NetBSD
NetBSD 3. 1 with XFree86 4. 5 X server and Enlightenment window manager
Website	www.netbsd.org
Company/ developer	The NetBSD Foundation
OS family	BSD
Source model	Open source
Latest stable release	4. Enlightenment, also known simply as E, is a Free software / Open source Window manager for the X Window System which can be used alone A website (alternatively web site or Web site, a back-construction from the Proper noun World Wide Web) is a collection of Web pages The software industry comprises businesses involved in the development, maintenance and publication of Computer software. A software developer is a person or organization concerned with facets of the software development process wider than design and coding a somewhat broader scope of Open source is a development methodology which offers practical accessibility to a product's source (goods and knowledge 0 / December 19, 2007 (2007-12-19); 179 days ago
Kernel type	Monolithic kernel
License	BSD license
Working state	Current

NetBSD is a freely redistributable, open source version of the Unix-derivative BSD computer operating system. Events 324 - Licinius abdicates his position as Roman Emperor. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. In Computer science, the kernel is the central component of most computer Operating systems (OS A monolithic kernel is a kernel architecture where the entire kernel is run in Kernel space in Supervisor mode. A software license (or software licence in commonwealth usage is a Legal instrument governing the usage or redistribution of copyright protected software BSD licenses represent a family of Permissive free software licences. Open source is a development methodology which offers practical accessibility to a product's source (goods and knowledge Unix (officially trademarked as UNIX, sometimes also written as Unix with Small caps) is a computer An operating system (commonly abbreviated OS and O/S) is the software component of a Computer system that is responsible for the management and coordination It was the second open source BSD descendent to be formally released, after 386BSD, and continues to be actively developed. 386BSD, sometimes called " JOLIX " is a free BSD Unix Operating system for PC compatible computer systems based Noted for its portability and quality of design and implementation, it is often used in embedded systems and as a starting point for the porting of other operating systems to new computer architectures. See also Software portability In Computer science, porting is the process of adapting software so that an executable program can be created An embedded system is a special-purpose Computer system designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions often with Real-time computing constraints In Computer engineering, computer architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a Computer system

Contents 1 History 2 Symmetric multiprocessing 3 Security 4 Portability 5 Licensing 6 Compatibility with other operating systems 7 The pkgsrc packages collection 8 Logo 9 Governance structure 10 Hosting 11 See also 12 References 13 External links

History

NetBSD, like its sister project FreeBSD, was derived from the original University of California Berkeley's 4. FreeBSD is a Unix-like free Operating system descended from AT&T UNIX via the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD branch through 3BSD release via the Networking/2 and 386BSD releases. 386BSD, sometimes called " JOLIX " is a free BSD Unix Operating system for PC compatible computer systems based The project began as a result of frustration within the 386BSD developer community with the pace and direction of the operating system's development. The four founders of the NetBSD project, Chris Demetriou, Theo de Raadt, Adam Glass and Charles Hannum, felt that a more open development model would be beneficial to the project; one which was centered on portable, clean, correct code. Theo de Raadt, (ˈθiːoʊ dεˈrɔːt born May 19, 1968 in Pretoria, South Africa, is a Software engineer who lives in Their aim was to produce a unified, multi-platform, production-quality, BSD-based operating system.

Because of the importance of networks such as the Internet in the distributed, collaborative nature of its development, de Raadt suggested the name "NetBSD", which was readily accepted by the other founders.

The NetBSD source code repository was established on March 21, 1993 and the first official release, NetBSD 0. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. Year 1993 ( MCMXCIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar) 8, was made in April, 1993. This was derived from 386BSD 0. 1 plus the version 0. 2. 2 unofficial patchkit, with several programs from the Net/2 release missing from 386BSD re-integrated, and various other improvements.

In August the same year, NetBSD 0. 9 was released, which contained many enhancements and bug fixes. This was still a PC-platform-only release, although by this time work was underway to add support for other architectures. IBM PC compatible computers are those generally similar to the original IBM PC, XT, and AT.

NetBSD 1. 0 was released in October, 1994. This was the first multi-platform release, supporting the PC, HP 9000 Series 300, Amiga, 68k Macintosh, Sun-4c series and the PC532. IBM PC compatible computers are those generally similar to the original IBM PC, XT, and AT. HP 9000 is the name for a line of Workstation and server Computer systems produced by the Hewlett-Packard (HP company The Amiga is a family of Personal computers originally developed by Amiga Corporation. The Motorola 680x0 / m68k / 68k / 68K is a family of 32-bit CISC Microprocessor CPU chips and was the primary Macintosh, commonly nicknamed Mac is a Brand name which covers several lines of Personal computers designed developed and marketed by Apple Inc The SPARCstation, SPARCserver and SPARCcenter product lines were a series of SPARC -based Computer workstations and servers in desktop The PC532 was a "home-brew" microcomputer design created by George Scolaro and Dave Rand in 1989 - 90, based around the National Semiconductor NS32532 Also in this release, legally encumbered Net/2-derived source code was replaced with equivalent code from 4. 4BSD-lite, in accordance with the USL v BSDi lawsuit settlement. USL v BSDi was a Lawsuit brought in the United States in 1992 by Unix System Laboratories against Berkeley Software Design, Inc and the

In 1994, for disputed reasons, one of the founders, Theo de Raadt, was forced out of the project. He later founded a new project, OpenBSD, from a forked version of NetBSD 1. OpenBSD is a Unix-like computer Operating system descended from Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD a Unix derivative developed at the 0 near the end of 1995.

NetBSD 1. x releases continued at roughly annual intervals, with minor "patch" releases in between. In 1998, NetBSD 1. 3 introduced the pkgsrc packages collection. pkgsrc ( package source) is a Package management system for Unix-like Operating systems It was forked from the FreeBSD Ports collection By 1999, NetBSD 1. 4 had been released, supporting 16 different platforms in its binary release, and several others in the source code.

In December, 2004, NetBSD 2. 0 was released. The change in major version number signified the introduction of a native threads implementation for all platforms (based on the Scheduler Activations model) and support for SMP on several different CPU architectures. A thread in Computer science is short for a thread of execution. Scheduler Activations is a threading mechanism that when implemented in an Operating system 's process scheduler, provides kernel-level thread functionality In Computing, symmetric multiprocessing or SMP involves a Multiprocessor computer-architecture where two or more identical processors can connect to a single 48 platforms were supported in the 2. 0 binary release, with another six in source code form only.

From release 2. 0 onwards, each major NetBSD release corresponds to an incremented major version number, i. e. the major releases following 2. 0 are 3. 0, 4. 0 and so on. The previous minor releases are now divided into separate "stable" x. y maintenance releases and "security/critical fix" x. y. z releases.

The current release of NetBSD is version 4. 0 (December 19, 2007).

Symmetric multiprocessing

NetBSD had support for SMP since the NetBSD 2. In Computing, symmetric multiprocessing or SMP involves a Multiprocessor computer-architecture where two or more identical processors can connect to a single 0 release in 2004 ^[1], which was initially implemented using the giant lock approach. In Operating systems, giant lock, which is also known as big-lock or kernel-lock, is a lock which may be used to implement a Concurrency During the development cycle of NetBSD 5 release, the major work was done to improve the SMP support, and most of the kernel subsystems were modified to be MP safe, and use the fine-grained locking approach. New synchronization primitives were implemented and scheduler activations was replaced with 1:1 threading model on February, 2007 ^[2]. In Computer science, synchronization refers to one of two distinct but related concepts synchronization of processes, and synchronization of data Scheduler Activations is a threading mechanism that when implemented in an Operating system 's process scheduler, provides kernel-level thread functionality Scalable M2 thread scheduler was implemented, the old 4. 4BSD scheduler is provided as an option. Threaded software interrupts were implemented to improve the sychronization. In Computing, an interrupt is an asynchronous signal from hardware indicating the need for attention or a synchronous event in software indicating the need for a change Virtual memory system, memory allocator and trap handling were made MP safe. Virtual memory is a Computer system technique which gives an application program the impression that it has contiguous working memory while in fact it may be physically Slab allocation is a Memory management algorithm that juxtaposes objects of the same type File system framework, including the VFS and major file systems were modified made MP safe. In Computing, a file system (often also written as filesystem) is a method for storing and organizing Computer files and the data they contain to make Since April, 2008 the only subsystems running giant lock are the network protocols and device drivers. In computing, a protocol is a convention or standard that controls or enables the connection Communication, and Data transfer between two computing In computing a device driver or software driver is a Computer program allowing higher-level computer programs to interact with a Hardware device

Security

NetBSD provides various features in the security area [1]. The Kernel Authorization framework (or Kauth) is a subsystem managing all authorization requests inside the kernel, and used as system-wide security policy. It allows external modules to plug-in the authorization process. NetBSD also incorporates exploit mitigation features [2], MPROTECT and Segvguard from PaX project, and GCC Stack Smashing Protection (SSP, or also known as ProPolice) compiler extensions. In Computer security, PaX is a patch for the Linux kernel that implements least privilege protections for Memory pages The least-privilege The GNU Compiler Collection (usually shortened to GCC) is a set of Compilers produced for various Programming languages by the GNU Project Buffer overflow protection refers to various techniques used during software development to enhance the security of executable programs by detecting Buffer overflows on Stack The Verified Executables (or Veriexec) is an in-kernel file integrity subsystem in NetBSD. Veriexec is a file-signing scheme for the NetBSD operating system It allows the user to set the digital fingerprints (hashes) of files in the system to monitor by the Veriexec, and prevent the execution of them. For example, one can allow Perl to run only scripts that match the fingerprints [3]. NOTES FOR EDITORS "Perl" is not an acronym (read the "Name" section below The cryptographic device driver (CGD) provides functionality which allows using the disks or partitions (including CDs and DVDs) for encrypted storage in NetBSD [4].

Portability

NetBSD has been ported to a large number of 32- and 64-bit architectures, from VAX minicomputers to Pocket PC PDAs. The range of Integer values that can be stored in 32 bits is 0 through 4294967295 or −2147483648 through 2147483647 using Two's complement encoding '64-bit' CPUs have existed in Supercomputers since the 1960s and in RISC -based workstations and servers since the early 1990s. In Computer engineering, computer architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a Computer system Name "VAX" was originally an Acronym for V irtual A ddress e' X' tension, both because the VAX was seen as a 32-bit A minicomputer (colloquially mini) is a class of multi-user Computers that lies in the middle range of the computing spectrum in between the largest Multi-user A Pocket PC, abbreviated P/PC or PPC, is a hardware Specification for a Handheld -sized Computer ( Personal digital assistant The NetBSD motto is "Of course it runs NetBSD. " As of 2007, NetBSD supports 54+ hardware platforms (comprising around 17 different processor architectures). Although the Linux 2. 6 kernel includes support for more processor architectures^[3], NetBSD supports more platforms than any single Linux distribution. A Linux distribution (also called GNU/Linux by distributions such as Debian, Fedora, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Mandriva and The kernel and userland for these platforms are all built from a central unified source-code tree managed by CVS. In the field of Software development, the Concurrent Versions System ( CVS) also known as the Concurrent Versioning System, provides a Version Currently, unlike other kernels such as μClinux, the NetBSD kernel requires the presence of an MMU in any given target architecture. A memory management unit ( MMU) sometimes called paged memory management unit ( PMMU) is a Computer hardware component responsible for handling

Because of the centralized source code management, and portable design, feature additions (which are not hardware specific) can benefit all platforms immediately, with little or no re-porting required. In Computing, a platform describes some sort of Hardware architecture or Software framework (including Application frameworks, that allows

NetBSD’s portability is due to a number of interfaces for bus space and DMA. Using this portability layer, device drivers are somewhat isolated from the hardware platform. In computing a device driver or software driver is a Computer program allowing higher-level computer programs to interact with a Hardware device This allows a single driver to be easily used on several platforms by hiding details of exactly how the driver talks to the hardware and dramatically reduces the amount of work needed to port it to a new architecture.

This enables, for instance, a driver for a specific PCI card to work whether that card is in a PCI slot on an IA-32, Alpha, PowerPC, SPARC, or other architecture with a PCI bus. The Peripheral Component Interconnect, or PCI Standard (commonly PCI) specifies a Computer bus for attaching peripheral devices to a Computer IA-32 ( Intel Architecture 32-bit) often generically called X86 or x86-32, is the Instruction set architecture of Intel Alpha, originally known as Alpha AXP, was a 64-bit Reduced instruction set computer (RISC Instruction set architecture (ISA developed PowerPC is a RISC Instruction set architecture created by the 1991 Apple – IBM – Motorola alliance known as AIM SPARC (from Scalable Processor Architecture is a RISC Microprocessor Instruction set architecture originally Also, a single driver for a specific device can operate via several different buses (eg. ISA, PCI, PC card, etc). Industry Standard Architecture (in practice almost always shortened to ISA) was a Computer bus standard for IBM compatible computers In Computing, PC Card (originally '''PCMCIA''', or PCMCIA Card is the Form factor of a peripheral interface designed for Laptop computers

In comparison, Linux device driver code often needs to be reworked for every new architecture. Linux (commonly pronounced ˈlɪnəks As a consequence, in recent porting efforts by NetBSD and Linux developers, NetBSD has taken much less time to port to new hardware. ^[4]

This platform independence aids the development of embedded systems, particularly since NetBSD 1. In computing cross-platform (also known as multi-platform) is a term used to refer to Computer software or computing methods and concepts that are implemented An embedded system is a special-purpose Computer system designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions often with Real-time computing constraints 6, when the entire toolchain of compilers, assemblers, linkers, and other tools fully supported cross-compiling. A compiler is a Computer program (or set of programs that translates text written in a computer language (the source language) into another See the terminology section below for information regarding inconsistent use of the terms assembly and assembler A cross compiler is a Compiler capable of creating Executable code for a platform other than the one on which the compiler is run The NetBSD cross-compiling framework allows a complete NetBSD system for an architecture to be built from another system of different architecture (usually faster or with more hardware resources), even on different operating system since the framework supports most POSIX-compliant systems. POSIX (ˈpɒzɪks or "Portable Operating System Interface" is the collective name of a family of related standards specified by the IEEE to define Several embedded systems using NetBSD have required no additional software development other than toolchain and target rehost. ^[4]

In 2005, as a demonstration of NetBSD's portability and suitability for embedded applications, Technologic Systems, a vendor of embedded systems hardware, designed and demonstrated a NetBSD-powered kitchen toaster ^[5]. A toaster is a small electric Kitchen appliance designed to Toast slices of Bread.

Commercial ports to embedded platforms, including the AMD Geode LX800, Freescale PowerQUICC processors, Marvell Orion, AMCC 405 family of PowerPC processors, Intel XScale IOP and IXP series, are available from and supported by Wasabi Systems. For other uses of Geode see Geode (disambiguation Geode is a series of X86 -compatible System-on-a-chip Microprocessors Freescale Semiconductor Inc is an American Semiconductor manufacturer PowerQUICC is the name for several Power Architecture based Microcontrollers from Freescale Semiconductor. The XScale, a microprocessor core, is Marvell 's (formerly Intel 's implementation of the fifth generation of the ARM architecture, and consists

Licensing

All of the NetBSD kernel and most of the core userland source code is released under the terms of the BSD License (two, three, and four-clause variants). BSD licenses represent a family of Permissive free software licences. This essentially allows everyone to use, modify, redistribute or sell it as they wish, as long as they do not remove the copyright notice and license text (the four-clause variants also include terms relating to publicity material). Thus, the development of products based on NetBSD is possible without having to make modifications to the source code public. In contrast, the GPL stipulates that changes to source code of a product must be released to the product recipient when products derived from those changes are released.

NetBSD also includes the GNU development tools and other packages, which are covered by the GPL and other open source licenses. GNU ( pronounced) is a computer Operating system composed entirely of Free software.

Compatibility with other operating systems

At the source code level, NetBSD is very nearly entirely compliant with POSIX. POSIX (ˈpɒzɪks or "Portable Operating System Interface" is the collective name of a family of related standards specified by the IEEE to define 1 (IEEE 1003. 1-1990) standard and mostly compliant with POSIX. 2 (IEEE 1003. 2-1992).

NetBSD also provides system call-level binary compatibility on the appropriate processor architectures with several UNIX-derived and UNIX-like operating systems, including Linux, other BSD variants like FreeBSD, Apple's Darwin, Solaris, HP-UX, SunOS 4 and SCO UNIX. In Computing, a system call is the mechanism used by an application program to request service from the Kernel. Linux (commonly pronounced ˈlɪnəks FreeBSD is a Unix-like free Operating system descended from AT&T UNIX via the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD branch through Darwin is an open source UNIX -based computer Operating system released by Apple Inc Solaris is a Unix -based Operating system introduced by Sun Microsystems in 1992 as the successor to SunOS. HP-UX (Hewlett Packard UniX is Hewlett-Packard 's proprietary implementation of the Unix Operating system, based on System V (initially SunOS is a version of the Unix Operating system developed by Sun Microsystems for their Workstation and server Computer Santa Cruz Operation ( SCO) was a Software company based in Santa Cruz California which was best known for selling three Unix variants for This allows NetBSD users to run many applications that are only distributed in binary form for other operating systems, usually with no significant loss of performance.

A variety of "foreign" disk filesystem formats are also supported in NetBSD, including FAT, NTFS, Linux ext2fs, Mac OS X UFS, RISC OS FileCore/ADFS and AmigaOS Fast File System. In Computing, a file system (often also written as filesystem) is a method for storing and organizing Computer files and the data they contain to make Templateinfobox filesystem whilst covering all 3 file systems please make any style changes to both at the same time NTFS (New Technology File System Is the standard File system of Windows NT, including its later versions Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows The ext2 or second extended file system is a File system for the Linux kernel. Mac OS X (mæk oʊ ɛs tɛn is a line of computer Operating systems developed marketed and sold by Apple Inc, the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently RISC OS is an Operating system originally created by British manufacturer Acorn Computers for their ARM based Computers ranging AmigaOS is the default native Operating system of the Amiga personal computer The Amiga Fast File System (FFS not to be confused with the identically named Berkeley Unix FFS) is a File system used on the Amiga Personal computer

The pkgsrc packages collection

NetBSD features pkgsrc (short for "package source"), a framework for building third-party application software packages that will install almost "automagically". pkgsrc ( package source) is a Package management system for Unix-like Operating systems It was forked from the FreeBSD Ports collection Application software is a subclass of Computer software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly and thoroughly to a task that the user wishes to perform The pkgsrc collection consists of more than 6400 packages as of January 2007. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Building packages such as KDE, GNOME, the Apache server or Perl is performed simply by typing make install in the appropriate directory. KDE ( K Desktop Environment) (ˌkeɪdiːˈiː is a Free software project which aims to be a powerful system for an easy-to-use Desktop environment. A gnome is a Mythical creature characterized by its extremely small size and subterranean lifestyle NOTES FOR EDITORS "Perl" is not an acronym (read the "Name" section below This will fetch the source code, unpack, patch, configure, build and install the package such that it can be removed again later. An alternative to compiling from source is to use a precompiled binary package. Either way, any prerequisites/dependencies will be installed automatically by the package system, with no need for manual intervention.

Following its mantra of portability, pkgsrc has been made portable not only across the hardware platforms that run NetBSD, but also — with the help of an autoconf-based bootstrap system — on several other Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, other BSD variants like FreeBSD and OpenBSD, Solaris, Darwin/Mac OS X, IRIX, Interix and others. A mantra ( Devanāgarī मन्त्र (or mantram is a religious or mystical syllable or poem typically from the Sanskrit language See also Software portability In Computer science, porting is the process of adapting software so that an executable program can be created Autoconf is a tool for producing Shell scripts that automatically configure software Source code packages to adapt to many kinds of UNIX-like systems A Unix-like (sometimes shortened to *nix) Operating system is one that behaves in a manner similar to a Unix system while not necessarily conforming Linux (commonly pronounced ˈlɪnəks FreeBSD is a Unix-like free Operating system descended from AT&T UNIX via the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD branch through OpenBSD is a Unix-like computer Operating system descended from Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD a Unix derivative developed at the Solaris is a Unix -based Operating system introduced by Sun Microsystems in 1992 as the successor to SunOS. Darwin is an open source UNIX -based computer Operating system released by Apple Inc Mac OS X (mæk oʊ ɛs tɛn is a line of computer Operating systems developed marketed and sold by Apple Inc, the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently IRIX is a computer Operating system developed by Silicon Graphics Inc Interix is the name of an optional full-featured POSIX and Unix environment subsystem for Microsoft 's Windows NT -based operating systems pkgsrc has also been adopted as the official package system for DragonFly BSD (announcement). pkgsrc ( package source) is a Package management system for Unix-like Operating systems It was forked from the FreeBSD Ports collection DragonFly BSD is a free Unix-like operating system created as a fork of FreeBSD 4

Logo

The NetBSD "flag" logo, designed by Grant Bissett, was introduced in 2004 and is an abstraction of their older logo, designed by Shawn Mueller in 1994. This was based on the famous World War II photograph Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima, which some perceived as culturally insensitive and inappropriate for an international project[5]. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima is a Even so, the primary reason for the change was actually the complexity of the drawing making it unsuitable for use as logo.

Governance structure

The NetBSD Foundation is the legal entity that owns the intellectual property and trademarks associated with NetBSD, and has obtained 501(c)3 non-profit organisation status with respect to U. 501(c is a provision of the United States Internal Revenue Code ( listing 28 types of Non-profit organizations exempt from some federal S. taxation. The members of the foundation are NetBSD developers who have CVS commit access. The NetBSD Foundation has a Board of Directors, elected by the voting of members for two years.

Hosting

Hosting for the project is provided primarily by the Internet Systems Consortium Inc, the Luleå University of Technology, Columbia University, and Western Washington University. Internet Systems Consortium Inc, also known as ISC, is a Delaware -registered 501(c(3 public charity non-profit corporation which succeeded Luleå University of Technology or Luleå tekniska universitet is Scandinavia's northernmost university of technology Columbia University is a private University in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. Western Washington University ( WWU or Western) is one of six state-funded, four-year universities of Higher education in the Mirrors for the project are spread around the world and provided by volunteers and supporters of the project.

See also

• Comparison of BSD operating systems
• Comparison of operating systems
• Debian GNU/NetBSD
• DragonFly BSD
• FreeBSD
• MirOS BSD
• OpenBSD

References

External links

• NetBSD homepage
• Jibbed a NetBSD based Live CD
• Live CD image of NetBSD 2.0
• Binary packages from pkgsrc bulk builds at [6], [7] and [8]
• #netbsd on freenode
• NetBSD CVS Digest
• NetBSD shell account at Super Dimensional Fortress and polarhome
• Wasabi Systems supported hardware platforms
• Recent Security Enhancements in NetBSD
• bus_space(9): architecture independent bus – NetBSD Kernel Developer's Manual
• bus_dma(9): architecture independent DMA – NetBSD Kernel Developer's Manual
• uvm(9): architecture independent virtual memory management – NetBSD Kernel Developer's Manual
• UBC: An Efficient Unified I/O and Memory Caching Subsystem for NetBSD
• An Implementation of Scheduler Activations on the NetBSD Operating System
• An Implementation of User-level Restartable Atomic Sequences on the NetBSD Operating System
• The UVM Virtual Memory System
• The Evolution of NetBSD
• International Space Station message 1 and message 2
• Internet2 SUNET Internet2 Land Speed Record
• Waving the flag: NetBSD developers speak about version 4.0
• Charles Hannum's views on the state of NetBSD, August 2006
• Hubert Feyrer's NetBSD Blog
• What Makes An Operating System "Portable"? by Hubert Feyrer
• #NetBSD Community Blog
• Open Source licensing, BSD compared to GPL

A live CD or live distro is a computer Operating system that is executed upon boot, without installation to a Hard disk drive. A shell account is a personal account that gives a user access to a Unix shell on a remote server usually accessed through SSH (and historically Telnet Almost all substantial UNIX and Unix-like Operating systems have extensive documentation known as man pages (short for "manual pages" Direct memory access ( DMA) is a feature of modern Computers and Microprocessors that allows certain hardware subsystems within the computer to access system Almost all substantial UNIX and Unix-like Operating systems have extensive documentation known as man pages (short for "manual pages" Almost all substantial UNIX and Unix-like Operating systems have extensive documentation known as man pages (short for "manual pages"

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