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Not to be confused with neuroethology. Neuroethology ("neuro" Greek related to Nerve cells, "ethos" Greek habit or custom is an evolutionary and comparative approach to the study of animal behavior

Neurotheology, also known as biotheology or spiritual neuroscience[1], is the study of correlations of neural phenomena with subjective experiences of spirituality and hypotheses to explain these phenomena. The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself Spirituality, in a narrow sense concerns itself with matters of the Spirit, a concept closely tied to religious belief and Faith, a transcendent reality Proponents of neurotheology claim that there is a neurological and evolutionary basis for subjective experiences traditionally categorized as spiritual. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 " Qualia " (ˈkwɑːliə is "an unfamiliar term for something that could not be more familiar to each of us the ways things seem to us" [2]

Contents

Terminology

Aldous Huxley used the term neurotheology for the first time in the utopian novel Island. Aldous Leonard Huxley (26 July 1894 &ndash 22 November 1963 was an English writer and one of the most prominent members of the famous Huxley family. Island (ISBN 0-06-008549-5 is the final book by English novelist Aldous Huxley, published in 1962. The discipline studies the cognitive neuroscience of religious experience and spirituality. The term is also sometimes used in a less scientific context or a philosophical context. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Some of these uses, according to the mainstream scientific community, qualify as pseudoscience. Pseudoscience is defined as a body of knowledge methodology belief or practice that is claimed to be Scientific or made to appear scientific but does not adhere to the Huxley used it mainly in a philosophical context.

The use of the term neurotheology in published scientific work is currently uncommon. A search on the citation indexing service provided by Institute for Scientific Information returns five articles. The Institute for Scientific Information (ISI was founded by Eugene Garfield in 1960. Three of these are published in the journal Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science, while two are published in American Behavioral Scientist. Zygon Journal of Religion & Science is a Academic journal published quarterly by Blackwell Publishing Limited of Oxford England. Work on the neural basis of spirituality has, however, occurred sporadically throughout the 20th century. Keywords for such work include 'deity', 'neurophysiological bases', 'spirituality' and 'mysticism'.

In an attempt to focus and clarify what was a growing interest in this field, in 1994 educator Laurence O. McKinney published the first book on the subject, titled "Neurotheology: Virtual Religion in the 21st Century", written for a popular audience but also promoted in the theological journal Zygon. According to McKinney, neurotheology sources the basis of religious inquiry in relatively recent developmental neurophysiology. According to McKinney's theory, pre-frontal development, in humans, creates an illusion of chronological time as a fundamental part of normal adult cognition past the age of three. The inability of the adult brain to retrieve earlier images experienced by an infantile brain creates questions such as "where did I come from" and "where does it all go", which McKinney suggests led to the creation of various religious explanations. The experience of death as a peaceful regression into timelessness as the brain dies won praise from readers as varied as author Arthur C. Clarke, eminent theologian Harvey Cox, and the Dalai Lama and sparked a new interest in the field. Sir Arthur Charles Clarke, CBE (16 December 1917–19 March 2008 was a British Science fiction Author, Inventor, and Harvey Gallagher Cox Jr (born May 19, 1929 in Malvern, Pennsylvania) is one of the preeminent Theologians in the United States Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso (born Lhamo Döndrub ( 6 July 1935 in Qinghai) He is the head of the Tibetan government-in-exile

Newberg et al describe neurological processes which are driven by the repetitive, rhythmic stimulation which is typical of human ritual, and which contribute to the delivery of transcendental feelings of connection to a universal unity. They posit, however, that physical stimulation alone is not sufficient to generate transcendental unitive experiences. For this to occur they say there must be a blending of the rhythmic stimulation with ideas. Once this occurs "…ritual turns a meaningful idea into a visceral experience. "[3] Moreover they say that humans are compelled to act out myths by the biological operations of the brain on account of what they call the "inbuilt tendency of the brain to turn thoughts into actions".

Based on current neuroscientific research, Eugen Drewermann, one of today's most prominent and controversial theologians in Europe, developed in two monumental volumes (Modern Neurology and the Question of God), published in 2006 and 2007, a radical critique of traditional conceptions of God and the soul and a sweeping reinterpretation of religion in light of neurology. Eugen Drewermann born June 20 1940 in Bergkamen near Dortmund, Germany is a German church critic theologian peace activist and former

Defining and measuring spirituality

Neurotheology hypothesizes that the basis of spiritual experiences arises in neurological physiology, for example an increase of N, N-Dimethyltryptamine levels in the pineal gland, and attempts to explain these neurological basis for those experiences, such as:

These experiences are seen as the basis for many religious beliefs and behaviors. Dimethyltryptamine (DMT also known as NN -dimethyltryptamine, is a naturally occurring Tryptamine and potent psychedelic drug found not only in The pineal gland (also called the pineal body, epiphysis cerebri, or epiphysis) is a small endocrine gland in the vertebrate Brain For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of Fear is an Emotional response to Threats and Danger. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific Stimulus, such as Self-awareness is the concept that one exists as an individual separate from other people with private Thoughts. The term supernatural or supranatural ( Latin: super, supra "above" + natura "nature" pertains to entities events An altered state of consciousness, (ASC also named altered state of mind is any condition which is significantly different from a normal waking Beta wave state An altered state of consciousness, (ASC also named altered state of mind is any condition which is significantly different from a normal waking Beta wave state A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos

Methodology

Early studies in the 1950s and 1960s attempted to use EEGs to study brain wave patterns correlated with "spiritual" states. Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. During the 1980s Dr. Michael Persinger stimulated the temporal lobes of human subjects with a weak magnetic field. Dr Michael A Persinger (born June 26, 1945) is a Cognitive neuroscience researcher and university professor He has worked at Laurentian University The temporal lobes are parts of the cerebrum that are involved in speech, Memory, and Hearing. In Physics, a magnetic field is a Vector field that permeates space and which can exert a magnetic force on moving Electric charges His subjects claimed to have a sensation of "an ethereal presence in the room" (famously - Richard Dawkins did not have a sensation of "an ethereal presence" in any way). Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL (born 26 March 1941 is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist, and Popular science This work gained publicity at the time, although it was unresolved as to the mechanism that may have elicited this response.

Some current studies use neuroimaging to localize brain regions active, or differentially active, during experiences that subjects associate with "spiritual" feelings or images. Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/ Pharmacology of the Brain David Wulf, a psychologist at Wheaton College, Massachusetts, suggests that current brain imaging studies, along with the consistency of spiritual experiences across cultures, history, and religions, "suggest a common core that is likely a reflection of structures and processes in the human brain", echoing McKinney's primary thesis that feelings associated with religious experience are normal aspects of brain function under extreme circumstances rather than communication from God. Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition, This article is about the college in Norton Massachusetts. For the evangelical-affiliated school see Wheaton College (Illinois.

Criticism

An attempt to marry a materialistic approach like neuroscience to spirituality naturally attracts much criticism. The Philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is Matter, and is considered a form of Physicalism. Some of the criticism is philosophical, dealing with the (perceived) irreconcilability between science and spirituality, while some is more methodological, dealing with the issues of studying an experience as subjective as spirituality.

Philosophical criticism

Critics of this approach, like philosopher Ken Wilber and religious scholar Huston Smith, see the more materialistic formulations of the approach as examples of reductionism and scientism that are only looking at the empirical aspects of the phenomena, and not including the possible validity of spiritual experience with all of its subjectivity. Kenneth Earl "Ken" Wilber Jr (b January 31, 1949, Oklahoma City, U Huston Cummings Smith (born May 31, 1919) is among the preeminent Religious studies scholars in the The Philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is Matter, and is considered a form of Physicalism. Reductionism can either mean (a an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts or to simpler or more fundamental things The term scientism can be used as a neutral term to describe the view that Natural science has authority over all other interpretations of life such as philosophical

Statisticians have generally warned researchers that correlation does not imply causality and hence findings that two phenomena are correlated does not necessarily justify a conclusion that one causes the other. Statisticians or people who made notable contributions to the theories of Statistics, or related aspects of Probability, or Machine learning. Correlation does not imply causation is a phrase used in the Sciences and Statistics to emphasize that Correlation between two variables does not imply A correlation between two phenomena could be caused by a third, confounding factor which influences both. In statistics a confounding variable (also confounding factor, lurking variable, a confound, or confounder) is an Extraneous variable (For example, neurovisual research establishes that visual perceptions are correlated with neurological activity, but these correlations do not prove that these perceptions are caused by a neurological basis, or disprove the alternative hypothesis that the basis of both subjective visual perceptions and correlated neurological activity is an external reality that is "seen. Reality, in everyday usage means "the state of things as they actually exist" ")

Scientific criticism

In 2005, Pehr Granqvist, a psychologist at Uppsala University in Sweden, questioned Dr. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition, Uppsala University ( Swedish Uppsala universitet) is a world-class research University in Uppsala, Sweden. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Michael Persinger's findings in a paper published in Neuroscience Letters. Dr Michael A Persinger (born June 26, 1945) is a Cognitive neuroscience researcher and university professor He has worked at Laurentian University Granqvist claimed that Persinger's work was not "double blind," in that those conducting Persinger's trials, who were often graduate students, knew what sort of results to expect, with the risk that the knowledge would be transmitted to experimental subjects by unconscious cues. The blind method is a part of the Scientific method, used to prevent research outcomes from being influenced by either the Placebo effect or the Observer See also Postgraduate Training in Education Postgraduate education (synonymous in North America with graduate education, and sometimes described The experimenters also were frequently given an idea of what was happening, according to Granqvist, by being asked to fill in questionnaires designed to test their suggestibility to paranormal experiences before the trials were conducted. Paranormal is an Umbrella term used to describe unusual Phenomena or experiences that lack an obvious Scientific explanation Granqvist set about conducting similar experiments double blinded, and published findings implying that the presence or absence of the magnetic field had no relationship with any religious or spiritual experience reported by the participants.

Persinger stood by his findings, arguing that several of his previous experiments have explicitly used double-blind protocols, and that Granqvist failed to fully replicate Persinger's experimental conditions by, for example, miscalibrating the software, and using a magnetic field exposure time too brief to induce the hypothesized effect.

See also

References

  1. ^ Biello, David (2007-10-03). The God gene hypothesis proposes that Human beings inherit a set of Genes that predispose them to belief in a higher power The Vesicular Monoamine Transporter 2 or VMAT2 is an Integral membrane protein that acts to transport Monoamines mdashparticularly Neurotransmitters In Psychology, biological psychology, also known as biopsychology, psychobiology, or behavioral neuroscience is the application of the principles The term God Helmet refers to a controversial experimental apparatus in Neurotheology. Neuroethics is most commonly understood to be the subcategory of Bioethics concerned with Neuroscience and Neurotechnology. Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system Neurotechnology is a field of science edits the body and mind through the Nervous System by electronics and mechanisms An out-of-body experience ( OBE or sometimes OOBE) is an experience that typically involves a sensation of floating outside of one's body and in some cases perceiving Philosophy of mind is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature of the Mind, Mental events Mental functions mental properties In Philosophy of mind, dualism is a set of views about the relationship between mind and matter which begins with the claim that mental phenomena are in some The Philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is Matter, and is considered a form of Physicalism. Nondualism implies that things appear distinct while not being separate Bad trip is a slang term for a psychedelic crisis, a disturbing experience sometimes associated with use of a psychedelic drug such as LSD, salvinorin Psychology of religion is the psychological study of Religious experiences Beliefs and activities Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity Modern psychedelia For "psychedelics" see Psychedelic drug. The 8-Circuit Model of Consciousness is a theory of Consciousness first proposed by Psychologist Timothy Leary. Spirituality, in a narrow sense concerns itself with matters of the Spirit, a concept closely tied to religious belief and Faith, a transcendent reality Daniel Clement Dennett (born March 28 1942 in Boston, Massachusetts) is a prominent American philosopher whose research Julian Jaynes ( February 27 1920 &ndash November 21 1997) was an American Psychologist, best known for his book The Origin Zen and the Brain Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness is a book authored by James H Theological anthropology is the branch of Theology which is concerned with the study of humankind or Anthropology, in relation to the divine Eugen Drewermann born June 20 1940 in Bergkamen near Dortmund, Germany is a German church critic theologian peace activist and former Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Searching for God in the Brain. Scientific American. Retrieved on 2007-10-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 3761 BC - The epoch (origin of the modern Hebrew calendar ( Proleptic Julian calendar)
  2. ^ Gajilan, A. Chris (2007-04-05). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 456 - St Patrick returns to Ireland as a missionary bishop Are humans hard-wired for faith?. Cable News Network. Retrieved on 2007-04-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 193 - Septimius Severus is proclaimed Roman Emperor by the army in Illyricum (in the Balkans)
  3. ^ Newberg, Andrew B.; D'Aquili, Eugene G. Andrew Newberg MD is an Associate Professor of Radiology and Psychiatry in the School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania. ; Rause, Vince (2002). Why God Won't Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief. New York: Ballantine Books, 90. The City of New York ISBN 0-345-44034-X.  

Further reading

Thomas B. Roberts, "Chemical Input — Religious Output: Entheogens" Chapter 10 in Where God and Science Meet: Vol. An entheogen, in the strictest sense is a Psychoactive substance used in a religious or shamanic (or entheogenic) context 3. The Psychology of Religious Experience edited by Robert McNamara. Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.

External links

Newsweek is an American weekly Newsmagazine published in New York City. Wired is a full-color monthly American Magazine and on-line periodical published in San Francisco, California since March 1993 The University of Pennsylvania (also known as Penn) is a private University located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
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