New Zealand English (NZE) is the form of the English language used in New Zealand. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island
New Zealand English is close to Australian English in pronunciation, but has several subtle differences often overlooked by people from outside these countries. Australian English ( AuE, AusE, en-AU) is the form of the English language used in Australia. Some of these differences show New Zealand English to have more affinity with the English of southern England than Australian English does. English language in England refers to the English language as spoken in England, part of the United Kingdom. Several of the differences also show the influence of Māori speech. The most striking difference from Australian and other forms of English (although shared partly with South African English) is the flattened i of New Zealand English. South African English ( SAE, en-ZA) is a Dialect of English spoken in South Africa and in neighbouring countries with a large number The New Zealand accent also has some Scottish influences, particularly in the southern regions of the South Island — a result of the large number of early Scottish settlers who arrived in the 19th century. The Scots people ( Scots Gaelic: Albannaich) are a Nation and an Ethnic group indigenous to Scotland.
Pronunciation
- For a basic key to the IPA, see Help:IPA.
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Historical development
A distinct New Zealand variant of the English language has been in existence since at least 1912, when Frank Swinnerton described it as a "carefully modulated murmur," though it probably goes back further than that. In Phonetics, a vowel is a Sound in spoken Language, such as English ah! or oh!, pronounced with an open Vocal tract In Phonetics, a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (from Greek grc δίφθογγος "diphthongos" literally "with two sounds" or "with Frank Arthur Swinnerton (1884 - 1982 was an English critic and Novelist. From the beginning of British settlement on the islands, a new dialect began to form by adopting Māori words to describe the flora and fauna of New Zealand, for which English did not have any words of its own. [1]
Spelling
Where there is a distinct difference between British and US spelling (such as colour/color and travelled/traveled), the British spelling is universally found in New Zealand - New Zealand English sticks very closely to British English in spelling. Some Americanisms have begun to creep in through their exposure in mass media (such as "thru" for "through" in very informal contexts like texting and on take-away signs), though these spellings are non-standard. Similarly, the British standard name for the last letter of the alphabet, zed, is standard within New Zealand.
Fiord
New Zealand is perhaps unique among English-speaking countries in its spelling of the word fjord, favouring the spelling fiord. A fjord or fiord (fjɔːd|fiːɔːd or fiːɔːd is a long narrow Inlet with steep sides created in a valley carved by glacial activity. This is particularly apparent in the name of Fiordland, a rugged region in the country's southwest. Fiordland is a geographic region of New Zealand that is situated on the south-western corner of the South Island.
Māori influence
Many local everyday words have been borrowed from the Māori language, including words for local flora, fauna, and the natural environment. Many Loanwords from the Māori language, mainly bird plant fish and place names entered New Zealand English in the 19th century but the flow stopped abruptly around In Botany, flora ( Plural: floras or florae has two meanings The first meaning flora of an area or of time period, refers to all Fauna is all of the Animal life of any particular region or time See Māori influence on New Zealand English. Many Loanwords from the Māori language, mainly bird plant fish and place names entered New Zealand English in the 19th century but the flow stopped abruptly around
The dominant influence of Māori on New Zealand English is lexical. A 1999 estimate based on the Wellington corpora of written and spoken New Zealand English put the proportion of words of Māori origin at approximately 0. 6%, mostly place and personal names.
Māori is also ever-present and has a significant conceptual influence in the legislature, government, and community agencies (e. g. health and education), where legislation requires that proceedings and documents are translated into Māori (under certain circumstances, and when requested). Political discussion and analysis of issues of sovereignty, environmental management, health, and social well being thus rely on Māori at least in part. Māori as a spoken language is particularly important wherever community consultation occurs.
Pronunciation of Māori place names
Many Māori place names suffered from an ungainly Anglicisation for most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but since the 1980s, increased consciousness of Māori has led to a shift back to correct pronunciations. Anglicisation or anglicization (see -ise vs -ize) is a process of conversion of verbal or written elements of any other language into a more comprehensible English The Anglicisations have persisted most among natives of the towns in question, so it has become something of a shibboleth, with correct pronunciation marking someone as non-local. Shibboleth (ˈʃɪbəlɛθ or ˈʃɪbələθ is any practice which is indicative of one's social or regional origin
As with many languages only recently written using the Roman/Latin alphabet, the pronunciation of Māori uses Italian (Latin) phonetics. 'a' is pronounced ah, 'i' is pronounced 'ee', etc. 'r' is tapped, similar to the softened 'd' in "shuddup" or "siddown" or "ta-dah!!". Māori spelling therefore has a nearly perfect one-to-one letter-to-phoneme correspondence.
| Taumarunui | taum-ranui | tau-ma-ru-nu-i |
| Paraparaumu | para-pram or pa-ram | pa-ra-pa-ra-u-mu |
| Pauatahanui | part-a-noo-ee | pau-a-ta-ha-nu-i |
| Oakura | oa-kra | o-a-ku-ra |
| Hawera | hara | ha-we-ra |
| Te Awamutu | tee-awa-moot or tee-a-mootu | te-a-wa-mu-tu |
| Waikouaiti | wacker-wite or weka-what | wai-kou-a-i-ti |
| Katikati | Kati-kat | ka-ti-ka-ti |
| Otorohanga | Oh-tra-hung-a or Oh-tra-hong-a | o-to-ra-ha-nga |
| Papatoetoe | Papp-a-toh-e | pa-pa-to-e-to-e |
| Piopio | Pew-pew | pi-o-pi-o |
To further confuse matters, many southern Māori words, which have a distinctive pronunciation that differs from standard Māori (one example being Mount Cook, which is Aorangi in standard Māori but Aoraki in southern Māori), are frequently mistaken for Anglicisations and "corrected". These include the pronunciation of Oamaru as Om-a-roo and of Kawarau as Ka-warra.
A mixture of southern Māori speech patterns and Anglicisation leads to a third trend, the removal of the final vowel of place names, or the reduction of final vowels to a schwa. This is particularly common in the southern South Island. This pattern also results in local shibboleths, and result in pronunciations such as Wakatip for Lake Wakatipu, and o-taag-uh for Otago.
New Zealand English vocabulary
There are also a number of dialectical words and phrases used in New Zealand English, although most of these are regarded as very informal, and are far more common in speech than writing.
Differences from British English
Front vowels and the flattened 'i'
A vowel shift has occurred in New Zealand English. Phonemic differentiation is the phenomenon of a Language maximizing the acoustic distance between its Phonemes presumably to minimize the possibility of misunderstanding A vowel shift is a systematic Sound change in the Pronunciation of the Vowel sounds of a Language. Front vowels, with one exception, are pronounced higher in the mouth than in England English. RP /ɪ/, the unrounded near-close near-front lax vowel, has moved to [ə] (schwa). In Linguistics, specifically Phonetics and Phonology, schwa can mean the following An unstressed and toneless neutral Some non-NZ speakers mistakenly assert that, when New Zealanders say "fish and chips" they say "fush and chups". This may be asserted because of the lack of a letter for schwa. In the list below, the latter word is how the former word may sound to the ears of a non-New Zealander:
- pan → pen
- pen → pin
- pin → pun
- pair → peer
As always, when discussing accent differences, others may misinterpret the speech of New Zealanders because they pronounce their vowels differently due to their accent.
Additional schwa
As in Australian English, some New Zealanders will insert the schwa to words such as grown, thrown and mown, resulting in grow-en, throw-en and mo-wen. In Linguistics, specifically Phonetics and Phonology, schwa can mean the following An unstressed and toneless neutral However, groan, throne and moan are all unaffected, meaning these word pairs can be distinguished by ear, unlike in English English. English language in England refers to the English language as spoken in England, part of the United Kingdom. This characteristic may be inherited from Lincolnshire English (although it is also a feature of Mackem (Sunderland) English). Mackem is a term that refers to the accent dialect and people of the Wearside area or more specifically Sunderland, a city in North East England.
This has also been heard (rarely) in the pronunciation of the word three, where the schwa appears between the 'th' and the 'r', creating a two-syllable word, and in words such as dwarf and Dwane/Duane where the schwa appears between the 'd' and the 'w' (or 'u'), leading to puns like "Duosyllablic Duane".
Distinction between /eə/ and /ɪə/
In thicker New Zealand accents, words like "chair" and "cheer", (IPA: /tʃeə/, /tʃɪə/) are pronounced the same way (/tʃɪə/, that is the same way as "cheer" in British or Australian English). The same occurs with "share" and "shear" (both pronounced /ʃɪə/); bear, bare and beer; spare and spear. This pronunciation is not universal as some New Zealanders do distinguish these words. Lack of distinction is somewhat stigmatised.
Younger speakers tend to merge toward /ɪə/, while middle-aged speakers tend to merge toward /eə/. This merging has been seen in some other varieties of English, but notably not in Australian English.
Lack of distinction between ferry and fairy
For many speakers of New Zealand English, the vowel in ferry is raised and becomes indistinguishable from fairy. The vowel length distinction, however, is usually retained.
Use of mixed vowels
The common New Zealand pronunciation of the trans- prefix rhymes with "ants" and is likely to be a result of northern English dialects, or (less likely) American English influence. This produces mixed pronunciation of the as in words like "transplant" whereas in northern (but not southern) British English the same vowel is used in both syllables.
Rising inflection
New Zealanders will often reply to a question with a statement spoken with a rising inflection on the last couple of words (known in linguistics as a high rising terminal). The High Rising Terminal (HRT also known as uptalk, upspeak or High Rising Intonation (HRI, is a feature of some accents of English where This often has the effect of making their statement sound like another question. There is enough awareness of this that it is seen in exaggerated form in comedy parody of working class/uneducated New Zealanders. This rising inflection can also be heard at the end of statements, which are not in response to a question but to which the speaker wishes to add emphasis. High rising terminals are also heard in various other regional forms of English.
Use of she as third person neuter
In informal speech, some New Zealanders use the third person feminine she in place of the third person neuter it as the subject of a sentence, especially when the subject is the first word of the sentence. The most common use of this is in the phrase "She'll be right" meaning either "It will be okay" or "It is close enough to what is required". This is similar to Australian English.
Differences from Australian English
Although foreigners can find it hard to distinguish the New Zealand dialect from the Australian, there are differences in the pronunciation of vowel sounds, which are considerably more clipped in New Zealand English. (Speakers of Canadian English, similarly, are easily mistaken for Americans, and vice versa, by non-North Americans. Canadian English ( CanE, en-CA) is the variety of English used in Canada. )
The main distinguishing sounds are the short 'i' and 'e', as well as words like "chance", as described below.
Short 'i'
The short 'i' in New Zealand English is pronounced as a schwa /ə/. In Linguistics, specifically Phonetics and Phonology, schwa can mean the following An unstressed and toneless neutral In Australian English, the short 'u' is often thought to be the vowel closest to the New Zealand pronunciation. So Australians frequently joke about New Zealanders having "fush and chups" instead of "fish and chips". Fish and chips (sometimes written " fish ’n’ chips " is a popular Take-away food originating from the United Kingdom. However, it is really closer to an almost dropped vowel, so it is more like "f'sh and ch'ps".
Conversely, the closest sound in New Zealand English to the Australian short 'i' /ɪ/ is 'ee' /i/, so New Zealanders may hear Australians talking about the "Seedney Harbour Breedge". } The Sydney Harbour Bridge is a Steel arch bridge across Sydney Harbour that carries rail vehicular and pedestrian traffic between the Sydney central business The 'i' in Australian English is lengthened relative to England English, possibly because of the influence of Italian immigrants. Therefore, New Zealanders frequently joke about Australians having "feesh and cheeps". Documentary films from the first half of the 20th century featuring both Australian and New Zealand voices show that the accents were more similar before the second world war and diverged mostly after the 1950s.
Recent linguistic research has suggested that the short, flat 'i' heard in New Zealand comes from dialects of English spoken by lower-class English people in the late nineteenth century, though why it persisted in New Zealand while disappearing from Australia is not known. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar It is, however, also encountered in Scottish English, and given the relatively higher level of Scottish emigration to New Zealand than Australia, this may also be an influence. Scottish English is the variety of English spoken in Scotland, also called Scottish Standard English. The pronunciation of English vowels by native Māori speakers may also have influenced the New Zealand accent. There is a Māori/Polynesian accent distinct from the accent of native English speakers.
Short 'e'
The short 'e' in New Zealand English has moved to fill in the space left by 'i', and sounds like a short 'i' itself to other English speakers. For example, you may hear New Zealanders talk about having "iggs for brickfast" or hear an airline attendant asking to "kollikt your hid-sits" (collect your head-sets).
Chance, dance, prance, advance etc.
The New Zealand pronunciation of words like "dance" typically uses the same vowel sound as the "a" in "car", that is, /daːns/, resembling the broad A of southern British English. Trap-bath split The trap-bath split is a vowel split that occurs mainly in southern varieties of English English (including Received Pronunciation British English or UK English ( BrE, BE, en-GB) is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the In Australia, a pronunciation similar to the North American /dæns/ is common in many areas. However, /dæns/ is not universal in Australia, and /dæns/ pronunciation is found in Southland (Bartlett 1992). Australian English is a non-rhotic variety of English spoken by most native-born Australians Southland (Murihiku is the name of New Zealand 's southernmost region and is also the name of a district within that region
Fool, pool, etc.
Less known than dance/chance, but more diagnostic, is the pronunciation of /u/ followed by /-l/, as in fool and pool. /u/ is usually centralised, but is moved back and lowered, so that the vowel sounds more like "good" /ʊ/. Thus "fool" and "pool" sound like "full" and "pull" respectively. In contrast, Australian English retains the central position, and often adds a diphthong /əʉ/.
Bird, nurse, etc.
Another diagnostic pronunciation difference in /ɜ/ (e. g. , bird and nurse). In New Zealand, it is fronted and slightly round /ɵ/, whereas in Australia it is further back.
Schwa in unstressed syllables
New Zealanders tend to be more likely to turn a vowel in an unstressed syllable into a schwa, although this is far from a universal trait. A clear example of this trait is shown in the pronunciation of Queensland, which in IPA terms would be /'kwinzlənd/ to a New Zealander (rhyming with "seasoned"), but /'kwinzˌlænd/ to an Australian (rhyming with "freehand"). However, both pronunciations occur within New Zealand and also Australia.
Letter 'h'
Pronunciation of the name of the letter 'h' is usually /eɪtʃ/, as in Great Britain and North America, but can be the aspirated /heɪtʃ/ of Hiberno-English origin found in Australian English. Hiberno-English also known as Anglo-Irish and Irish English is English as spoken in Ireland, partly the result of the interaction of the English Australian English ( AuE, AusE, en-AU) is the form of the English language used in Australia.
Letter 'l'
Pronunciation of the letter 'l' at the end of a word such as kill, is sometimes voiced as a 'w'.
This is further found in provincial cities and towns. Some speakers will not differentiate the sound of the word 'bill' from 'bull', and both will have the final 'l' sound changed to a 'w'. Even words such as 'build' will be affected and will sound like 'buwd'. A common use of this is the word 'milk' usually said 'muwk' (rhyming with 'bull(k)' to a speaker outside of New Zealand). Although this varies greatly in different areas and between different socio-economic groups within New Zealand itself. Socioeconomics or socio-economics is the study of the relationship between economic activity and Social life.
Vocabulary differences
Other differences in the dialects relate to words used to refer to common items, often based on which major brands become eponyms:
| NZ | Australia | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Cellphone / mobile / mobile phone (cell)/phone(mobile) | Mobile phone (mobile) |
A portable telephone. A genericized trademark (also known as a generic trademark or proprietary eponym) is a Trademark or Brand name that has become the colloquial |
| Chilly bin | Esky | Insulated container for keeping drinks and food cool. Esky is an Australian brand of Coolers manufactured by Nylex The name is a reference to the association of Eskimos with cold climates |
| Dairy | Milk bar Delicatessen convenience store Deli |
Equivalent to convenience store, although the term usage is becoming rarer. A dairy is a facility for the extraction and processing of animal Milk &mdashmostly from goats or cows, but also from buffalo, Sheep Milk bar is a term in some parts of Australia for Suburban local shops or General stores They are known as Delicatessens or delis in Delicatessen is a term meaning "delicacies" or "fine foods" A convenience store is a small store or shop. They are often located alongside busy roads or at gas/petrol stations. A convenience store is a small store or shop. They are often located alongside busy roads or at gas/petrol stations. In larger cities convenience store or superette are used due to immigration. A convenience store is a small store or shop. They are often located alongside busy roads or at gas/petrol stations. The Superette is a compact food market which often services persons in low density suburbs Note that the term delicatessen is used in New Zealand for a somewhat different purpose, referring to a shop or a section of a supermarket serving specialist foods such as salamis, fine cheeses, and the like (just as it is in most states of Australia). |
| Domain, field | Oval, paddock | An area normally used for recreational purposes, usually grass/earth. |
| Duvet | Doona | A padded quilt. A duvet (duːˈveɪ from the French duvet "down" dyˈvɛ (or continental quilt or doona) is a type of Bedding — |
| Jandals | Thongs | Backless sandals (otherwise known as "flip-flops" or "Japanese sandals"). In Footwear and Fashion, flip-flops (also known as thongs, jandals, slippers, or pluggers) are a flat backless usually |
| Jersey | Jumper | Garment for warmth. In NZ and Australia jersey also used for top part of sports uniform (e. g. for rugby) |
| Judder bar[2] / Speed bump | bump | Humps or the like in urban or suburban roads, designed to limit the speed of traffic. A speed bump (in British English a speed hump, road hump or sleeping policeman) is a velocity-reducing feature of road design to Speed is the rate of motion, or equivalently the rate of change in position often expressed as Distance d traveled per unit of Speed bump a common term in both New Zealand and Australia |
| No exit | No through road | A road with a dead end; a cul-de-sac. |
| Private bag | Locked bag (also "private mail bag") |
Special mail delivery for large organisations. |
| Oil skin / Swanndri | Driza-Bone Oil skin (also "oil skin parka") |
Country raincoat. Swanndri is a trade name for a range of popular New Zealand outdoor Clothing. Driza-Bone, originating from the phrase "dry as a bone" is a trade name for the company making full-length waterproof riding coats and apparel |
| Togs |
Bathers Swimmers Cozzies Togsa |
Swimwear (see Australian words for swimwear) |
| Trolley Trundler |
Shopping trolley | A device, usually four-wheeled, for transporting shopping within supermarket precincts. A swimsuit, bathing suit or swimming costume is an item of Clothing designed to be worn for Swimming. Spoken Australian English is thought to be highly colloquial, possibly more so than other spoken variants A shopping cart (also called a trolley in British, Australian English, and New Zealand English; sometimes referred to as a carriage |
| Trundler | Shopping jeep/granny trolley | A two-wheeled device for transporting shopping from local shops (now rarely seen). |
| Tramp | Bush walk | Bush-walking or hiking. |
| Twink | White-Out | Correction fluid. A correction fluid is an opaque white fluid applied to paper to mask errors in text |
| Vivid Felts Sharpies |
Texta | A permanent marker pen. |
| a Used mainly in Queensland and northern New South Wales. Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern corner of the mainland continent | ||
In New Zealand, the word "milk bar" refers only to the milk bar of the 1950s and 1960s, a place that served non-alcoholic drinks, primarily milkshakes, tea and sometimes coffee. The 1950s Decade refers to the years of 1950 to 1959 inclusive The 1960s decade refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969 Ice creams were also served.
A traditional difference, between the New Zealand "varsity" and the Australian "uni" (for "university"), is rapidly disappearing with the adoption of "uni" into New Zealand vocabulary. A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects
Dialects within New Zealand English
Most Kiwis speak New Zealand English "as she is spoke": geographical variations appear slight and mainly confined to individual special local words.
However, one group of speakers is recognised as having a distinct way of talking: the south of the South Island (Murihiku) harbours a "Celtic fringe" of people speaking with a "Southland burr" in which a trilled 'r' appears prominently. Southland (Murihiku is the name of New Zealand 's southernmost region and is also the name of a district within that region This dialect is also rhotic; that is, speakers pronounce the 'r' in "bird", "work" as the 'r' sound is said at the beginning of a word, and so on, while other New Zealanders do not. English pronunciation is divided into two main accent groups the rhotic (ˈroʊtɪk and non-rhotic, depending on when the sound typically represented This southern area formed a traditional repository of immigration from Scotland. Several words and phrases common in Scots or Scottish English still persist in this area as well. Scots ( The Scots leid) refers to Anglic varieties derived from early northern Middle English spoken in parts of Scotland and Northern Scottish English is the variety of English spoken in Scotland, also called Scottish Standard English. Some examples of this include the use of wee to mean "small", and phrases such as to do the messages meaning "to go shopping". Many of the region's place names also reflect their Scottish origin; such as those of the region's two main cities (Invercargill and Dunedin) which both have Scots Gaelic origins. Invercargill ( Waihōpai in Māori) is the southernmost and westernmost city in New Zealand, and one of the southernmost cities in the world Dunedin (dəˈneɪdɪn) Ōtepoti in Maori is the second-largest city in the South Island of New Zealand, and the principal city of the region of Scottish Gaelic ( Gàidhlig) is a member of the Goidelic branch of Celtic languages.
The trilled 'r' is also used by some Māori speakers, who may also pronounce 't' and 'k' sounds almost as 'd' and 'g', especially in the south of the country (see Māori language for more details). This is also encountered in South African English, especially among Afrikaans speakers. South African English ( SAE, en-ZA) is a Dialect of English spoken in South Africa and in neighbouring countries with a large number Afrikaans is an Indo-European language, derived from 17th century Dutch and classified as Low Franconian Germanic, mainly spoken in The Māori 'r', though, is more like a short 'd'.
Some speakers from the West Coast of the South Island retain a half Australian accent from the region's 19th century gold rush settlers. Naming To New Zealanders the term 'The Coast' generally refers to the West Coast of the South Island, and 'Coasters' to those that live there
Dictionaries of New Zealand English
The first comprehensive dictionary dedicated to New Zealand English was probably the Heinemann New Zealand dictionary, published in 1979. Edited by Harry Orsman, it is a comprehensive 1,300-page book, with information relating to the usage and pronunciation of terms that were both widely accepted throughout the English-speaking world and those peculiar to New Zealand. It includes a one-page list of the approximate date of entry into common parlance of many terms found in New Zealand English but not elsewhere, such as "haka" (1827), "Boohai" (1920), and "bach" (1905).
In 1997, Oxford University Press produced the Dictionary of New Zealand English, which it claimed was based on over forty years of research. This research started with Orsman's 1951 thesis and continued with his editing this dictionary. To assist with and maintain this work, the New Zealand Dictionary Centre was founded in 1997. Since then it has published several more dictionaries of New Zealand English, culminating in the publication of The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary in 2004.
A more light-hearted look at English as spoken in New Zealand, A personal Kiwi-Yankee dictionary, was written by American-born University of Otago psychology lecturer Louis Leland in 1980. The University of Otago ( Te Whare Wānanga o Otāgo) in Dunedin is New Zealand 's oldest university with over 20000 students enrolled during This slim but entertaining volume lists many of the potentially confusing and/or misleading terms for Americans visiting or migrating to New Zealand. A second edition was published during the 1990s.
See also
- Australian English
- Culture of New Zealand
- Māori influence on New Zealand English
- New Zealand humour
- Regional accents of English speakers
Notes
- ^ The Story of English by Robert McCrum, William Cran, and Robert MacNeil. Australian English ( AuE, AusE, en-AU) is the form of the English language used in Australia. The culture of New Zealand is a synthesis of home-grown and imported cultures Many Loanwords from the Māori language, mainly bird plant fish and place names entered New Zealand English in the 19th century but the flow stopped abruptly around New Zealand humour bears some similarities to the body of humour of many other English-speaking countries The regional accents of English speakers show great variation across the areas where English is spoken as a first language BBC Publications and Faber and Faber: London, 1986.
- ^ WordWeb online
References
- Bartlett, Christopher. (1992). Regional variation in New Zealand English: the case of Southland. New Zealand English Newsletter 6: 5-15.
- Bauer, L. ; Warran, P. & Bardsley, D. et al. (2007), "New Zealand English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 37 (1): 97–102.
- Cryer, Max. (2002). Curious Kiwi Words. Auckland, NZ: HarperCollinsPublishers (NZ) Ltd.
- Deverson, Tony and Graeme Kennedy (eds. ) (2005). The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
- Grant, L. E. , and Devlin, G. A. (eds. ) (1999). In other words: A dictionary of expressions used in New Zealand. Palmerston North, NZ: Dunmore Press.
- Leland, Louis S. , jr. (1980). A personal Kiwi-Yankee dictionary. Dunedin, NZ: John McIndoe Ltd.
- Orsman, H. W. , (ed. ) (1997). The Dictionary of New Zealand English: a dictionary of New Zealandisms on historical principles. Auckland: Oxford University Press.
- Orsman, H. W. , (ed. ) (1979). Heinemann New Zealand dictionary. Auckland, NZ: Heinemann Educational Books (NZ) Ltd.
External links
- Origins of New Zealand English
- The Origins of New Zealand English Project at the University of Canterbury
- New Zealand Dictionary Centre
- Kiwi Words & Phrases
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