammerdam, Frederik Ruysch, Reinier de Graaf, Franciscus de le Boe Sylvius, a famous professor, and Baruch Spinoza. Jan Swammerdam ( February 12, 1637, Amsterdam - February 17, 1680) was a Dutch biologist and microscopist Frederik Ruysch ( March 23, 1638 — February 22, 1731) was a Dutch botanist and anatomist, remembered for Regnier de Graaf ( July 30, 1641 – August 17, 1673) was a Dutch Physician and anatomist who made key discoveries Franciscus Sylvius (1614-1672 also known as Franz De Le Boe, was Physician and Scientist ( Chemist, Physiologist and Anatomist Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, ^[4] Also Descartes was publishing on the working of the brain, and Steno did not think his explanation of the origin of tears was correct. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain Tears are the liquid product of a process of lacrimation to clean and lubricate the Eyes The word lacrimation may also be used in a medical or literary sense Steno studied the heart, and found out it was an ordinary muscle. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the He travelled to Saumur were he met Melchisédech Thévenot, Jan Swammerdam and Ole Borch. Saumur is a town and commune in the Maine-et-Loire département of France on the Loire River at, with an approximate Melchisédech (or Melchisédec) Thévenot (c 1620 - October 29, 1692) was a French author scientist traveler cartographer Ole Borch ( Jutland, 1626 – 1690 ( Latinized to Olaus Borrichius) was a Danish Scientist, Physician, Grammarian Steno travelled to Montpellier, where he met Martin Lister and William Croone, who introduced his work to the Royal Society. Martin Lister (c 1638 Radclive, England - February 2, 1712, Epsom) English naturalist and Physician, was William Croone ( 15 September 1633 - 12 October 1684) was an English physician and one of the original Fellows of the Royal Society The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 In Pisa he met the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who supported arts and science. Pisa is a city in Tuscany, central Italy, on the right bank of the mouth of the Arno River on the Ligurian Sea. The rulers of Tuscany have varied over time sometimes being Margraves the rulers of handfuls of border counties and sometimes the heads of the most important family Steno was invited to live in the Palazzo Vecchio, in return he had to gather a Cabinet of curiosities. The Palazzo Vecchio (IPA pronunciation vɛkio (Italian for Old Palace is the town hall of Florence, Italy For the 2002 novel by Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child see The Cabinet of Curiosities For the 2008 Jane's Addiction box set see A Cabinet of Curiosities Steno first went to Rome and met Alexander VII and Marcello Malpighi. Alexander VII may refer to Pope Alexander VII Alexander VII of Pskov Marcello Malpighi ( March 10, 1628 - September 30, 1694) was an Italian doctor who gave his name to several physiological features As a anatomist in the hospital Steno focused on the muscular system and the nature of muscle contraction. The muscular system is the anatomical system of a species that allows it to move A muscles contraction (also known as a muscle twitch or simply twitch) occurs when a Muscle fibre generates tension through the action of Actin He also became a member of Accademia del Cimento in Florence. The Accademia del Cimento (Academy of Experiment an early scientific society, was founded in Florence 1657 by students of Galileo, Evangelista Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany Like Vincenzio Viviani Steno used geometry to show that a contracting muscle changes its shape but not its volume. Vincenzo Viviani ( April 5, 1622 - September 22, 1703) was an Italian Mathematician and Scientist. Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position The volume of any solid plasma vacuum or theoretical object is how much three- Dimensional space it occupies often quantified numerically

Contributions to paleontology and geology

In October 1666 two fishermen caught a huge female shark near the town of Livorno, and Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, ordered its head to be sent to Steno. Sharks ( Superorder Selachimorpha) are a type of Fish with a full cartilaginous Skeleton and a highly streamlined body "Leghorn" redirects here For the breed of chicken see Leghorn chicken. Ferdinando II de' Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany ( 14 July 1610 &ndash 23 May 1670) ruled as Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1621 to 1670 Steno dissected the head and published his findings in 1667. Dissection (also called anatomization) is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function He noted that the shark's teeth bore a striking resemblance to certain stony objects, found embedded within rock formations, that his learned contemporaries were calling glossopetrae or "tongue stones". Shark teeth are relics of Shark Evolution and Biology. Shark skeletons are composed entirely of Cartilage. Ancient authorities, such as the Roman author Pliny the Elder, in his Naturalis Historiae, had suggested that these stones fell from the sky or from the moon. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder. Others were of the opinion, also following ancient authors, that fossils naturally grew in the rocks. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Steno's contemporary Athanasius Kircher, for example, attributed fossils to a "lapidifying virtue diffused through the whole body of the geocosm", consided an inherent characteristic of the earth — an Aristotelian approach. Athanasius Kircher (sometimes erroneously spelled Kirchner) was a 17th century German Jesuit Scholar who published around 40 works most Aristotelianism is a tradition of Philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. Fabio Colonna, however, had already shown in a convincing way that glossopetrae are shark teeth^[5], in his treaty De glossopetris dissertatio published in 1616^[6]. Steno added to Colonna's theory a discussion on the differences in composition between glossopetrae and living sharks' teeth, arguing that the chemical composition of fossils could be altered without changing their form, using the contemporary corpuscular theory of matter. Corpuscularianism is the postulate expounded in a predominant manner by the thirteenth-century Italian Franciscan alchemist Geber (a name modeled on Jabir ibn Hayyan

Illustration from Steno's 1667 paper comparing the teeth of a shark head with a fossil tooth

Steno's work on shark teeth led him to the question of how any solid object could come to be found inside another solid object, such as a rock or a layer of rock. The "solid bodies within solids" that attracted Steno's interest included not only fossils, as we would define them today, but minerals, crystals, encrustations, veins, and even entire rock layers or strata. In Geology and related fields a stratum (plural strata) is a layer of rock or Soil with internally consistent characteristics that distinguishes He published his geologic studies in De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus, or Preliminary discourse to a dissertation on a solid body naturally contained within a solid in 1669. Steno was not the first to identify fossils as being from living organisms; his contemporaries Robert Hooke and John Ray also argued that fossils were the remains of once-living organisms. Robert Hooke, FRS (18 July 1635 – 3 March 1703 was an English Natural philosopher and Polymath who played an important role in the John Ray ( November 29, 1627 &ndash January 17, 1705) was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the

Steno, in his Dissertationis prodromus of 1669 is credited with three of the defining principles of the science of stratigraphy: the law of superposition: ". Stratigraphy, a branch of Geology, studies rock layers and layering ( stratification) The law of superposition (or the principle of superposition) is a key axiom based on observations of Natural history that is a foundational principle of sedimentary . . at the time when any given stratum was being formed, all the matter resting upon it was fluid, and, therefore, at the time when the lower stratum was being formed, none of the upper strata existed"; the principle of original horizontality: "Strata either perpendicular to the horizon or inclined to the horizon were at one time parallel to the horizon"; the principle of lateral continuity: "Material forming any stratum were continuous over the surface of the Earth unless some other solid bodies stood in the way"; and the principle of cross-cutting discontinuities: "If a body or discontinuity cuts across a stratum, it must have formed after that stratum. The Principle of Original Horizontality was proposed by the Danish geological pioneer Nicholas Steno (1638-1686 The principle of lateral continuity states that layers of Sediment initially extend laterally in all directions in other words they are laterally continuous "^[7] These principles were applied and extended in 1772 by Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle. Year 1772 ( MDCCLXXII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Jean-Baptiste Louis Romé de l'Isle ( August 26, 1736 &ndash July 3, 1790) was a French mineralogist considered one of the creators

Another principle, known simply as Steno's law, or Steno's law of constant angles, states that the angles between corresponding faces on crystals are the same for all specimens of the same mineral, a fundamental breakthrough that formed the basis of all subsequent inquiries into crystal structure. In Mineralogy and Crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal. ^[8]

Steno's landmark theory that the fossil record was a chronology of different living creatures in different eras was a sine qua non for Darwin's theory of natural selection.

Religious studies

Steno's questioning mindset also influenced his religious views. Having been brought up in the Lutheran faith, he nevertheless questioned its teachings, something which became a burning issue when confronted with Roman Catholicism while studying in Florence. Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany After making comparative theological studies, including reading the Church Fathers and by using his natural observational skills, he decided that Catholicism, rather than Lutheranism, provided more sustenance for his constant inquisitiveness. Steno converted to Catholicism on All Souls' Day when Lavinia Cenami Arnolfini insisted. In Western Christianity, All Souls' Day commemorates the faithful departed.

Steno travelled to Hungary, Austria and in Spring 1670 he arrived Amsterdam. There he met with old friends Jan Swammerdam, Reinier de Graaf. Jan Swammerdam ( February 12, 1637, Amsterdam - February 17, 1680) was a Dutch biologist and microscopist Regnier de Graaf ( July 30, 1641 – August 17, 1673) was a Dutch Physician and anatomist who made key discoveries With Anna Maria van Schurman and Antoinette Bourignon he discussed scientific and religious topics. Anna Maria van Schurman ( November 5, 1607 &ndash May 4 / May 14, 1678) was a Dutch poet and scholar Antoinette Bourignon de la Porte ( January 13, 1616 - October 30, 1680) was a Flemish mystic. It is not sure if he met Nicolaes Witsen, but he did read his book on shipbuilding. Nicolaas or Nicolaes Witsen ( 8 May 1641 – 10 August 1717) was a Dutch diplomat Cartographer, maritime writer and In 1671 he accepted a post in Copenhagen, but promised Cosimo III de' Medici he would return when he would be appointed as the tutor of Ferdinando III de' Medici. Cosimo III de' Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany (14 August 1642 &ndash 31 October 1723 was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1670 to 1723 and husband of Marguerite Louise d'Orléans Ferdinando de' Medici (August 9 1663 &ndash October 31 1713 was Grand Prince of Tuscany In 1675 Steno was back in Florence and ordained a priest. Athanasius Kircher expressly inquired to the reason. Athanasius Kircher (sometimes erroneously spelled Kirchner) was a 17th century German Jesuit Scholar who published around 40 works most Steno had left science and became one of the leading figures in the Counter-Reformation. The Counter-Reformation (also Catholic Reformation denotes the period of Catholic revival from the pontificate of Pope Pius IV in 1560 to the close of the In the year after he was made bishop, and probably involved in banning the publications by Spinoza. Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, ^[9] He came on a mission in Lutheran North on an invitation by John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg. John Frederick ( German: Johann Friedrich 25 April 1625, Herzberg am Harz &ndash 18 December 1679, Augsburg There he regularly had talks with Gottfried Leibniz, the librarian; the two argued about Spinoza and his letter to Albert Burgh, then Steno's pupil. Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, Albert Coenraadsz Burgh (1593 &ndash December 24 1647 was a Dutch physician who was mayor of Amsterdam and a councillor in the Admiralty of Amsterdam ^[10] Leibniz recommended a reunification of the churches. Steno worked from the city of Hannover until 1680. Hanover (i ( haˈnoːfɐ on the river Leine, is the capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony ( Niedersachsen Steno accepted a position in Münster while the new prince-elector Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover was a Protestant. Münster ( is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located in the northern part of the state and is considered to be the cultural centre of the The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl Ernest Augustus ( German: Ernst August; Latin: Ernestus Augustus; 20 November 1629 – 23 January 1698 Earlier his wife Sophia of Hanover had made fun of Steno's piousness. Electress Sophia of Hanover (born Sophia Countess Palatine of Simmern; 14 October 1630 – 8 June 1714) was the youngest daughter He sold his bishop's ring and cross to help the needy.

In 1684 Steno moved to Hamburg, after an argument about un-churchlike character of the election of the new bishop, c. Hamburg (English, German: ˈhambʊɐk local pronunciation Low German / Low Saxon: Hamborg) is the second-largest city in Germany q. Maximilian Henry of Bavaria. Maximilian Heinrich of Bavaria ( October 8 1621 - June 3 1688) was the third son and fourth child of Albert VI, landgrave of There he became involved anew in the brain and the nerve system by an old friend Dirck Kerckring. Theodor Kerckring or Dirk Kerckring (sometimes Kerckeringh or Kerckerinck (baptized 22 July 1638 - 2 November 1693) was a Dutch Steno was invited to Schwerin, when it became clear he was not accepted in Hamburg. Steno dressed like a poor man in an old cloak. He drove in an open carriage in snow and rain. Living four days a week on bread on beer he became emaciated. ^[11] When Steno had fulfilled his mission, years with difficult tasks, he wanted go back to Italy. Before he could return Steno became severely ill with his belly swelling daily. Steno died at Schwerin in 1686 after days of suffering. Schwerin (ʃveˈʁiːn is a City in northern Germany and the capital of the state His corpse was shipped by Kerckring to Florence and buried in the Basilica of San Lorenzo close to his protectors, the De' Medici family. The Basilica di San Lorenzo ( Basilica of St Lawrence) is one of the largest churches of Florence, Italy, situated at the centre of the city’s

Legacy

Steno's life and work has been studied, in particular in relation to the developments in geology in the late nineteenth century. His piety and virtue have been especially evaluated with a view to an eventual canonization. Canonization is the act by which a particular Christian church declares a deceased person to be a Saint and is included in the canon or list of recognized saints In 1953 his corpse was exhumed, and reburied in the Capella Stenoniana, but without the missing skull. Burial, also called interment and inhumation, is the act of placing a person or object into the ground The Italian state donated a fourth-century Christian sarcophagus that had been found in the river Arno. In 1987, he was declared "beatus" - the first step to being declared a saint - by Pope John Paul II. Beatification (from Latin beatus, blessed via Greek μακάριος makarios) is a recognition accorded by the Catholic church A saint (from the Latin sanctus) is a human being to whom has been attributed (and who has generally demonstrated a high level of Holiness and Sanctity Pope He is thus now called by Catholics Blessed Nicolas Steno.

• The Steno Museum in Århus, Denmark, named after Nicolas Steno, holds exhibitions on the history of science and medicine. Geography The city lies roughly at the geographical centre of Denmark on the peninsula of The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe ^[12] It also operates a planetarium and a medicinal herb garden. A planetarium is a Theatre built primarily for presenting educational and entertaining shows about Astronomy and the night sky or for training in Celestial navigation
• Impact craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honor. In the broadest sense the term impact crater can be applied to any depression natural or manmade resulting from the high velocity impact of a projectile with larger body
• In 1950 the "Niels Steensens Gymnasium", the only Catholic gymnasium in Scandinavia, was founded on a Jesuit monastery in Copenhagen. Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order

Notes

Major works

• Anatomical Observations (1662)
• Concerning Solids naturally contained within solids (1669)
• Elementary Mylogical Specimens (1669)
• Discours de Monsieur Stenon sur L'Anatomie du Cerveau ("M. Steno's lecture on the anatomy of the brain", Paris 1669)

References

• The Seashell on the Mountaintop: A Story of Science, Sainthood, and the Humble Genius Who Discovered a New History of the Earth by Alan Cutler, 2003 ISBN 0-525-94708-6
• Blessed Nicholas Steno (1638-1686). Natural-History Research and Science of the Cross by Frank Sobiech, in: Australian EJournal of Theology, August 2005, Issue 5, ISSN 1448-632 (http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/ejournal/aejt_5/Sobiech.htm)
• Steno article at UC Berkeley
• Niels Stensen

External links

• Catholic apppointments
•   "Nicolaus Steno". Catholic Encyclopedia. The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language Encyclopedia published by The Encyclopedia (1913). New York: Robert Appleton Company.  
• Niels Stensen (in German)
• The principles of Niels Stensen
• Website on Niels Stensen
• The Danish Embassy on Steensen
• Stenos memories in Florence