Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Neurons (ˈnjuːɹɒn also known as neurones and nerve cells) are responsive cells in the Nervous system that process and transmit information The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called [1] According to the prevailing beliefs of the 1960s, a chemical can be classified as a neurotransmitter if it meets the following conditions:
- There are precursors and/or synthesis enzymes located in the presynaptic side of the synapse;
- The chemical is present in the presynaptic element
- It is available in sufficient quantity in the presynaptic neuron to affect the postsynaptic neuron;
- There are postsynaptic receptors and the chemical is able to bind to them
- A biochemical mechanism for inactivation is present. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands In Biochemistry, a receptor is a Protein molecule embedded in either the Plasma membrane or Cytoplasm of a cell to which a mobile signaling Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as
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Types of neurotransmitters
There are many different ways to classify neurotransmitters. Dividing them into amino acids, peptides, and monoamines is sufficient for many purposes. In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this Peptides (from the Greek πεπτίδια, "small digestibles" are short Polymers formed from the linking in a defined order of α- Amino Monoamine neurotransmitters are Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators that contain one Amino group that is connected to an aromatic ring by a
Some more precise divisions are as follows:
- Around 10 "small-molecule neurotransmitters" are known:
- acetylcholine (Ach)
- monoamines (epinephrine (E), norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) and melatonin)
- 3 or 4 amino acids, depending on exact definition used: (primarily glutamic acid, gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), aspartic acid & glycine)
- Purines, (Adenosine, ATP, GTP and their derivatives)
- Fatty acids are also receiving attention as the potential endogenous cannabinoid. In Pharmacology, a small molecule is a small Organic compound that is biologically active ( Biomolecule) but is not a Polymer. The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central Monoamine neurotransmitters are Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators that contain one Amino group that is connected to an aromatic ring by a Norepinephrine ( INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline ( BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons Melatonin is a naturally occurring Hormone found in most animals including humans and some other living organisms including Algae. Glutamic acid (abbreviated as Glu or E) is one of the 20 Alpha Amino acids It is not among the human Essential amino acids Its Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA is the chief inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the Mammalian Central nervous system. Aspartic acid (abbreviated as Asp or D; Asx or B represent either aspartic acid or Asparagine) is an α- Amino acid Glycine (abbreviated as Gly or G) is the Organic compound with the formula NH2CH2COOH Purine ( 1) is a heterocyclic Aromatic Organic compound, consisting of a Pyrimidine ring fused to an Imidazole ring Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy Guanosine-5'-triphosphate ( GTP) is a Purine Nucleotide. One role is as substrate for the synthesis of RNA during transcription. Cannabinoids ( are a group of terpeno[[phenol]]ic compounds present in Cannabis ( Cannabis sativa L
- Over 50 neuroactive peptides (vasopressin, somatostatin, neurotensin, etc. Peptides (from the Greek πεπτίδια, "small digestibles" are short Polymers formed from the linking in a defined order of α- Amino Arginine vasopressin ( AVP) also known as vasopressin, argipressin or antidiuretic hormone ( ADH) is a Hormone found in Somatostatin (also known as growth hormone inhibiting hormone ( GHIH) or somatotropin release-inhibiting factor ( SRIF) is a Peptide hormone Neurotensin is a 13 Amino acid Neuropeptide that is implicated in the regulation of Luteinizing hormone and Prolactin release and has significant ) have been found, among them hormones such as Luteinizing hormone (LH) or insulin that have specific local actions in addition to their long-range signalling properties. Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body Luteinizing hormone ( LH, also known as lutropin) is a Hormone produced by the Anterior pituitary gland. Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance
- Histamine
- Single ions, such as synaptically released zinc, are also considered neurotransmitters by some. Histamine is a Biogenic amine involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a Neurotransmitter An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30
- Gaseous, including nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO)
The major "workhorse" neurotransmitters of the brain are glutamic acid and GABA. Nitric oxide or nitrogen monoxide is a Chemical compound with Chemical formula N[[Oxygen O]] Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO is a colorless odorless tasteless yet highly toxic Gas. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain Glutamic acid (abbreviated as Glu or E) is one of the 20 Alpha Amino acids It is not among the human Essential amino acids Its Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA is the chief inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the Mammalian Central nervous system.
Excitatory and inhibitory
Release of excitory neurotransmitters from the presynaptic membrane opens channels in the postsynaptic membrane and leads to an increase in the concentration of sodium ions within the postsynaptic cell and a decrease in that of potassium ions. In Chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance Sodium (ˈsoʊdiəm is an element which has the symbol Na( Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) atomic number 11 atomic mass 22 Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 This leads to a 'depolarisation' of the postsynaptic cell, which is propagated further along the cell membrane by an action potential. In biology depolarization is a decrease in the Absolute value of a cell's Membrane potential. In Neurophysiology, the action potential is a self-regenerating Wave of Electrochemical activity that allows Nerve cells to carry a signal
Inhibitory neurotrasmitters encourage the hyperpolarisation of the postsynaptic cell, making it less likely to generate an action potential. Hyperpolarization any change in a cell's Membrane potential that makes it more polarized
Whether a neurotransmitter acts in an excitatory or inhibitory manner is determined by the reaction of the receptor to its binding. Thus a given chemical can be excitatory at some receptors and inhibitory at others.
Actions
Some examples of neurotransmitter action:
- Acetylcholine - voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles (via the sympathetic pathways) and movement of the viscera (via the parasympathetic pathways)
- Norepinephrine - wakefulness or arousal - via the sympathetic pathways
- Epinephrine - similar to nor-epinephrine. The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central The Sympathetic Nervous System ( SNS) is a branch of the Autonomic nervous system along with the Enteric nervous system and Parasympathetic nervous The parasympathetic Nervous system ( PSNS) is a division of the Autonomic nervous system (ANS along with the Sympathetic nervous system Norepinephrine ( INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline ( BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a Large amounts of it are produced and are released by the adrenal glands. In Mammals the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are the triangle-shaped Endocrine glands that sit on top of the Kidneys their Also called adrenaline.
- Dopamine - voluntary movement and motivation, "wanting", pleasure, associated with addiction and love
- Serotonin - memory, emotion, wakefulness, sleep and temperature regulation
- GABA - inhibition of motor neurons
- Glycine - spinal reflexes and motor behaviour
- Neuromodulators - sensory transmission, especially pain
NB: Neurotransmitters may be specific to particular target organs and have multiple roles around the body. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours Sleep is a Natural state of bodily rest observed throughout the animal kingdom Thermoregulation is the ability of an Organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries even when temperature surrounding is very different Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA is the chief inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the Mammalian Central nervous system. In Vertebrates the term motor neuron (or motoneuron) classically applies to Neurons located in the Central nervous system (or CNS that project Glycine (abbreviated as Gly or G) is the Organic compound with the formula NH2CH2COOH Tendon reflex (or T-reflex) is a feedback mechanism that controls increasing muscle tension by causing muscle relaxation before tension force becomes so great it may damage the In neuroscience neuromodulation is the process in which several classes of Neurotransmitters in the nervous system regulate diverse populations of Neurons (one See also Sense A sensory system is a part of the Nervous system responsible for processing sensory information Pain, in the sense of physical pain, is a typical sensory experience that may be described as the unpleasant awareness of a noxious stimulus or bodily harm For instance, Acetylcholine is released from both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons. The parasympathetic Nervous system ( PSNS) is a division of the Autonomic nervous system (ANS along with the Sympathetic nervous system ACH can be either excitatory to skeletal muscle cells or inhibitory to both smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.
Neurotransmitter systems
Neurons expressing certain types of neurotransmitters sometimes form distinct systems, where activation of the system affects large volumes of the brain, called volume transmission. In neuroscience neuromodulation is the process in which several classes of Neurotransmitters in the nervous system regulate diverse populations of Neurons (one The major neurotransmitter systems are the noradrenaline (norepinephrine) system, the dopamine system, the serotonin system and the cholinergic system. Norepinephrine ( INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline ( BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons A receptor is cholinergic if it uses Acetylcholine as its Neurotransmitter.
Drugs targeting the neurotransmitter of such systems affects the whole system; this fact explains the mode of action of many drugs. Cocaine, for example, blocks the reentering of dopamine back into the presynaptic neuron, leaving these neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap longer. Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands Since the dopamine is in the synapse longer, the neurotransmitter rapidly hit the receptors on the postsynaptic neuron cell, and therefore causing happiness. Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands Excess intake of cocaine can lead to physical addiction. Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant The physical addiction of cocaine is when the neurotransmitters stay in the synapse so long , the the body removes some receptor from the postsynaptic neuron. Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands After the drug affect is done, the person usually fells unhappy, because now the neurotransmitters are less likely to hit the receptor since the body removed many of them during the drug intake. Prozac is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), hence potentiating the effect of naturally released serotonin. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( SSRIs) are a class of Antidepressants used in the treatment of depression, Anxiety disorders AMPT prevents the conversion of tyrosine to L-DOPA, the precursor to dopamine; reserpine prevents dopamine storage within vesicles; and deprenyl inhibits monoamine oxidase (MAO)-B and thus increases dopamine levels. Alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (AMPT is a drug that temporarily reduces Brain Catecholamine activity by competitively inhibiting Tyrosine hydroxylase Reserpine is an Indole Alkaloid Antipsychotic and Antihypertensive drug that has been used for the control of high blood pressure Selegiline (l-deprenyl Eldepryl Zelapar or Anipryl Veterinary) is a drug used for the treatment of early-stage Parkinson's disease, Depression
Diseases may affect specific neurotransmitter systems. For example, Parkinson's disease is at least in part related to failure of dopaminergic cells in deep-brain nuclei, for example the substantia nigra. Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease or PD) is a degenerative disorder of the Central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's The substantia nigra ( Latin for "black substance" Sömmering) or locus niger is a heterogeneous portion of the midbrain, separating Treatments potentiating the effect of dopamine precursors have been proposed and effected, with moderate success.
A brief comparison of the major neurotransmitter systems follows:
| System | Origin [2] | Effects[2] |
|---|---|---|
| Noradrenaline system | locus coeruleus |
|
| Lateral tegmental field | ||
| Dopamine system | dopamine pathways: | motor system, reward, cognition, endocrine, nausea |
| Serotonin system | caudal dorsal raphe nucleus | Increase (introversion), mood, satiety, body temperature and sleep, while decreasing nociception. The Locus ceruleus also spelled locus caeruleus or locus coeruleus (Latin for 'the blue spot' is a nucleus in the Brain stem involved with physiological The tegmentum (from Latin for "covering" is a general area within the Brainstem. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates A neural pathway is a Neural tract connecting one part of the Nervous system with another usually consisting of bundles of elongated Myelin -insulated The mesocortical pathway is a Neural pathway that connects the Ventral tegmentum to the Cerebral cortex, particularly the Frontal lobes It is The mesolimbic pathway is one of the Neural pathways in the Brain that links the Ventral tegmentum in the Midbrain to the Nucleus accumbens The nigrostriatal pathway is a Neural pathway that connects the Substantia nigra with the Striatum. The tuberoinfundibular pathway refers to a population of dopamine neurons in the Arcuate nucleus of the mediobasal Hypothalamus (the 'tuberal region' that project The motor system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that is involved to movement Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as Hormones The endocrine system is instrumental Nausea ( Latin: Nausea, Greek:, " Sea-sickness " also called wamble) is the sensation of unease and discomfort The dorsal raphe nucleus is a part of the Raphe nucleus and consists of rostral and caudal subdivisions The trait of Extraversion-Introversion is a central dimension of human personality. A mood is a relatively long lasting affective or emotional state Cholecystokinin ( CCK; from Greek chole, "bile" cysto, "sac" kinin, "move" hence move the bile-sac Core temperature, also called core body temperature, is the operating Temperature of an Organism, specifically in deep structures of the body such as the Sleep is a Natural state of bodily rest observed throughout the animal kingdom Nociception (synonym nociperception is defined as "the neural processes of encoding and processing Noxious stimuli. |
| rostral dorsal raphe nucleus | ||
| Cholinergic system | pontomesencephalotegmental complex |
|
| basal optic nucleus of Meynert | ||
| medial septal nucleus |
Common neurotransmitters
Degradation and elimination
Neurotransmitter must be broken down once it reaches the post-synaptic cell to prevent further excitatory or inhibitory signal transduction. The dorsal raphe nucleus is a part of the Raphe nucleus and consists of rostral and caudal subdivisions In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information The basal nucleus of Meynert (NBM is a group of nerve cells in the Substantia innominata of the Basal forebrain, in the lateral part of the Tuber cinereum The septal nuclei are structures in the middle anteroventral cerebrum that are composed of medium-size neurons grouped into medial lateral and posterior groups Metabotropic receptor is a subtype of membrane receptors at the surface or in vesicles of Eukaryotic cells The Ligand-gated ion channels, also referred to as LGICs, or ionotropic receptors, are a group of intrinsic transmembrane ion channels that are Aspartic acid (abbreviated as Asp or D; Asx or B represent either aspartic acid or Asparagine) is an α- Amino acid A neuropeptide is any of the variety of Peptides found in Neural tissue; e The metabotropic glutamate receptors, or mGluR s are a type of Glutamate receptor which are active through an indirect metabotropic process Glutamic acid (abbreviated as Glu or E) is one of the 20 Alpha Amino acids It is not among the human Essential amino acids Its The metabotropic glutamate receptors, or mGluR s are a type of Glutamate receptor which are active through an indirect metabotropic process The NMDA receptor ( NMDAR) is an Ionotropic receptor for Glutamate ( NMDA ( N -methyl D -aspartate is a name of its selective Kainate receptors, or KARs, are non- NMDA Ionotropic receptors which respond to the neurotransmitter Glutamate. The alpha- a mino-3-hydroxy-5- m ethyl-4-isoxazole' p' ropionic a cid receptor (also known as AMPA receptor Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA is the chief inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the Mammalian Central nervous system. GABAB receptors (GABABR are Metabotropic Transmembrane receptors for Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA that are linked via G-proteins The GABAA receptor is one of two ligand-gated Ion channels responsible for mediating the effects of Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA the major The GABAC receptor is one of two Ligand-gated ion channels responsible for mediating the effects of Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid ( GABA) the major inhibitory Glycine (abbreviated as Gly or G) is the Organic compound with the formula NH2CH2COOH The glycine receptor, or GlyR, is the receptor for the Amino acid Neurotransmitter Glycine. The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central Muscarinic receptors, or mAChRs, are Acetylcholine receptors that form Metabotropic Ion channels in the Plasma membranes of certain Structure Nicotinic receptors with a molecular mass of 290 kDa, are made up of five subunits arranged symmetrically around the central pore. Phe redirects here For the BitTorrent feature see PHE. For the constellation see Phoenix (constellation. Tyrosine (abbreviated as Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 Amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Dopamine receptors are a class of metabotropic G protein-coupled receptors that are prominent in the Vertebrate Central nervous system (CNS Phe redirects here For the BitTorrent feature see PHE. For the constellation see Phoenix (constellation. Tyrosine (abbreviated as Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 Amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize Norepinephrine ( INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline ( BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a Phe redirects here For the BitTorrent feature see PHE. For the constellation see Phoenix (constellation. Tyrosine (abbreviated as Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 Amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize Phe redirects here For the BitTorrent feature see PHE. For the constellation see Phoenix (constellation. Tyrosine (abbreviated as Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 Amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize Octopamine is a Biogenic amine which is closely related to Noradrenaline, and has Noradrenergic and Dopaminergic effects Phe redirects here For the BitTorrent feature see PHE. For the constellation see Phoenix (constellation. Tyrosine (abbreviated as Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 Amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize In organic Chemistry tyramine (4-hydroxy- Phenethylamine, para-tyramine p-tyramine is a Monoamine compound derived from the Tryptophan (abbreviated as Trp or W) is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an Essential amino acid in the Human diet Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons In the field of Neurochemistry, 5-HT receptors are receptors for the Neurotransmitter and peripheral signal mediator Serotonin, also The 5-HT3 receptor is a member of the superfamily of Ligand-gated ion channels a superfamily that also includes the neuronal Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors Tryptophan (abbreviated as Trp or W) is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an Essential amino acid in the Human diet Melatonin is a naturally occurring Hormone found in most animals including humans and some other living organisms including Algae. A melatonin receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR which binds Melatonin. Histamine is a Biogenic amine involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a Neurotransmitter Histamine is a Biogenic amine involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a Neurotransmitter The histamine receptors are a class of G-protein coupled receptors with Histamine as their Endogenous Ligand. In humans gastrin is a Hormone that stimulates secretion of Gastric acid (HCl by the Parietal cells of the Stomach, as well as aiding in Cholecystokinin ( CCK; from Greek chole, "bile" cysto, "sac" kinin, "move" hence move the bile-sac Cholecystokinin receptors or CCK receptors are a group of G-protein coupled receptors which bind the peptide hormones Cholecystokinin (CCK or Gastrin Arginine vasopressin ( AVP) also known as vasopressin, argipressin or antidiuretic hormone ( ADH) is a Hormone found in A vasopressin receptor is one of the cell surface receptors which binds Vasopressin. Oxytocin ( IPA: /ˌɔksɪˈtoʊsɪn/ (Greek "quick birth" is a Mammalian Hormone that also acts as a Neurotransmitter in the Oxytocin receptors function as inducers of uterine contractions and milk ejection Neurophysin I is a carrier Protein with a size of 10 K Da and containing 90 to 97 Aminoacids that transports neurohypophysial Hormones along Neurophysin II is a Carrier protein which binds Vasopressin. Neuropeptide Y (NPY is a 36 Amino acid peptide Neurotransmitter found in the Brain and Autonomic nervous system. Neuropeptide Y receptors are a class of G-protein coupled receptors which are activated by the closely related peptide hormones Neuropeptide Y, Peptide YY Pancreatic polypeptide is a Polypeptide secreted by PP cells in the Endocrine pancreas predominantly in the Head of the pancreas. Peptide YY is a short (36 Amino acid) Protein released by cells in the Ileum and colon in response to feeding Adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH or corticotropin) is a Polypeptide Hormone produced and secreted by the Pituitary gland Melanocortin receptors are members of the Rhodopsin family of 7-transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors. Dynorphins are a class of Opioid peptides that arise from the precursor Protein prodynorphin Endorphins are Endogenous Opioid Polypeptide compounds They are produced by the Pituitary gland and the Hypothalamus in Vertebrates An enkephalin is a Pentapeptide involved in regulating Pain and Nociception in the body Secretin is a Peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the Duodenum in the Crypts of Lieberkühn. Human secretin receptor (gene name SCTR) is a G protein-coupled receptor which binds Secretin and is the leading member ( i Motilin is a Polypeptide hormone secreted by M cells of the Small intestine that increases the Migrating myoelectric complex component Motilin receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor which binds Motilin. Glucagon is an important Hormone involved in Carbohydrate metabolism. The glucagon receptor is a 62 KDa Peptide that is activated by Glucagon and is a member of the G-protein coupled family of receptors coupled Vasoactive intestinal peptide ( VIP, also polypeptide) is a Peptide hormone containing 28 Amino acid residues and is produced in many There are two known receptors for the Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP termed VPAC1 and VPAC2 Growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH also known as growth-hormone-releasing factor (GRF or GHRF or somatocrinin, is a 44- Amino acid Peptide hormone Somatostatin (also known as growth hormone inhibiting hormone ( GHIH) or somatotropin release-inhibiting factor ( SRIF) is a Peptide hormone There are five known Somatostatin receptors: SST1 ( SST2 ( SST3 Neurokinin A (formerly known as substance K) is a member of the Tachykinin family of Neuropeptide Neurotransmitters. Neurokinin B is a Tachykinin Peptide. It is found in higher concentration in pregnant women suffering Pre-eclampsia and can bind the immune-cloaking In Neuroscience, Substance P is a Neuropeptide: a short-chain Polypeptide that functions as a Neurotransmitter and as a Neuromodulator Bombesin is a 14 Amino acid Peptide originally isolated from the Skin of a Frog. Gastrin-releasing peptide, also known as GRP, is a human Gene. Nitric oxide or nitrogen monoxide is a Chemical compound with Chemical formula N[[Oxygen O]] Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO is a colorless odorless tasteless yet highly toxic Gas. Anandamide, also known as arachidonoylethanolamide or AEA, is an endogenous cannabinoid Neurotransmitter found in animal and human organs especially The cannabinoid receptors are a class of receptors under the G-protein coupled receptor superfamily Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy In the field of Molecular biology, the P2Y12 Protein is found on the surface of Blood Platelet cells and is an important regulator P2X receptors are a family of cation-permeable ligand gated ion channels that open in response to the binding of extracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate ( ATP For example, acetylcholine, (ACH) (an excitatory neurotransmitter), is broken down by acetylcholinesterase (AchE). The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central Choline is taken up and recycled by the pre-synaptic neuron to synthesize more ACH. Choline is an Organic compound, classified as a water-soluble Essential nutrient and usually grouped within the Vitamin B complex Other neurotransmitters such as dopamine are able to diffuse away from their targeted synaptic junctions and are eliminated from the body via the kidneys, or destroyed in the liver. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Diffusion is the net movement of particles (typically molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration by uncoordinated random movement Each neurotransmitter has very specific degradation pathways at regulatory points, which may be the target of the body's own regulatory system or recreational drugs. Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes
Sub-Neurotransmitters
In the process of neurotransmission, certain unknown components are existent and active, though their activities are subtle.
These components assist and desist procession of neurotransmission by aiding communication or stimulating the building blocks of the neurotransmitter itself. Examples are:
Mesoendodextrine Mesotetradextrine
See also
References
- ^ n_08/12571289 at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
- ^ a b Rang, H. Technical advancements in recent years have allowed progress toward the understanding of the Brain and how drugs can be made to affect it The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself Gasotransmitters are Gaseous Molecules synthesized in the body Dorland's is the brand name of a family of medical reference works (including dictionaries, spellers word books and spell-check software) in various media (including P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, page 474 for noradrenaline system, page 476 for dopamine system, page 480 for serotonin system and page 483 for cholinergic system. . ISBN 0-443-07145-4.
External links
- Molecular Expressions Photo Gallery: The Neurotransmitter Collection
- Brain Neurotransmitters
- Endogenous Neuroactive Extracellular Signal Transducers
- MeSH Neurotransmitter
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