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This article is about the chemical. For the band, see The Nerve Agents. The Nerve Agents were an American Hardcore punk band formed by Andy Outbreak and Eric Ozenne (ex- Redemption 87)
This article forms part of the series
Chemical warfare
(A subset of Weapons of mass destruction)
Lethal agents
Blood agents
Cyanogen chloride (CK)
Hydrogen cyanide (AC)
Blister agents
Lewisite (L)
Sulfur mustard gas (HD, H, HT, HL, HQ)
Nitrogen mustard gas (HN1, HN2, HN3)
Nerve agents
G-Agents
Tabun (GA), Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD), Cyclosarin (GF)
GV
V-Agents
VE, VG, VM, VX
Novichok agents
Pulmonary agents
Chlorine
Chloropicrin (PS)
Phosgene (CG)
Diphosgene (DP)
Incapacitating agents
Agent 15 (BZ)
Kolokol-1
Riot control agents
Pepper spray (OC)
CS gas
CN gas (mace)
CR gas
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Nerve agents (also being referred to as nerve gases, though these chemicals are liquid at room temperature) are a class of phosphorus-containing organic chemicals (organophosphates) that disrupt the mechanism by which nerves transfer messages to organs. Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. A weapon of mass destruction ( WMD) is a weapon which can kill large numbers of humans and/or cause great damage to man-made structures (e A blood agent or cyanogen agent is a Chemical compound, carried by the blood for distribution through the body Cyanogen chloride is a Chemical compound with the formula CNCl Hydrogen cyanide is a Chemical compound with Chemical formula HCN A blister agent (also known as a vesicant) is a chemical compound that causes severe skin eye and mucosal pain and irritation Lewisite is a Chemical compound from a chemical family called Arsines While it is colorless and odorless when pure Lewisite is usually found as an oily yellow or The sulfur mustards, of which mustard gas ( Bis (2-chloroethyl sulfide is a member are a class of related Cytotoxic, Vesicant Chemical Effects of overexposure The exact symptoms of overexposure are similar to those created by all Nerve agents Tabun like all nerve agents is toxic even in minute doses Sarin, also known by its NATO designation of GB, is an extremely toxic substance whose sole application is as a Nerve agent. Alternative names Soman is occasionally referred to by names other than soman or GD: Phosphonofluoridic acid methyl- 1 2 2-trimethylpropyl ester Chemical characteristics Like its predecessor sarin cyclosarin is a liquid Organophosphate nerve agent GV (P--NN-dimethylphosphonamidic fluoride is an Organophosphate Nerve agent. VE (S-(Diethylaminoethyl O-ethyl ethylphosphonothioate is a "V-series" Nerve agent closely related to the better-known VX nerve agent. VG (OO-Diethyl-S- phosphorothioate (also called Amiton or Tetram) is a "V-series" Nerve agent chemically similar to the better-known VM ( Edemo) is a "V-series" Nerve agent closely related to the better-known VX nerve agent. VX (S--O-ethyl methylphosphonothioate is an extremely toxic substance whose sole application is as a Nerve agent. Novichok (Russian новичок: "Newcomer" is a series of Nerve agents that were developed by the Soviet Union in the 1970s and 1980s and A pulmonary agent (or choking agent) is a Chemical weapon agent designed to impede a victim's ability to breathe. Chlorine (ˈklɔriːn from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' ( khlôros, meaning 'pale green' is the Chemical element with Atomic number 17 and Chloropicrin is a slightly oily colorless or faintly yellow liquid of the formula CCl3NO2 Phosgene is the Chemical compound with the formula COCl2 This colorless gas gained infamy as a Chemical weapon during World War I Diphosgene is a Chemical compound with the formula ClCO2CCl3 This colorless liquid is a valuable reagent in the synthesis of organic compounds The term incapacitating agent is defined by the US Department of Defense as "An agent that produces temporary Physiological or mental "QNB" redirects here For the spoof Amateur radio Q code, see QNB (amateur radio. KOLOKOL-1 (Russian Колокол, eng bell) is an opiate-derived Incapacitating agent. Riot control agents are Less-lethal Lachrymatory agents used for Riot control. Pepper spray (also known as OC spray (from " Oleoresin Capsicum " OC gas, capsicum spray, or oleoresin capsicum CS gas is the common name for 2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile (also called o-Chlorobenzylidene Malononitrile (chemical formula C10H5ClN2 Not to be confused with Hydrogen cyanide, HCN CN gas, or chloroacetophenone or phenacyl chloride, is a substance CR gas or dibenzoxazepine, chemically dibenz[14]oxazepine is an Incapacitating agent and a Lachrymatory agent. Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 Organic chemistry is a discipline within Chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure properties composition reactions, and preparation An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) is the general name for Esters of Phosphoric acid. The disruption is caused by blocking acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that normally relaxes the activity of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central See Chemical synapse for an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article

As chemical weapons, they are classified as weapons of mass destruction by the United Nations according to UN Resolution 687, and their production and stockpiling was outlawed by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993; the Chemical Weapons Convention officially took effect on April 29, 1997. Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. A weapon of mass destruction ( WMD) is a weapon which can kill large numbers of humans and/or cause great damage to man-made structures (e The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security United Nations Security Council Resolution 687 which was on 3 April 1991 set the terms with which Iraq was to comply after losing the Gulf The Chemical Weapons Convention ( CWC) is an Arms control agreement which outlaws the production stockpiling and use of chemical weapons Its full name is Year 1993 ( MCMXCIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar) Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans. Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar

Poisoning by a nerve agent leads to contraction of pupils, profuse salivation, convulsions, involuntary urination and defecation, and eventual death by asphyxiation as control is lost over respiratory muscles. Some nerve agents are readily vaporized or aerosolized and the primary portal of entry into the body is the respiratory system. Nerve agents can also be absorbed through the skin, requiring that those likely to be subjected to such agents wear a full body suit in addition to a respirator. A respirator is a device designed to protect the wearer from inhaling harmful Dusts fumes vapors and/or Gases Respirators come in a wide range of types and sizes

Contents

Biological effects

As their name suggests, nerve agents attack the nervous system of the human body. The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself All such agents function the same way: by interrupting the breakdown of the neurotransmitters that signal muscles to contract, preventing them from relaxing. See Chemical synapse for an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article

Initial symptoms following exposure to sarin (and other nerve agents) are a runny nose, tightness in the chest and constriction of the pupils. Sarin, also known by its NATO designation of GB, is an extremely toxic substance whose sole application is as a Nerve agent. Soon after, the victim will then have difficulty breathing, and will experience nausea and drooling. As the victim continues to lose control of his or her bodily functions, he or she will involuntarily salivate, lacrimate, urinate, defecate, and experience gastrointestinal pain and emesis. Tears are the liquid product of a process of lacrimation to clean and lubricate the Eyes The word lacrimation may also be used in a medical or literary sense Vomiting (also called throwing up, emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's Stomach through the Mouth and sometimes the This phase is followed by twitching and jerking, and ultimately the victim will become comatose and suffocate as a consequence of convulsive spasms.

The effects of nerve agents are very long lasting and cumulative (increased successive exposures), and survivors of nerve agent poisoning almost invariably suffer chronic neurological damage.

Mechanism of action

When a normally functioning motor nerve is stimulated it releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which transmits the impulse to a muscle or organ. Motor nerves allow the Brain to stimulate muscle contraction A motor Nerve is an Efferent nerve that exclusively contains the Axons of somatic See Chemical synapse for an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central Once the impulse is sent, the enzyme acetylcholine esterase immediately breaks down the acetylcholine in order to allow the muscle or organ to relax.

Nerve agents disrupt the nervous system by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholine esterase by forming a covalent bond with the site of the enzyme where acetylcholine normally undergoes hydrolysis (breaks down). Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins In Biochemistry, cholinesterase is an enzyme that catalyzes the Hydrolysis of the Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine into The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central Hydrolysis is a Chemical reaction during which one or more water molecules are split into hydrogen and hydroxide ions which may go on to participate in further reactions The result is that acetylcholine builds up and continues to act so that any nerve impulses are continually transmitted, and muscle contractions do not stop.

This same action also occurs at the gland and organ levels, resulting in uncontrolled drooling, tearing of the eyes (lacrimation), and excess production of mucous from the nose (rhinorrhea). Rhinorrhea, commonly known as a runny Nose, consists of an unusually significant amount of nasal discharge

Antidotes

Atropine and related anticholinergic drugs act as antidotes to nerve agent poisoning because they block acetylcholine receptors, but they are poisonous in their own right. Atropine is a Tropane Alkaloid extracted from Deadly nightshade ( Atropa belladonna) Jimsonweed (Datura stramonium and other plants An anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the Neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the Peripheral nervous system. (Some synthetic anticholinergics, such as biperiden may counteract the central symptoms of nerve agent poisoning better than atropine, since they pass the blood-brain barrier better than atropine. Biperiden is an antiparkinsonian agent of the Anticholinergic type Atropine is a Tropane Alkaloid extracted from Deadly nightshade ( Atropa belladonna) Jimsonweed (Datura stramonium and other plants ) While these drugs will save the life of a person affected with nerve agents, that person may be incapacitated briefly or for an extended period, depending on the amount of exposure. The endpoint of atropine administration is the clearing of bronchial secretions. Atropine for field use by military personnel is often loaded in an autoinjector, for ease of use in stressful conditions. An autoinjector (or auto-injector) is a Medical device designed to deliver a single Dose of a particular (typically life-saving drug.

Pralidoxime chloride, also known as 2-PAM chloride, is also used as an antidote. Pralidoxime belongs to a family of compounds called Oximes ' that bind to Organophosphate -inactivated Acetylcholinesterase. Rather than counteracting the initial effects of the nerve agent on the nervous system like atropine, pralidoxime chloride reactivates the poisoned enzyme (acetylcholinesterase) by scavenging the phosphoryl rest attached on the functional hydroxyl group of the enzyme. Atropine is a Tropane Alkaloid extracted from Deadly nightshade ( Atropa belladonna) Jimsonweed (Datura stramonium and other plants Though safer to use, it takes longer to act.

Recent scientific breakthroughs have seen antidotes being produced in the milk of genetically modified goats. [1]

Classes

There are two main classes of nerve agents. The members of the two classes share similar properties, and are given both a common name (such as sarin), and a two-character NATO identifier (such as GB). The North Atlantic Treaty

G-Series

The G-series is thus named because German scientists first synthesized them. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. All of the compounds in this class were discovered and synthesized during or soon after World War II, led by Dr. Gerhard Schrader (later under the employment of I.G. Farben). Dr Gerhard Schrader ( 25 February 1903 &ndash1990 was a German chemist specializing in the discovery of new insecticides hoping to make progress in the IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG, "syndicate of dyestuff corporations" and also called I

This series is the first and oldest family of nerve agents. The first nerve agent ever synthesised was GA (tabun) in 1936. Effects of overexposure The exact symptoms of overexposure are similar to those created by all Nerve agents Tabun like all nerve agents is toxic even in minute doses Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. GB (sarin) was discovered next in 1938, followed by GD (soman) in 1944 and finally the more obscure GF (cyclosarin) in 1949. Sarin, also known by its NATO designation of GB, is an extremely toxic substance whose sole application is as a Nerve agent. Year 1938 ( MCMXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Alternative names Soman is occasionally referred to by names other than soman or GD: Phosphonofluoridic acid methyl- 1 2 2-trimethylpropyl ester Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Chemical characteristics Like its predecessor sarin cyclosarin is a liquid Organophosphate nerve agent Year 1949 ( MCMXLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. GB was the only G agent that was fielded by the USA as a munition, specifically in rockets, aerial bombs, howitzer rounds, and gun rounds. [2]

V-Series

Dr. Ranajit Ghosh, a chemist at the Plant Protection Laboratories of Imperial Chemical Industries was investigating a class of organophosphate compounds (organophosphate esters of substituted aminoethanethiols). Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI) is a British chemical subsidiary of a Dutch conglomerate and one of the largest chemical producers Like the earlier investigator of organophosphate, Dr. Schrader, Dr. Ghosh found that they were quite effective pesticides. In 1954, ICI put one of them on the market under the trade name Amiton. It was subsequently withdrawn, as it was too toxic for safe use. The toxicity did not go unnoticed, and some of the more toxic materials had in fact been sent to the British Armed Forces research facility at Porton Down for evaluation. After the evaluation was complete, several members of this class of compounds would become a new group of nerve agents, the V agents (depending on who you talk to, the V stands for Victory, Venomous, or Viscous). The best known of these is probably VX, with the Russian V-gas coming a close second (Amiton is largely forgotten as VG). This class of compounds is also sometimes known as Tammelin's esters, after Lars-Erik Tammelin of the Swedish Institute of Defense Research. Dr. Tammelin was also conducting research on this class of compounds in 1952, but for obvious reasons he did not publicize his work widely.

The V-series is the second family of nerve agents, and also contains four members: VE, VG, VM, VX. VE (S-(Diethylaminoethyl O-ethyl ethylphosphonothioate is a "V-series" Nerve agent closely related to the better-known VX nerve agent. VG (OO-Diethyl-S- phosphorothioate (also called Amiton or Tetram) is a "V-series" Nerve agent chemically similar to the better-known VM ( Edemo) is a "V-series" Nerve agent closely related to the better-known VX nerve agent. VX (S--O-ethyl methylphosphonothioate is an extremely toxic substance whose sole application is as a Nerve agent. The most studied agent in this family, VX, was invented in the 1950s at Porton Down in the United Kingdom. VX (S--O-ethyl methylphosphonothioate is an extremely toxic substance whose sole application is as a Nerve agent. Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Porton Down is a UK government and military Science park. It is situated slightly northeast of Porton near Salisbury in Wiltshire, The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The other agents in this series have not been studied extensively, and information about them is limited. It is known, however, that the V-series agents are about 10 times more toxic than the G-agent sarin (GB). Sarin, also known by its NATO designation of GB, is an extremely toxic substance whose sole application is as a Nerve agent.

All of the V-agents are persistent agents, meaning that these agents do not degrade or wash away easily, and can therefore remain on clothes and other surfaces for long periods. In use, this allows the V-agents to be used to blanket terrain to guide or curtail the movement of enemy ground forces. The consistency of these agents is similar to oil; as a result, the contact hazard for V-agents is primarily - but not exclusively - dermal. VX was the only V-series agent that was fielded by the USA as a munition, consisting of rockets, artillery shells, airplane spray tanks, and landmines. A shell is a payload-carrying Projectile, which as opposed to shot, contains an explosive or other filling though modern usage includes large solid projectiles [2][3]

Novichok agents

Main article: Novichok agent

The Novichok (Russian for "newcomer") agents are a series of organophosphate compounds developed in the Soviet Union. Novichok (Russian новичок: "Newcomer" is a series of Nerve agents that were developed by the Soviet Union in the 1970s and 1980s and The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The advantage to using new agents is that they have never been previously encountered. As a result:

Insecticides

A number of insecticides, the phenothiazines, organophosphates such as dichlorvos, malathion and parathion, are nerve agents. An insecticide is a Pesticide used against Insects in all developmental forms Phenothiazine is the Organic compound with the formula S(C6H42NH An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) is the general name for Esters of Phosphoric acid. Dichlorvos (22-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate or DDVP is a highly volatile Organophosphate, widely used as a Fumigant to control household pests in Malathion is an Organophosphate Parasympathomimetic which binds irreversibly to Cholinesterase. Parathion, also called parathion-ethyl or diethyl parathion, is an Organophosphate compound. The metabolism of insects is sufficiently different from mammals that these compounds have little effect on humans and other mammals at proper doses; but there is considerable concern about the effects of long-term exposure to these chemicals by farm workers and animals alike. Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands At high enough doses, however, acute toxicity and death can occur through the same mechanism as other nerve agents. In Medicine, an acute disease is a disease with either or both of a rapid onset a short course (as opposed to a chronic course Organophosphate pesticide poisoning is a major cause of disability in many developing countries, and is often the preferred method of suicide. Pesticide Poisonings occur when chemicals intended to control a pest affect non-target organisms such as Humans Wildlife, or Bees Since [4]

History

The discovery of nerve agents

This first class of nerve agents, the so-called G-Series, was accidentally discovered in Germany on December 23, 1936 by a research team headed by Dr. Gerhard Schrader. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Events 962 - Byzantine-Arab Wars: Under the future Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine troops stormed the city Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Dr Gerhard Schrader ( 25 February 1903 &ndash1990 was a German chemist specializing in the discovery of new insecticides hoping to make progress in the Since 1934, Schrader had been in charge of a laboratory in Leverkusen to develop new types of insecticides for IG Farben. Year 1934 ( MCMXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Leverkusen is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located on the eastern bank of the Rhine, half way between Cologne and An insecticide is a Pesticide used against Insects in all developmental forms IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG, "syndicate of dyestuff corporations" and also called I While working toward his goal of improved insecticide, Schrader experimented with numerous fluorine-containing compounds, eventually leading to the preparation of tabun. Fluorine, fluorum meaning "to flow" is the Chemical element with the symbol F and Atomic number 9 Effects of overexposure The exact symptoms of overexposure are similar to those created by all Nerve agents Tabun like all nerve agents is toxic even in minute doses

In experiments, tabun was extremely potent against insects: as little as 5 ppm of tabun killed all the leaf lice he used in his initial experiment. "Parts-per" notation is used especially in Science and Engineering, to denote Ratios (relative proportions in measured quantities particularly In January 1937, Schrader observed the effects of nerve agents on human beings first-hand when a drop of tabun spilled onto a lab bench. Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Within minutes he and his laboratory assistant began to experience miosis (constriction of the pupils of the eyes), dizziness, and severe shortness of breath. Miosis is Constriction of the Pupil of the Eye. This is a normal response to an increase in light but can also be associated with certain Pathological It took them three weeks to recover fully.

In 1935 the Nazi government had passed a decree that required all inventions of possible military significance to be reported to the Ministry of War, so in May of 1937 Schrader sent a sample of tabun to the chemical warfare (CW) section of the Army Weapons Office in Berlin-Spandau. Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German A Ministry of War or Ministry for War is an administrative supply and services agency of an army as opposed to the entire military establishment Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. For the Spandau machine gun see Maschinengewehr 08. For the 1980s New Romantic group see Spandau Ballet. Dr. Schrader was summoned to the Wehrmacht chemical lab in Berlin to give a demonstration, after which Schrader's patent application and all related research was classified. Colonel Rüdiger, head of the CW section, ordered the construction of new laboratories for the further investigation of tabun and other organophosphate compounds, and Schrader soon moved to a new laboratory at Wuppertal-Elberfeld in the Ruhr valley to continue his research in secret throughout World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The compound was initially codenamed Le-100 and later Trilon-83.

Sarin was discovered by Schrader and his team in 1938 and named after their initials: Schrader, Ambrose, Rudriger, and van der Linde. Sarin, also known by its NATO designation of GB, is an extremely toxic substance whose sole application is as a Nerve agent. It was codenamed T-144 or Trilon-46. It was found to be more than ten times as potent as tabun. Soman was discovered by Dr. Alternative names Soman is occasionally referred to by names other than soman or GD: Phosphonofluoridic acid methyl- 1 2 2-trimethylpropyl ester Richard Kuhn in 1944 as he worked with the existing compounds, the name is derived from either the Greek 'to sleep' or the Latin 'to bludgeon', it was codenamed T-300. Richard Kuhn ( December 3 1900 &ndash August 1 1967) was an Austrian German biochemist and Nobel laureate Cyclosarin was also discovered during WWII but the details were lost and it was 'discovered' again in 1949. Chemical characteristics Like its predecessor sarin cyclosarin is a liquid Organophosphate nerve agent Year 1949 ( MCMXLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The G-series naming system was created by the United States when it uncovered the German activities, labeling tabun as GA (German Agent A), sarin as GB, and soman as GD. [5] Ethyl sarin was tagged GE and cyclosarin as GF.

During World War II

In 1939, a pilot plant for tabun production was set up at Munster-Lager, on Luneberg heath near the German Army proving grounds at Raubkammer. Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial Building where workers manufacture goods In January 1940, construction began on a secret plant, code named "Hochwerk" (High factory), for the production of tabun at Dyherrnfurth an der Oder (now Brzeg Dolny in Poland), on the Oder River 40 km (24. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Brzeg Dolny (until 1945 Dyhernfurth is a town in Wołów County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship in south-western Poland. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Oder (known in Czech and Polish as Odra) is a River in Central Europe. 9 miles) from Breslau (now Wrocław) in Silesia. Wrocław (Breslau Vratislav Vratislavia or Wratislavia Yiddish: ברעסלוי) is the chief City of the historical region of Lower Silesia Wrocław (Breslau Vratislav Vratislavia or Wratislavia Yiddish: ברעסלוי) is the chief City of the historical region of Lower Silesia Etymology One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, who were most likely a Vandalic (East Germanic people

The plant was large, covering an area of 2. 4 by 0. 8 km (1. 5 by 0. 5 miles), and was completely self-contained, synthesizing all intermediates as well as the final product, tabun. The factory even had an underground plant for filling munitions, which were then stored at Krappitz (now Krapkowice) in Upper Silesia. The plant was operated by Anorgana GmbH, a subsidiary of IG Farben, as were all other chemical weapon agent production plants in Germany at the time. IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG, "syndicate of dyestuff corporations" and also called I Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy.

Because of the plant's deep secrecy and the difficult nature of the production process, it took from January 1940 until June 1942 for the plant to become fully operational. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Many of tabun's chemical precursors were so corrosive that reaction chambers not lined with quartz or silver soon became useless. Tabun itself was so hazardous that the final processes had to be performed while enclosed in double glass-lined chambers with a stream of pressurized air circulating between the walls.

3,000 German nationals were employed at Hochwerk, all equipped with respirators and clothing constructed of a poly-layered rubber/cloth/rubber sandwich that was destroyed after the tenth wearing. A respirator is a device designed to protect the wearer from inhaling harmful Dusts fumes vapors and/or Gases Respirators come in a wide range of types and sizes Clothing (also called clothes, accoutrements, accouterments, or habiliments) protects the Human body from extreme Weather Despite all precautions, there were over 300 accidents before production even began, and at least 10 workers died during the 2. 5 years of operation. Some incidents cited in A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare are as follows:

The plant produced between 10,000 and 30,000 tons of tabun before its capture by the Soviet Army. [5]

In 1940 the German Army Weapons Office ordered the mass production of sarin for wartime use. A number of pilot plants were built, and a high-production facility was under construction (but was not finished) by the end of World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Estimates for total sarin production by Nazi Germany range from 500 kg to 10 tons.

During that time, German intelligence believed that the Allies also knew of these compounds, assuming that because these compounds were not discussed in the Allies' scientific journals information about them was being suppressed. Intelligence (abbreviated int or intel) is not Information, but the product of evaluated information valued for its currency and relevance rather than In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose Though sarin, tabun and soman were incorporated into artillery shells, the German government ultimately decided not to use nerve agents against Allied targets. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine The Allies didn't learn of these agents until shells filled with them were captured towards the end of the war.

This is detailed in Joseph Borkin's book The Crime and Punishment of IG Farben:

Speer, who was strongly opposed to the introduction of tabun, flew Otto Ambros, I.G.'s authority on poison gas as well as synthetic rubber, to the meeting. Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer, commonly known as Albert Speer ( 19 March 1905 - 1 September 1981 was an Architect, author and for part of World Effects of overexposure The exact symptoms of overexposure are similar to those created by all Nerve agents Tabun like all nerve agents is toxic even in minute doses IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG, "syndicate of dyestuff corporations" and also called I Hitler asked Ambros, "What is the other side doing about poison gas?" Ambros explained that the enemy, because of its greater access to ethylene, probably had a greater capacity to produce mustard gas than Germany did. Structure This Hydrocarbon has four Hydrogen Atoms bound to a pair of Carbon atoms that are connected by a Double bond. The sulfur mustards, of which mustard gas ( Bis (2-chloroethyl sulfide is a member are a class of related Cytotoxic, Vesicant Chemical Hitler interrupted to explain that he was not referring to traditional poison gases: "I understand that the countries with petroleum are in a position to make more [mustard gas], but Germany has a special gas, tabun. In this we have a monopoly in Germany. " He specifically wanted to know whether the enemy had access to such a gas and what it was doing in this area. To Hitler's disappointment Ambros replied, "I have justified reasons to assume that tabun, too, is known abroad. I know that tabun was publicized as early as 1902, that Sarin was patented, and that these substances appeared in patents. (. . . ) Ambros was informing Hitler of an extraordinary fact about one of Germany's most secret weapons. The essential nature of tabun and sarin had already been disclosed in the technical journals as far back as 1902, and I.G. had patented both products in 1937 and 1938. Year 1902 ( MCMII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG, "syndicate of dyestuff corporations" and also called I A patent is a set of Exclusive rights granted by a State to an inventor or his assignee for a fixed period of time in exchange for a disclosure of an Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1938 ( MCMXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Ambros then warned Hitler that if Germany used tabun, it must face the possibility that the Allies could produce this gas in much larger quantities. Upon receiving this discouraging report, Hitler abruptly left the meeting. The nerve gases would not be used, for the time being at least, although they would continue to be produced and tested.

– Joseph Borkin, The Crime and Punishment of IG Farben

The secret gets out

Towards the end of World War II and during the occupation of Germany, the Allies recovered weapons containing the three German nerve agents of the day, prompting further research into nerve agents by the former Allies. The Red Army captured a factory producing tabun at Dyhernfurth in early 1945, they dismantled the entire site and took it back to Russia. Brzeg Dolny (until 1945 Dyhernfurth is a town in Wołów County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship in south-western Poland. Stocks of tabun, sarin and soman were discovered by all the Allies within Germany; the Anglo-American advance seizing around 250,000 tons of chemical weapons, the subset of nerve agents (totaling around 30,000 tons) was split with the British taking 14,000 tons of tabun-filled bombs and the Americans taking the balance of sarin-filled devices. The fourth G-series nerve agent, cyclosarin, although discovered by German scientists studying organophosphates during WWII was seemingly not found by the Allies, but independently rediscovered in 1949.

In 1952, researchers in Porton Down, England invented the VX nerve agent, inspired by the commercial pesticide Amiton, later reclassified as VG. Year 1952 ( MCMLII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Porton Down is a UK government and military Science park. It is situated slightly northeast of Porton near Salisbury in Wiltshire, England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland VX (S--O-ethyl methylphosphonothioate is an extremely toxic substance whose sole application is as a Nerve agent. VG (OO-Diethyl-S- phosphorothioate (also called Amiton or Tetram) is a "V-series" Nerve agent chemically similar to the better-known VG (OO-Diethyl-S- phosphorothioate (also called Amiton or Tetram) is a "V-series" Nerve agent chemically similar to the better-known The UK soon unilaterally abandoned the chemical weapons and chemical weapons research. In 1958 the British government traded their VX technology with the United States of America in exchange for information on thermonuclear weapons; by 1961 the US was producing large amounts of VX, and performed its own nerve agent research. Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Nuclear weapon designs are physical chemical and engineering arrangements that cause the physics package of a nuclear weapon to detonate Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The four agents (VE, VG, VM, VX) are collectively known as the "V-Series" class of nerve agents.

Since World War II

Since World War II, Iraq's use of mustard gas against Iranian troops and Kurds (Iran-Iraq war of 1981–1988) has been the only large-scale use of any chemical weapons. On the scale of the single Kurdish village of Halabja within its own territory, Iraqi forces did expose the populace to some kind of chemical weapons, possibly mustard gas, and most likely nerve agents. Halabja ( Kurdish: هه‌ڵه‌بجه or Helepçe) is a Kurdish town in a majority Kurdish area of Iraq about northeast of

In the Gulf War, no nerve agents (nor other chemical weapons) were used, but a number of U. S. and UK personnel were exposed to them when the Khamisiyah chemical depot was destroyed. Khamisiyah (بغداد) is an area in southern Iraq located approximately 350 km south east of Baghdad, 200 km north-west of Kuwait City and This, and the widespread use of anticholinergic drugs as a protective treatment against any possible nerve gas attack, have been proposed as a possible cause of Gulf war syndrome. Gulf War syndrome (GWS or Gulf War illness (GWI is an Illness reported by combat Veterans of the 1991 Persian Gulf War typified by Symptoms

One of the most widely publicised uses of nerve agents was the 1995 terrorist attack in which operatives of the Aum Shinrikyo religious group released sarin into the Tokyo subway system. The Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway, usually referred to in the Japanese media as the, was an act of Domestic terrorism perpetrated by members of Aum Aum Shinrikyo, now known as Aleph, is a Japanese new religious movement organization Sarin, also known by its NATO designation of GB, is an extremely toxic substance whose sole application is as a Nerve agent. officially, is one of the 47 prefectures of Japan and located on the eastern side of the main island Honshū. A rapid transit, underground, subway, elevated railway or metro(politan system is an electric passenger railway

Ocean disposal of chemical weapons

In 1972, The United States Congress banned the practice of disposing chemical weapons into the ocean. However 32,000 tons of nerve and mustard agents had already been dumped into the ocean waters off the United States by the U. S. Army. According to a 1998 report created by William Brankowitz, a deputy project manager in the U. S. Army Chemical Materials Agency, the Army created at least 26 chemical weapons dumpsites in the ocean off at least 11 states on both the west and east coasts. Additionally due to poor records, currently they only know the rough whereabouts of half of them.

It is unknown how these dumps of chemical weapons have affected the ocean ecology—it may be responsible for some of the decline in fish populations over the past decades, but no evidence has yet proved a causal relationship between dumping and fish population decline. The steel containers they are contained within face a variable rate of decay and no one is really certain where or how deep they were dumped. If a nerve agent leaks into the ocean, it can last up to six weeks, during which time it will kill every susceptible organism it touches before it breaks down into its nonlethal chemical components.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Goats Can Foil Gas Attack
  2. ^ a b FM 3-8 Chemical Reference handbook; US Army; 1967
  3. ^ "U. S. Army Destroys Entire Stockpile of VX Spray Tanks" http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003677713, U. S. Army Chemical Materials Agency, December 26, 2007, accessed January 4, 2007
  4. ^ "Overcoming apathy in research on organophosphate poisoning", BMJ (former British Medical Journal) 2004;329:1231-1233 (20 November)
  5. ^ a b [1], Frederick Sidell

References

External links

The United States Department of Health and Human Services ( HHS) is a Cabinet department of the United States government with the goal of protecting

Dictionary

nerve agent

-noun

  1. Alternative name of nerve gas.
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