| Nero | |
| Emperor of the Roman Empire | |
 Nero at Glyptothek, Munich |
|
| Reign | October 13, 54 – June 9, 68 (Proconsul from 51) |
|---|---|
| Full name | Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus |
| Born | December 15, 37 |
| Birthplace | Antium |
| Died | June 9, 68 (aged 30) |
| Place of death | Rome |
| Predecessor | Claudius |
| Successor | Galba |
| Wives | Claudia Octavia Poppaea Sabina Statilia Messalina |
| Issue | Claudia Augusta |
| Dynasty | Julio-Claudian |
| Father | Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus |
| Mother | Agrippina the Younger |
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (December 15, 37 – June 9, 68),[1] born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC The Glyptothek is a museum in Munich, Germany, which was commissioned by the Bavarian King Ludwig I to house his collection of Greek and Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Events 54 - Nero ascends to the Roman throne 409 - Vandals and Alans crossed the Pyrenees Year 54 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits Year 68 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Ancient Rome In the Roman Republic, a proconsul was a Promagistrate (like a Propraetor) who after serving as Consul, spent a year Year 51 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Year 37 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits Year 68 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Servius Sulpicius Galba ( December 24, 3 BC &ndash January 15, 69) also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Claudia Octavia ( Classical Latin: CLAVDIA•OCTAVIA (Late 39 or early 40- 9 June 62 was a Roman Empress step-sister and first wife to Roman Emperor Poppaea Sabina (30-65 was a Roman Empress and second wife of the Roman Emperor Nero. Statilia Messalina (ca 35 - after 68 was a Roman patrician woman a Roman Empress and third wife to Roman Emperor Nero (from 66 to 68 Claudia Augusta (PIR2 C 1061 was the only daughter of the Roman Emperor Nero by his second wife Roman Empress Poppaea Sabina. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and For others of this family see Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus ( 11 December, 17 BC - January 40 was a close relative to the Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor ( Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA from the year 50 Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Year 37 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits Year 68 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Nero was adopted by his great uncle Claudius to become heir to the throne. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to As Nero Claudius Caesar, he succeeded to the throne on October 13, 54, following Claudius' death. Events 54 - Nero ascends to the Roman throne 409 - Vandals and Alans crossed the Pyrenees Year 54 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar.
Nero ruled from 54 to 68, focusing much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign included a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63), the suppression of the British revolt (60–61) and improving relations with Greece. Boudica (also spelled Boudicca, formerly known as Boadicea, and known in Welsh culture and legends as "Buddug" (d In 68 a military coup drove Nero into hiding. Facing execution, he reportedly committed forced suicide. Forced suicide is a method of Execution where the victim is given the choice of committing Suicide or facing an alternative they perceive as worse such as suffering [2]
Nero's rule is often associated with tyranny and extravagance. [3] He is known for a number of executions, including his mother[4] and adoptive brother, as the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned"[5] and an early persecutor of Christians. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth This view is based upon the main surviving sources for Nero's reign—Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. [6] Some sources, though, portray him as an emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the East. [7]
The study of Nero is problematic as some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources when reporting on Nero's alleged tyrannical acts. [8] It may be impossible to separate fact completely from fiction concerning Nero's reign.
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Early life
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Family
Nero was born with the name Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on December 15, AD 37, in Antium, near Rome. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - 14 known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA See also Gaius Julius Caesar, for others of the same name Gaius Julius Caesar (20 BC - AD 4 most commonly known as Julius Caesar, was For other men named Lucius (Julius Caesar see Lucius Julius Caesar Lucius Julius Caesar (17 BC-2 most commonly known as Lucius Caesar Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus (12 BC-14 also known as Agrippa Postumus or Postumus Agrippa, was a son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Nero Claudius Drusus, later Drusus Julius Caesar (his adoptive name (13 BC- September 14 23) was the only child of Roman Emperor Tiberius Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor For the identically named daughter of Germanicus, see Drusilla (sister of Caligula. Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus, known as Tiberius Gemellus, ( 10 October AD 19 &ndash AD 37 or 38 was the son of Drusus and Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Claudia Antonia ( Classical Latin: ANTONIA•CLAUDII•CAESARIS•FILIA (ca Claudia Octavia ( Classical Latin: CLAVDIA•OCTAVIA (Late 39 or early 40- 9 June 62 was a Roman Empress step-sister and first wife to Roman Emperor For the 1669 Tragedy by French Dramatist Jean Racine, see Britannicus (play. Claudia Augusta (PIR2 C 1061 was the only daughter of the Roman Emperor Nero by his second wife Roman Empress Poppaea Sabina. Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Year 37 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [9][10] He was the only son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, sister of emperor Caligula. For others of this family see Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus ( 11 December, 17 BC - January 40 was a close relative to the Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor ( Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA from the year 50 Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor
Lucius' father was the grandson of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Aemilia Lepida through their son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. For others of this family see Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (died 31 BC) was a general and politician of Ancient Rome Aemilia Lepida is the name of Roman women belonging to the Gens Aemilia. For others of this family see Ahenobarbus. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus ( fl Gnaeus was a grandson to Mark Antony and Octavia Minor through their daughter Antonia Major. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Octavia Minor (69 - 11 BC also known as Octavia the Younger or simply Octavia, was the sister of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus (known also Antonia Major ( in Latin Antonia Maior, PIR2 A 884 (b August/September 39 BC also known as Antonia the Elder, was a daughter to Through Octavia, he was the grand-nephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero's father had been employed as a praetor and was a member of Caligula's staff when the future-emperor traveled to the East. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before [11] Nero's father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was charged by emperor Tiberius with treason, adultery, and incest. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman [11] Tiberius died allowing him to escape these charges. [11] Gnaeus died of edema (or "dropsy") in 39 when Lucius was three. Oedema (or Edema in American English formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, is the increase of Interstitial fluid in any organ &mdash swelling Year 39 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [11]
Lucius' mother was Agrippina the Younger, who was great-granddaughter to Caesar Augustus and his wife Scribonia through their daughter Julia the Elder and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Scribonia (68 BC-16 was the daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo and Cornelia Sulla (the daughter of Faustus Cornelius Sulla, the granddaughter of Pompey Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - 14 known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA Agrippa redirects here For other uses of the name see Agrippa (disambiguation. Agrippina's father, Germanicus, was grandson to Augustus's wife, Livia, on one side and to Mark Antony and Octavia on the other. Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Livia Drusilla, after 14 AD called Julia Augusta ( Classical Latin: LIVIA•DRVSILLA IVLIA•AVGVSTA (58 BC-29 AD was the wife of Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Germanicus' mother Antonia Minor, was a daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Antonia Minor ( PIR2 A 885 also known as Antonia the Younger or simply Antonia ( 31 January 36 BC-September/October 37 was a Octavia was Augustus' second elder sister. Germanicus was also the adoptive son of Tiberius. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of murdering her third husband, emperor Claudius. [12]
Physical appearance
On the book "The Lives of the Twelve Caesars" Roman historian Suetonius described Nero's appearance as follows: "He was about the average height, his body marked with spots and malodorous, his hair light blond, his features regular rather than attractive, his eyes blue and somewhat weak, his neck over thick, his belly prominent, and his legs very slender. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. "[3]
Rise to power
Lucius was not expected ever to become emperor. His maternal uncle, Caligula, had begun his reign at the age of twenty-four with ample time to produce his own heir. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor Lucius' mother, Agrippina, lost favor with Caligula and was exiled in 39 after her husband's death. Year 39 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [13] Caligula seized Lucius's inheritance and sent him to be raised by his less wealthy aunt, Domitia Lepida. Domitia Lepida ( PIR2 D 180 Domitia Lepida Minor ( Minor Latin for the younger) or simply known as Lepida (c [10]
Caligula produced no heir. He, his wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla were murdered in 41. Milonia Caesonia ( PIR2 M 590 (6-41 was a Roman Empress She rose from modest origins to become the fourth and last wife of the Roman Emperor Caligula For the identically named daughter of Germanicus, see Drusilla (sister of Caligula. Year 41 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [14] These events led Claudius, Caligula's uncle, to become emperor. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to [15] Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile. [10]
Claudius had married twice before marrying Messalina. [16] His previous marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who died at a young age. [17] He had two children with Messalina - Claudia Octavia (b. Claudia Octavia ( Classical Latin: CLAVDIA•OCTAVIA (Late 39 or early 40- 9 June 62 was a Roman Empress step-sister and first wife to Roman Emperor 40) and Britannicus (b. Year 40 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. For the 1669 Tragedy by French Dramatist Jean Racine, see Britannicus (play. 41). Year 41 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [17] Messalina was executed by Claudius in 48. Year 48 was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [16] In 49, Claudius married a fourth time, to Agrippina. Year 49 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [17] To aid Claudius politically, Lucius was officially adopted in 50 and renamed Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus (see adoption in Rome). Year 50 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. In Ancient Rome, Adoption of boys was a fairly common procedure particularly in the upper senatorial class [18] Nero was older than his stepbrother, Britannicus, and became heir to the throne. [19]
Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of fourteen. Year 51 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [20] He was appointed proconsul, entered and first addressed the Senate, made joint public appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage. Ancient Rome In the Roman Republic, a proconsul was a Promagistrate (like a Propraetor) who after serving as Consul, spent a year The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. [20] In 53, he married his stepsister Claudia Octavia. Year 53 was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Claudia Octavia ( Classical Latin: CLAVDIA•OCTAVIA (Late 39 or early 40- 9 June 62 was a Roman Empress step-sister and first wife to Roman Emperor [21]
Emperor
Early rule
Claudius died in 54 and Nero was established as emperor. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Year 54 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Though accounts vary greatly, many ancient historians claim Agrippina poisoned Claudius. Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor ( Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA from the year 50 [12] It is not known how much Nero knew or was involved with the death of Claudius. [22]
Nero became emperor at sixteen, the youngest Emperor up until that time. [23] Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and the Praetorian Prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, especially in the first year. Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor ( Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA from the year 50 Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c For other persons named Afranius see Afranius. Sextus Afranius Burrus (1 - 62 Praetorian prefect, was advisor to Roman emperor [24] The first few years of Nero's rule were known as examples of fine administration. The matters of the Empire were handled effectively and the Senate enjoyed a period of renewed influence in state affairs. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. [25]
Very early in Nero's rule, problems arose from competition for influence between Agrippina and Nero's two advisers, Seneca and Burrus. In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met with an Armenian envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous scene. Year 54 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [25] Nero's personal friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to beware of his mother. [26] Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to Octavia and entered an affair with Claudia Acte, a former slave. Claudia Octavia ( Classical Latin: CLAVDIA•OCTAVIA (Late 39 or early 40- 9 June 62 was a Roman Empress step-sister and first wife to Roman Emperor Claudia Acte was a freedwoman of Ancient Rome who became a mistress of the emperor Nero. [27] In 55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that her son dismiss Acte. Year 55 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs. [28]
With Agrippina's influence over her son severed, she reportedly turned to a younger candidate for the throne. [29] Nearly fifteen-year-old Britannicus was still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood. [29] According to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being the blood son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the state over Nero. [29] However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on February 12, 55, the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set. Events 1429 - English Forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orleans from attack by the Year 55 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [30] Nero claimed that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient historians all claim Britannicus' death came from Nero's poisoning him. [31] After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence. [32]
Matricide and consolidation of power
Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful, freeing himself of his advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed Marcus Antonius Pallas, an ally of Agrippina, from his position in the treasury. Year 55 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Marcus Antonius Pallas ( c 1 &ndash 63) was a prominent Greek freedman and secretary during the reigns of the Roman Emperors Claudius [28] Pallas, along with Burrus, was accused of conspiring against the emperor to bring Faustus Sulla to the throne. For other persons named Afranius see Afranius. Sextus Afranius Burrus (1 - 62 Praetorian prefect, was advisor to Roman emperor Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix (22–62 was one of the lesser known figures of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of Ancient Rome. [33] Seneca was accused of having relations with Agrippina and embezzlement. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c [34] Seneca was able to get himself, Pallas and Burrus acquitted. [34] According to Cassius Dio, at this time, Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from careful management to mere moderation of Nero. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was [35]
In 58, Nero became romantically involved with Poppaea Sabina, the wife of his friend and future emperor Otho. Year 58 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Poppaea Sabina (30-65 was a Roman Empress and second wife of the Roman Emperor Nero. For other uses see Otho (disambiguation. Marcus Salvius Otho ( April 25, 32 – April 16, 69) also called Marcus [36] Reportedly because a marriage to Poppaea and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59. [37] A number of modern historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62. Year 62 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [38] Additionally, according to Suetonius, Poppaea did not divorce her husband until after Agrippina's death, making it unlikely that the already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. [39] Some modern historians theorize that Nero's execution of Agrippina was prompted by her plotting to set Rubellius Plautus on the throne. Gaius Rubellius Plautus (33-62 was a Roman noble and a political rival of Emperor Nero. [40] According to Suetonius, Nero tried to kill his mother through a planned shipwreck, but when she survived, he had her executed and framed it as a suicide. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. [41] The incident is also recorded by Tacitus [42]
In 62 Nero's adviser, Burrus, died. Year 62 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. For other persons named Afranius see Afranius. Sextus Afranius Burrus (1 - 62 Praetorian prefect, was advisor to Roman emperor [43] Additionally, Seneca was again faced with embezzlement charges. [44] Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire from public affairs. [45] Nero divorced and banished Octavia on grounds of infertility, leaving him free to marry the pregnant Poppaea. Claudia Octavia ( Classical Latin: CLAVDIA•OCTAVIA (Late 39 or early 40- 9 June 62 was a Roman Empress step-sister and first wife to Roman Emperor [46] After public protests, Nero was forced to allow Octavia to return from exile,[46] but she was executed shortly upon her return. [47]
Accusations of treason against Nero and the Senate first appeared in 62. Year 62 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [48] The Senate ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to death for speaking ill of Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of Fabricius Veiento who slandered the Senate in a book. [49] Tacitus writes that the roots of the conspiracy led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso began in this year. Gaius Calpurnius Piso was a Roman senator in the 1st century He was the focal figure in the Pisonian Conspiracy of 65 A To consolidate power, Nero executed a number of people in 62 and 63 including his rivals Pallas, Rubellius Plautus and Faustus Sulla. Year 62 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 63 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Marcus Antonius Pallas ( c 1 &ndash 63) was a prominent Greek freedman and secretary during the reigns of the Roman Emperors Claudius Gaius Rubellius Plautus (33-62 was a Roman noble and a political rival of Emperor Nero. Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix (22–62 was one of the lesser known figures of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of Ancient Rome. [50] According to Suetonius, Nero "showed neither discrimination nor moderation in putting to death whomsoever he pleased" during this period. [51]
Nero's consolidation of power also included a slow usurping of authority from the Senate. In 54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers equivalent to those under Republican rule. Year 54 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [52] By 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy. Year 65 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso in 65 represented one of the major turning points in the reign of the Roman emperor Nero (54&ndash68 [53]
War and peace with Parthia
Shortly after Nero's accession to the throne in 55, the Roman vassal kingdom of Armenia overthrew their prince Rhadamistus and he was replaced with the Parthian prince Tiridates. Year 55 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. A vassal (also called feodary or fedary) in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of Medieval Europe, The Kingdom of Armenia (or Greater Armenia) was an independent kingdom from 190 BC to AD 387 and a client state of the Roman and Persian empires until Rhadamistus (also known as Ghadam or Radamisto) was an Iberian prince who reigned in Armenia from 51 to 53 and 54 to 55 CE. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Tiridates I ( Տրդատ Ա EA: Trdat I WA: Drtad I was King of Armenia beginning in AD 53 and the founder of the Arshakuni Dynasty [54] This was seen as a Parthian invasion of Roman territory. [54] There was concern in Rome over how the young emperor would handle the situation. [55] Nero reacted by immediately sending the military to the region under the command of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo. Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo (ca 7 - 67 was a Roman general Life Descent Corbulo was born in Italy into a senatorial family [56] The Parthians temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome. [57]
The peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58. Year 58 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Parthian king Vologases I refused to remove his brother Tiridates from Armenia. Vologases I of Parthia (in Persian Balash or Valakhsh ruled the Parthian Empire from about 51 to 78 [58] The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom. [36] Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian army that same year. Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo (ca 7 - 67 was a Roman general Life Descent Corbulo was born in Italy into a senatorial family [59] Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of Armenia. [59]
Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory. [60] Tigranes, a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, was installed by Nero as the new ruler of Armenia. Julius Tigranes, also known as Tigranes VI was among one of the Kings of Armenia who lived in the 1st century. [61] Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward. [61]
In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian city of Adiabene. Year 62 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Adiabene (from the Αδιαβηνή Adiabene, itself derived from Aramaic syr ܚܕܝܐܒ Ḥaḏy’aḇ or Ḥḏay’aḇ) was [62] Again, Rome and Parthia were at war and this continued until 63. Year 63 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Parthia began building up for a strike against the Roman province of Syria. [63] Corbulo tried to convince Nero to continue the war, but Nero opted for a peace deal instead. [64] There was anxiety in Rome about eastern grain supplies and a budget deficit. [65]
The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but was crowned in Rome by emperor Nero. [63] In the future, the king of Armenia was to be a Parthian prince, but his appointment required approval from the Romans. This is a list of the kings and queens of Armenia, an ancient kingdom in Anatolia and Caucasus as well as other Armenian Kingdoms Tiridates was forced to come to Rome and partake in ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance. [66] The Roman people were said to be overjoyed by lives saved through this peace deal. [66]
This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero politically. Year 63 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [67] Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the Parthians as well. [67] The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years until emperor Trajan of Rome invaded Armenia in 114. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who
Administrative policies
Over the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that pleased the lower class. Nero was criticised as being obsessed with being popular. [68]
Nero began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy. Year 54 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [52] In this first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to enactments, for which he was praised by the Senate. [69] Nero was known for being hands-off and spending his time visiting brothels and taverns during this period. [69]
In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. Year 55 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. He was consul four times between 55 and 60. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Year 55 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 60 was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. During this period, some ancient historians speak fairly well of Nero and contrast it with his later rule. [70]
Under Nero, restrictions were put on the amount of bail and fines. [71] Also, fees for lawyers were limited. [72] There was a discussion in the Senate on the misconduct of the freedmen class, and a strong demand was made that patrons should have the right of revoking freedom. [73] Nero supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right. [74] The Senate tried to pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to all slaves within a household. Nero vetoed the measure. [75]
Nero transferred collection authority to lower commissioners of competency. [71] Nero banned any magistrate or procurator from exhibiting public entertainment for fear that the venue was being used as a method to sway the populace. [76] Additionally, there were many impeachments and removals of government officials along with arrests for extortion and corruption. [77]
Nero’s actions attempted to the help the poor’s economic situation. When further complaints arose that the poor were being overly taxed, Nero attempted to repeal all indirect taxes. [78] The Senate convinced him this action would be too extreme. [78] As a compromise, taxes were cut from 4. 5% to 2. 5%. [79] Additionally, secret government tax records were ordered to become public. [79] To lower the cost of food imports, merchant ships were declared tax-exempt. [79]
Nero was an avid lover of arts and entertainment. Nero built a number of gymnasiums and theaters and had performers dress in Greek clothing. [80] Enormous gladiatorial shows were held. [81] Nero also established the quinquennial Neronia. The quinquennial Neronia was a massive Greek-style festival created by Nero. [81][80] The festival included games, poetry and theater. Historians indicate that there was a belief that theater was for the lower-class and led to immorality and laziness. [80] Others looked down upon Greek influence. [82] Some questioned the large public expenditure on entertainment. [82]
In 63, fiscal crises began to emerge. Year 63 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Parthian War and a lost shipment of grain threatened to increase the price of food in Rome. [83] Nero reassigned management of public funds, urged fiscal responsibility and gave a private donation to the treasury. [83] He then opted for a peace deal with the Parthians. [84] In 64, Rome burned. According to the historian Tacitus, the Great Fire of Rome started on the night of 18 July in the year AD 64, among the shops clustered around the [66] Nero enacted a public relief effort[66] as well as reconstruction. [85] The provinces, where wealthy land-owners lived, were heavily taxed following the fire. [86]
A number of major construction projects occurred in Nero's late reign. To prevent malaria, Nero had the marshes of Ostia filled with rubble from the fire. [85] He erected the large Domus Aurea. The Domus Aurea ( Latin for "Golden House" was a large landscaped portico Villa, designed to take advantage of artificially created landscapes [87] In 67 , Nero attempted to have a canal dug at the Isthmus of Corinth. Year 67 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Isthmus of Corinth is the narrow landbridge which connects the Peloponnese peninsula with the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth [88] These projects and others exacerbated the drain on the State's budget. [89]
Major rebellions and power struggles
Rome was relatively peaceful under Nero's reign. War with Parthia was Nero's only major war and he was both criticized and praised for an aversion to battle. [90] Like many emperors, Nero faced a number of internal rebellions and power struggles.
- British Revolt (Boudica's Uprising)
In 60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of Britannia. Year 60 was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Britannia was the term originally used by the Romans to refer first to the British Isles, and later to the island of Great Britain. [91] While the governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and his troops were busy capturing Mona Island (Anglesey Island) from druids, the tribes of the south-east staged a revolt led by queen Boudica of the Iceni. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, also spelled Paullinus, (flourished 1st century) was a Roman general Boudica (also spelled Boudicca, formerly known as Boadicea, and known in Welsh culture and legends as "Buddug" (d The Iceni or Eceni were a Brythonic Tribe who inhabited an area of Britain corresponding roughly to the modern-day county of Norfolk [92] Boudica and her troops destroyed three cities before the army of Suetonius Paulinus was able to return, be reinforced and put down the rebellion in 61. Year 61 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [93] Fearing Suetonius Paulinus would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced the governor with the more passive Publius Petronius Turpilianus. Publius Petronius Turpilianus was a Roman politician and general [94]
- The Pisonian Conspiracy
In 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus, a praetorian tribune, and Sulpicius Asper, a centurion. The conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso in 65 represented one of the major turning points in the reign of the Roman emperor Nero (54&ndash68 Year 65 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Gaius Calpurnius Piso was a Roman senator in the 1st century He was the focal figure in the Pisonian Conspiracy of 65 A [95] According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the State" from the emperor and restore the Republic. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the [96] The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditos. Epaphroditos or Epaphroditus (died c 95 was a Freedman and secretary of the Roman Emperor Nero. [97] As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including Nero's former friend Lucan, the poet. Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( November 3, 39 AD – April 30, 65 AD better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman [98] Nero's previous advisor, Seneca was ordered to commit suicide after admitting he discussed the plot with the conspirators. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c [99]
- Jewish Revolt (The First Jewish-Roman War)
In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension. Year 66 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [100] In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to restore order. Year 67 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who [101] This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death. Year 70 was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [102] This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem. Etymology The Hebrew name given in Scripture for the building is Beit HaMikdash or "The Holy House" and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name [103]
- Vindex's Rebellion
In late 67 or early 68, Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul, rebelled against the tax policies of Nero. Year 67 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 68 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Gaius Iulius Vindex, of a noble Gaulish family of Aquitania given senatorial status under Claudius, was a Roman governor in the province of Gallia Gallia Lugdunensis was a province of the Roman Empire in what is now the modern country of France, part of the Celtic nation of Gaul Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western [104] Virginius Rufus, the governor of superior Germany, was sent to put down the rebellion. Lucius Verginius Rufus (AD 15-97 sometimes incorrectly called Lucius Virginius Rufus was a Roman patriot and soldier three times Consul (in 63 69 [105] To gain support, Vindex alled on Galba, the governor of Hispania Citerior in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal), to become emperor. Servius Sulpicius Galba ( December 24, 3 BC &ndash January 15, 69) also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar the Roman Republic, Hispania Citerior (English Hither Spain) was a region of Hispania roughly located in the northeastern coast and in the Ebro Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. [106] Virginius Rufus defeated Vindex's forces and Vindex committed suicide. [105] Galba was declared a public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia. [106]
- The Rise of Galba
Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome. By June of 68 the senate voted Galba the emperor[107] and declared Nero a public enemy. Year 68 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Servius Sulpicius Galba ( December 24, 3 BC &ndash January 15, 69) also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar [108] The Praetorian Guard was bribed to betray Nero by the praetorian prefect, Nymphidius Sabinus, who desired to become emperor himself. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, or Nymphidius Sabinus, (c 35&ndash68 was a prefect of the Roman imperial Bodyguard, known as the Praetorian [109] The praetorian guard captured Nero and he reportedly committed suicide. Forced suicide is a method of Execution where the victim is given the choice of committing Suicide or facing an alternative they perceive as worse such as suffering [108]
After Nero's death, Rome descended into a period civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69 in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession [110] Nero's successors fought among themselves for power. Galba, Otho and Vitellius were each briefly emperor until Nero's general Vespasian returned from Judea and restored order as emperor. For other uses see Otho (disambiguation. Marcus Salvius Otho ( April 25, 32 – April 16, 69) also called Marcus Aulus Vitellius Germanicus, born Aulus Vitellius and commonly known as Vitellius ( 24 September, 15 &ndash 22 December, 69 Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who
Great Fire of Rome
The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of July 18 to July 19, 64. According to the historian Tacitus, the Great Fire of Rome started on the night of 18 July in the year AD 64, among the shops clustered around the Events 390 BC - Roman - Gaulish Wars Battle of the Allia - a Roman army is defeated by raiding Gauls, Events 711 - Muslim forces under Tariq ibn Ziyad defeat the Visigoths led by their king Roderic. Year 64 was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in shops selling flammable goods. [111]
The extent of the fire is uncertain. According to Tacitus, who was nine at the time of the fire, it spread quickly and burned for five days. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. [112] It completely destroyed four of fourteen Roman districts and severely damaged seven. [112] The only other historian who lived through the period and mentioned the fire is Pliny the Elder who wrote about it in passing. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author [113] Other historians who lived through the period (including Josephus, Dio Chrysostom, Plutarch, and Epictetus) make no mention of it. Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus Dio Chrysostom (Δίων Χρυσόστομος) Dion of Prusa or Dio Cocceianus (ca Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Epictetus ( Greek:; ca 55&ndashca 135 was a Greek Stoic philosopher.
It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire—whether accident or arson. [111] Suetonius and Cassius Dio favor Nero as the arsonist. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was [114] Tacitus mentions that Christians confessed to the crime, but it is not known whether these were confessions induced by torture. [115] However, accidentally started fires were common in ancient Rome. [116] In fact, Rome burned significantly again under Vitellius in 69[110] and under Titus in 80. [117]
It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was The Iliou persis ( Greek:; also known as Iliupersis, esp in Latin; English: Sack of Ilium) is a lost epic of ancient [118] Popular legend claims that Nero played the fiddle at the time of the fire, an anachronism based merely on the concept of the lyre, a stringed instrument associated with Nero and his performances. The lyre is a stringed musical instrument well known for its use in Classical Antiquity and later (There were no fiddles in 1st-century Rome. ) However, Tacitus' account has Nero in Antium at the time of the fire. [119] Tacitus also said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only rumor. [119]
According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero rushed back to Rome to organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds. [119] After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors. [119] In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads. [120] Nero also built a new palace complex known as the Domus Aurea in an area cleared by the fire. The Domus Aurea ( Latin for "Golden House" was a large landscaped portico Villa, designed to take advantage of artificially created landscapes This included lush artificial landscapes and a 30 meter statue of himself, the Colossus of Nero. The Colossus of Nero was an enormous Statue that the Emperor Nero had erected in his image in the vestibule of the Domus Aurea. [87] The size of this complex is debated (from 100 to 300 acres). [121][122][123] To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire. [124]
According to Tacitus, the population searched for a scapegoat and rumors held Nero responsible. [115] To diffuse blame, Nero targeted a sect called the Christians. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth [115] He ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs, while others were crucified and burned. [115]
Tacitus described the event:
| “ | Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. [115] | ” |
Public performances
Nero enjoyed driving a one-horse chariot, singing to the harp and poetry. [125] He even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers throughout the empire. [126] At first, Nero only performed for a private audience. [127]
In 64, Nero began singing in public in Neapolis in order to improve his popularity. Year 64 was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the [127] He also sang at the second quinquennial Neronia in 65. The quinquennial Neronia was a massive Greek-style festival created by Nero. Year 65 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [128] It was said that Nero craved the attention,[129] but historians also write that Nero was encouraged to sing and perform in public by the Senate, his inner circle and the people. [130] Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform, calling it shameful. [131]
Nero was convinced to participate in the Olympic Games of 67 in order to improve relations with Greece and display Roman dominance. The Ancient Olympic Games, originally referred to as simply the Olympic Games (Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες Olympiakoi Agones) were a series of Athletic Year 67 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [132] As a competitor, Nero raced a ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being thrown from it. [133] He also performed as an actor and a singer. [134] Though Nero faltered in his racing (in one case, dropping out entirely before the end) and acting competitions,[133] he won these crowns nevertheless and paraded them when he returned to Rome. [133] The victories are attributed to Nero bribing the judges and his status as emperor. [135]
Death
In late 67 or early 68, Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul, rebelled against the tax policies of Nero. Year 67 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 68 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Gaius Iulius Vindex, of a noble Gaulish family of Aquitania given senatorial status under Claudius, was a Roman governor in the province of Gallia Gallia Lugdunensis was a province of the Roman Empire in what is now the modern country of France, part of the Celtic nation of Gaul Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western [104] Virginius Rufus, the governor of superior Germany was sent to put down the rebellion. Lucius Verginius Rufus (AD 15-97 sometimes incorrectly called Lucius Virginius Rufus was a Roman patriot and soldier three times Consul (in 63 69 [105] To gain support, Vindex called on Galba, the governor of Hispania Citerior in Hispania, to become emperor. Servius Sulpicius Galba ( December 24, 3 BC &ndash January 15, 69) also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar the Roman Republic, Hispania Citerior (English Hither Spain) was a region of Hispania roughly located in the northeastern coast and in the Ebro Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar [106] Virginius Rufus defeated Vindex's forces and Vindex committed suicide. [105] Galba was declared a public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia. [106]
Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome. By June of 68 the senate voted Galba the emperor[107] and declared Nero a public enemy. Year 68 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [108] The Praetorian Guard was bribed to betray Nero by the praetorian prefect, Nymphidius Sabinus, who desired to become emperor himself. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, or Nymphidius Sabinus, (c 35&ndash68 was a prefect of the Roman imperial Bodyguard, known as the Praetorian [109]
According to Suetonius, Nero fled Rome on the Salaria road. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. [136] They urged him to flee, but he prepared himself for suicide. Forced suicide is a method of Execution where the victim is given the choice of committing Suicide or facing an alternative they perceive as worse such as suffering [108] Reportedly, the praetorian guard entered to capture Nero just as he stabbed himself with the help of his secretary, Epaphroditos. Epaphroditos or Epaphroditus (died c 95 was a Freedman and secretary of the Roman Emperor Nero. [137] Upon seeing the figure of a Roman soldier, he gasped "this is fidelity. "[108] It was said by Cassius Dio that he uttered the last words "Jupiter, what an artist perishes in me!"[138]
With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Chaos ensued in the Year of the four emperors. The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69 in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession [110]
After death
- See also: Nero Redivivus Legend and Pseudo-Nero
According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero. Nero Redivivus Legend is a popular belief during the last half of the First century that Nero would return after his death in 68 AD After the emperor Nero committed suicide near the villa of his freedman Phaon in June of 68 AD, various Nero impostors appeared between the autumn of Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was [139][140] Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the upper-class. [141] The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news. [141] Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to overthrow him. [109]
Eastern sources, namely Philostratus II and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character"[142] and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them. "[143]
Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia. "[144]
Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as "outburts of private zeal". [145] Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images survive. [146] This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously (see damnatio memoriae). Damnatio memoriae is the Latin phrase literally meaning "damnation of memory" in the sense of removed from the remembrance. [146] Champlin, however, doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death. [147]
The civil war during the Year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient historians as a troubling period. The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69 in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession [110] According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could. [141] Galba began his short reign with the execution of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies. Servius Sulpicius Galba ( December 24, 3 BC &ndash January 15, 69) also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar [148] One notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of emperor Caligula. Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, or Nymphidius Sabinus, (c 35&ndash68 was a prefect of the Roman imperial Bodyguard, known as the Praetorian Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor [149]
Otho overthrew Galba. For other uses see Otho (disambiguation. Marcus Salvius Otho ( April 25, 32 – April 16, 69) also called Marcus Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he resembled Nero. [150] It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself. [151] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero. [151] Vitellius overthrew Otho. Aulus Vitellius Germanicus, born Aulus Vitellius and commonly known as Vitellius ( 24 September, 15 &ndash 22 December, 69 Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero. [152]
After Nero's suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return. [153] This belief came to be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend. Nero Redivivus Legend is a popular belief during the last half of the First century that Nero would return after his death in 68 AD
At least three Nero imposters emerged leading rebellions. After the emperor Nero committed suicide near the villa of his freedman Phaon in June of 68 AD, various Nero impostors appeared between the autumn of The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius. [154] After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed. [154] Sometime during the reign of Titus (79-81) there was another impostor who appeared in Asia and also sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, was killed. Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus ( December 30 39 &ndash September 13 81) was a Roman Emperor who [155] Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of Domitian, there was a third pretender. Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death Supported by the Parthians, they hardly could be persuaded to give him up[156] and the matter almost came to war. [110]
The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death. Augustine of Hippo wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422[157]
Historiography
The history of Nero’s reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories at one time did exist and were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero. [158] The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events. [159] Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians. [160] A few of the contemporary historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Elder all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost. Fabius Rusticus was a Roman historian who was quoted on several occasions by Tacitus. Cluvius Rufus was a Roman senator governor and historian who was mentioned on several occasions by Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Plutarch Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author [161] There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or on what deeds Nero was praised. [162]
The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio, who were all of the Patrician class. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero’s death. These sources contradict on a number of events in Nero’s life including the death of Claudius, the death of Agrippina and the Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor ( Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA from the year 50 Year 64 was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar.
A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying perspective on Nero. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some sources, though, portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the east.
- Cassius Dio Cocceianus
Cassius Dio (c. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was 155- 229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. Events By Place Roman Empire Severus Alexander and Dio Cassius are joint Consuls Cassius Apronianus or Apronianus (died 180 was a Roman who lived in the 2nd century He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, as also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia. Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus ( August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with Lucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) ( April 11 145 - February 4 211) was a Roman general and Roman Emperor Events By Place Roman Empire Hadrian's Wall is restored after heavy raids by Caledonian tribes had overrun much of northern
Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th century monk. Joannes Xiphilinus, epitomator of Dio Cassius, lived at Constantinople during the latter half of the 11th century AD
- Dio Chrysostom
Dio Chrysostom (c. Dio Chrysostom (Δίων Χρυσόστομος) Dion of Prusa or Dio Cocceianus (ca 40– 120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. Year 40 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared:
| “ | Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that he was still alive. [163] | ” |
- Epictetus
Epictetus (c. Epictetus ( Greek:; ca 55&ndashca 135 was a Greek Stoic philosopher. 55- 135) was the slave to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos. Year 55 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Epaphroditos or Epaphroditus (died c 95 was a Freedman and secretary of the Roman Emperor Nero. He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man.
- Josephus
The historian Josephus (c. Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus 37- 100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero. Year 37 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Of other historians, he said:
| “ | But I omit any further discourse about these affairs; for there have been a great many who have composed the history of Nero; some of which have departed from the truth of facts out of favor, as having received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred to him, and the great ill-will which they bare him, have so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned. Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts that were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no way incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long time after them. [164] | ” |
- Marcus Annaeus Lucanus
Though more of a poet than historian, Lucanus (c. Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( November 3, 39 AD – April 30, 65 AD better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman 39- 65) has one of the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. Year 39 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 65 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. He writes of peace and prosperity under Nero in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed. [165]
- Philostratus
Philostratus II "the Athenian" (c. Philostratus, was the name of four Greek Sophists of the Roman imperial period: (c 172- 250) spoke of Nero in the Life of Apollonius Tyana (Books 4–5). Events By Place Roman Empire Marcus Aurelius, as part of the pact signed with the Marcomanni, imports them to occupy areas of Events By Place Roman Empire A group of Franks penetrate as far as Tarragona in Spain (approximate date Life of Apollonius of Tyana is a book written in Ancient Greece by Philostratus (c Though he has a generally a bad or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East.
- Pliny the Elder
The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author 24- 79) did not survive. Year 24 was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 79 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Still, there are several references to Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind. "[166]
- Plutarch
Plutarch (c. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c 46- 127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho. Year 46 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not described as better.
- Seneca the Younger
It is not surprising that Seneca (c. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c 4 BC- 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very well of Nero. Year 4 BC was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 65 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [167]
- Suetonius Tranquillus
Suetonius (c. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. 69- 130) was a member of the equestrian order and head of the department of the imperial correspondence. 69 (sex position & book by Ryu Murakami are -- already linked by "" with other meanings Removed by Hadrianus in 121, he started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects.
Portions of his biography of Nero appear sensational and modern scholarship questions the full accuracy of his writings. For example:
| “ | He castrated the boy Sporus and actually tried to make a woman of him; and he married him with all the usual ceremonies, including a dowry and a bridal veil, took him to his home attended by a great throng, and treated him as his wife. And the witty jest that someone made is still current, that it would have been well for the world if Nero's father Domitius had that kind of wife. This Sporus, decked out with the finery of the empresses and riding in a litter, he took with him to the courts and marts of Greece, and later at Rome through the Street of the Images, fondly kissing him from time to time. [168] | ” |
- Tacitus Publius Cornelius
The Annals by Tacitus (c. The Annals, or in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the four Roman Emperors succeeding Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. 56- 117) is the most detailed and comprehesive history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year 66. Year 56 was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 66 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. He is unkind to Nero, but unlike other historians, he minimizes the use of sensational stories. Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced:
| “ | The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified through terror, and after their death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred. [169] | ” |
Tacitus was the son of a procurator, who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realizing that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true[170]
Nero and religion
Jewish tradition
At the end of 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to a Jewish tradition in the Talmud (tractate Gitin 56a-b) [4], Nero came to Jerusalem and told his men to shoot arrows in all four directions. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel," (Ez. 25,14) said the child. According to religious texts Ezekiel ((יְחֶזְקֵאל Yehezkel, jəx Nero became terrified, realizing that God wanted the Temple in Jerusalem to be destroyed, but would punish him if it were. Etymology The Hebrew name given in Scripture for the building is Beit HaMikdash or "The Holy House" and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name Nero said, "He desires to lay waste his House and to lay the blame on me. " Nero fled to Rome and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution. Vespasian was then dispatched to put down the rebellion. Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess, a prominent supporter of Bar Kokhba's rebellion against Roman rule, is a descendant of Nero. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Rabbi Meir or Reb Meir Baal Haneis (or Hanes (lit Rabbi Meir Master of the Miracle) was a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the Mishna.
Christian tradition
Early Christian tradition often holds Nero as the first persecuter of Christians and as the killer of Apostles Peter and Paul. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth The Twelve Apostles (Greek apostolos, "someone sent out" e Paul the apostle (שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning " Saul of Tarsus " Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and There was also a belief among some early Christians that Nero was the Antichrist. For other uses see Antichrist (disambiguation In Christian eschatology, the Antichrist or anti-Christ means a person office
- First Persecutor
The non-Christian historian Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of 64. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Year 64 was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [115] Suetonius also mentions Nero punishing Christians, though he does so as a praise and does not connect it with the fire. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. [171]
The Christian writer Tertullian (c. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Anglicised as Tertullian, (ca 155- 230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine. [172] Lactantius (c. Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius? Firmianus Lactantius was an Early Christian author (ca 240- 320) also said Nero first persecuted the servants of God[173] as does Sulpicius Severus. Sulpicius Severus (c 363 &ndash between 420 and 425 wrote the earliest Biography of Saint Martin of Tours. [174] However, some sources speak of earlier Christian persecution, namely Claudius' expulsion of Christians from Rome. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to [175]
- Killer of Peter and Paul
The first text to suggest that Nero killed an apostle is the apocryphal Ascension of Isaiah, a Christian writing from the 2nd century. The book Ascension of Isaiah is one of the Pseudepigrapha, dating probably the first half of 2nd century AD and compiled by an unknown Christian scholar It says the slayer of his mother, who himself this king, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands. [176]
The Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (c. A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight Caesarea (קיסריה Qesarya قيسارية pronounced Kaysaria) is a town in Israel on the outskirts of Caesarea Maritima, the ancient port 275- 339) was the first to write that Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero. [177] He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give any specific orders. Several other accounts have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and traveling to Hispania. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar [178]
Peter is first said to have been crucified upside down in Rome during Nero's reign (but not by Nero) in the apocryphal Acts of Peter (c. The Acts of Peter is one of the earliest of the Apocryphal acts of the apostles 200). [179] The account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute any more Christians.
By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul. [180]
- The Antichrist
The Ascension of Isaiah is the first text to suggest that Nero was the Antichrist. This article refers to the Biblical character For other uses see Beast. The Number of the Beast is a concept from the Book of Revelation of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The book Ascension of Isaiah is one of the Pseudepigrapha, dating probably the first half of 2nd century AD and compiled by an unknown Christian scholar For other uses see Antichrist (disambiguation In Christian eschatology, the Antichrist or anti-Christ means a person office It claims a lawless king, the slayer of his mother,. . . will come and there will come with him all the powers of this world, and they will hearken unto him in all that he desires. [176]
The Sibylline Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in the 2nd century, speaks of Nero returning and bringing destruction. The Sibylline Oracles (sometimes called the "pseudo-Sibylline Oracles" are a collection of oracular utterances written in Greek hexameters ascribed to the Sibyls [181] Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others,[182] fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist. In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero suddenly disappeared, and even the burial-place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. Events By Place Roman Empire While Constantine is campaigning against the Bructeri, Maximian attempts to make himself Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius? Firmianus Lactantius was an Early Christian author (ca This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses. [173]
In 422, Augustine of Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Though he rejects the theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed that Nero was the Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote, so that in saying, "For the mystery of iniquity doth already work," he alluded to Nero, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist. [157];
Some scholars, such as Delbert Hillers (Johns Hopkins University) of the American Schools of Oriental Research and the editors of the Oxford & Harper Collins study Bibles, contend that the number 666 in the Book of Revelation is a code for Nero,[183] a view that is also supported in Roman Catholic Biblical commentaries. The American Schools of Oriental Research, (commonly abbreviated as ASOR founded in 1900 supports and encourages the study of the peoples and cultures of the Near East, from The Number of the Beast is a concept from the Book of Revelation of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The Book of Revelation, also called Revelation to John, Apocalypse of John ( pronounced, from the Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου [184][185] When treated as Hebrew numbers, the letters of Nero's name add up either to 616 or 666, representing the two numbers of the beast given in ancient versions of Revelations and the two ways of spelling his name in Hebrew (NERO and NERON).
The concept of Nero as the Antichrist is often a central belief of Preterist eschatology. Preterism is a variant of Christian eschatology which holds that some or all of the biblical prophecies concerning the Last Days or End Times Eschatology (from the Greek, Eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of" is a part of Theology
Nero in post-ancient culture
Nero in medieval and Renaissance literature
Usually as a stock exemplar of vice or a bad ruler
- In the Golden Legend, and its apocryphal account of his forcing Seneca the Younger's suicide, where they meet face to face on this occasion. The Golden Legend (Legenda Aurea by Jacopo da Varagine is a collection of fanciful hagiographies or lives of the Saints that became a late medieval Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c
- In Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, The Monk's Prologue and Tale. Geoffrey Chaucer (c 1343 – 25 October 1400? was an English author poet Philosopher, bureaucrat, courtier and Diplomat. The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in Prose, the rest in verse) The Monk's Tale is one of The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer.
- Giovanni Boccaccio's Concerning the Falls of Illustrious Men.
- Matthew Gwinn wrote a play Nero in 1603. [186]
Nero in modern culture
Nero in music
Nero is the main character of some musical works, as the operas:
- Claudio Monteverdi's L'incoronazione di Poppea (1642),
- Anton Rubinstein's Nero (1879),
- Arrigo Boito's Nerone (1924),
- Pietro Mascagni's Nerone (1935). Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (37 – 68 was the fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (54–68 L'incoronazione di Poppea ( SV 308 The Coronation of Poppea) is an Opera seria in three acts by Claudio Monteverdi to an Italian This article is about the 19th century Russian pianist and composer Arrigo Boito ( February 24, 1842 &ndash June 10, 1918) aka Enrico Giuseppe Giovanni Boito Pseudonym Tobia Gorrio was an Italian Nerone ( Nero) is an Opera in four acts composed by Arrigo Boito, to a libretto in Italian written by the composer WikipediaWikiProject Composers#Lead section --> Pietro Mascagni ( December 7, 1863 &ndash August 2, Nerone ( Nero) is an Opera in three acts by Pietro Mascagni, 1935, from a Libretto by Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti
Ancestry
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4. For others of this family see Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (died 31 BC) was a general and politician of Ancient Rome Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus |
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2. Aemilia Lepida is the name of Roman women belonging to the Gens Aemilia. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus |
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10. For others of this family see Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus ( 11 December, 17 BC - January 40 was a close relative to the Mark Antony | |||||||
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5. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Antonia Major |
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11. Antonia Major ( in Latin Antonia Maior, PIR2 A 884 (b August/September 39 BC also known as Antonia the Elder, was a daughter to Octavia Minor | |||||||
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6. Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, born Decimus Claudius Drusus (the date of his name change is unknown and variously called Drusus, Drusus I, Nero Germanicus |
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13. Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) Antonia Minor | |||||||
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3. Antonia Minor ( PIR2 A 885 also known as Antonia the Younger or simply Antonia ( 31 January 36 BC-September/October 37 was a Agrippina the Younger |
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14. Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor ( Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA from the year 50 Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa | |||||||
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15. Julia Vipsania Agrippina ( Classical Latin: AGRIPPINA•GERMANICI (14 BC – 18 October 33) most commonly known as Agrippina Major Julia the Elder | |||||||
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Notes
- ^ Nero's birth day is listed in Suetonius o sheah bay bay, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 6. Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - 14 known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA His death day is uncertain, though, perhaps because Galba was declared emperor before Nero lived. A June 9th death day comes from Jerome, Chronicle, which lists Nero's rule as 13 years, 7 months and 28 days. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII. 3 and Josephus, War of the Jews IV, say Nero's rule was 13 years, 8 months which would be June 11th
- ^ Suetonius claims that Nero committed suicide in Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 49; Sulpicius Severus, who possibly used Tacitus' lost fragments as a source, reports that is was uncertain whether Nero committed suicide, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II. 29, also see T. D. Barnes, "The Fragments of Tacitus' Histories", Classical Philology (1977), p. 228
- ^ Galba criticized Nero's luxuria, both his public and private excessive spending, during rebellion, Tacitus, Annals I. 16; Kragelund, Patrick, "Nero's Luxuria, in Tacitus and in the Octavia", The Classical Quarterly, 2000, p. 494-515
- ^ References to Nero's matricide appear in the Sibylline Oracles 5. 490-520, Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales The Monk's Tale, and William Shakespeare's Hamlet 3. ii
- ^ Nero was not a fiddle player, but a lyre player. Suetonius claims Nero played the lyre while Rome burned, see Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 38; For a detailed explanation of this transition see M. F. Gyles "Nero Fiddled while Rome Burned", The Classical Journal (1948), p. 211-217 [1]
- ^ These include Lucan's Civil War, Seneca the Younger's On Mercy and Dio Chrysostom's Discourses along with various Roman coins and inscriptions
- ^ Tacitus, Histories I. 4, I. 5, I. 13, II. 8; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 57, Life of Otho 7, Life of Vitellius 11; Philostratus II, The Life of Apollonius 5. 41; Dio Chrysostom, Discourse XXI, On Beauty
- ^ On fire and Christian persecution, see F. W. Clayton, "Tacitus and Christian Persecution", The Classical Quarterly, p. 81-85; B. W. Henderson, Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero, p. 437; On general bias against Nero, see Edward Champlin, Nero, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003, p. 36-52 (ISBN 0-674-01192-9)
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 1
- ^ a b c Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 6
- ^ a b c d Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 5
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XII.66; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.34; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 44; Josephus is less sure, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.1
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 29
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.14, XIX.2.4
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.3.2
- ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 26
- ^ a b c Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 27
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XII.25
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XII.26
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XII.41
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XII.58
- ^ Cassius Dio's and Suetonius' accounts claim Nero knew of the murder, Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.35, Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 33; Tacitus' and Josephus' accounts only mention Agrippina, Tacitus, Annals XII.65, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.1
- ^ Augustus was 35, Tiberius was 56, Caligula was 25 and Cladius was 50
- ^ Cassius Dio claims "At first Agrippina managed for him all the business of the empire", then Seneca and Burrus "took the rule entirely into their own hands,", but "after the death of Britannicus, Seneca and Burrus no longer gave any careful attention to the public business" in 55, Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.3-7
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIII.5
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.13
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.12
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIII.14
- ^ a b c Tacitus, Annals XIII.15
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.16
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.16; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XX.8.2; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 33; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.7
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.18-21
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.23
- ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.10
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.7
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIII.46
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.1
- ^ Dawson, Alexis, "Whatever Happened to Lady Agrippina?", The Classical Journal, 1969, p. 254
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Otho 3
- ^ Rogers, Robert, Heirs and Rivals to Nero, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 86. (1955), p. 202. Silana accuses Agrippina of plotting to bring up Plautus in 55, Tacitus, Annals XIII.19; Silana is recalled from exile after Agrippina's power waned, Tacitus, Annals XIV.12; Plautus is exiled in 60, Tacitus, Annals XIV.22
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 34
- ^ Tacitus, "The Annals"
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.51
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.52
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.53
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIV.60
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.64
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.48
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.49
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.65
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 37
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIII.4
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.51
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIII.7
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.8
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.9
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.10
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.42
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIII.55
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.56
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIV.36
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.1
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XV.4
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.19
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.21
- ^ a b c d Tacitus, Annals XV.38
- ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.23
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 53; Gibbon, Edward, The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Vol. I, Chap. VI
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIII.25
- ^ Aurelius Victor mentions Trajan's praise of Nero's first five or so years. Sextus Aurelius Victor (ca 320-ca 390 was an historian and politician of the Roman Empire. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who Aurelius Victor The Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperitors 5; The unknown author of Epitome de Caesaribus also mentions Trajan's praise of the first five or so years of Nero Auctor incertus Epitome De Caesarbius 5
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIII.28
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 17
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.26
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.27
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.45
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.31
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.30, XIV.18, XIV.40, XIV.46
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIII.50
- ^ a b c Tacitus, Annals XIII.51
- ^ a b c Tacitus, Annals XIV.20
- ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 12
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XIV.21
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XV.18
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.29
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XV.43
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.45
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XV.42
- ^ Josephus, War of the Jews III.10.10
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XVI.3
- ^ Suetonius Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 18; Marcus Annaeus Lucanus Pharsalia (Civil War) (c. 65)[2]
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.29
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.31
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.31-38
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.39
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.49
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.50
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.55
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.70
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.60-62
- ^ Josephus, War of the Jews II.13.7
- ^ Josephus, War of the Jews III.1.3
- ^ Josephus, War of the Jews VI.10.1
- ^ Josephus, War of the Jews VII.1.1
- ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.22
- ^ a b c d Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.24
- ^ a b c d Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, Life of Galba 5
- ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.49
- ^ a b c d e Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 49
- ^ a b c Tacitus, Histories I.5
- ^ a b c d e Tacitus, Histories I.2
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XV.38
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XV.40; Suetonius says the fire raged for six days and seven nights, Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 38; A pillar set by Domitius states the fire burned for nine days
- ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories, XVII.1.5, Pliny mentions trees that lasted "down to the Emperor Nero’s conflagration"
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Nero 38; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.16
- ^ a b c d e f Tacitus Annals XV.44
- ^ Juvenal writes that Rome suffered from perpetual fires and falling houses Juvenal, Satires 3.7, 3.195, 3.214
- ^ Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 8
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 38; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.16
- ^ a b c d Tacitus, Annals XV.39
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.43
- ^ Roth, Leland M. (1993). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning, First, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 227-8. ISBN 0-06-430158-3
- ^ Ball, Larry F. (2003). The Domus Aurea and the Roman architectural revolution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521822513
- ^ Warden reduces its size to under 100 acres. Warden, P. G. , "The Domus Aurea Reconsidered," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 40 (1981) 271-278
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.45
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.14, XIV.16
- ^ Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius 4.39; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vitellius 11
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals XV.33
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars Life of Nero 21
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 33
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XVI.4; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vitellius 11; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 10, 21
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.15; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.19
- ^ Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius 5.7
- ^ a b c Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 24
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 25
- ^ Suetonius The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 23, 24
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 48
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 49
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.29
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 63
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 57
- ^ a b c Tacitus, Histories I.4
- ^ Philostratus II, The Life of Apollonius 5.41
- ^ Letter from Apollonius to Emperor Vespasian, Philostratus II, The Life of Apollonius 5.41
- ^ M. T. Griffin, Nero (1984), p. 186; Gibbon, Edward, The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Vol. I, Chap. III
- ^ Champlin (2003), p. 29.
- ^ a b John Pollini, Review of Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture by Eric R. Varner, The Art Bulletin (September 2006).
- ^ Champlin (2003), pp. 29–31.
- ^ Tacitus, Histories I.6
- ^ Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba 9
- ^ Tacitus, Histories I.13
- ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Otho 7
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vitellius 11
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 57; Tacitus, Histories II.8; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.19
- ^ a b Tacitus, Histories II.8
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.19
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caears, Life of Nero 57.
- ^ a b Augustine of Hippo, City of God XX.19.3
- ^ Tacitus, Annals I.1; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.3; Tacitus, Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola 10; Tacitus, Annals XIII.20
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.20; Tacitus, Annals XIV.2
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.20; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.13
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.20
- ^ Tacitus, Annals I.1; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.3
- ^ Dio Chrysostom, Discourse XXI, On Beauty
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.3
- ^ Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, Pharsalia (Civil War) (c. 65)
- ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories VII.8.46
- ^ Seneca the Younger, Apocolocyntosis 4
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 28
- ^ Tacitus, Annals I.1
- ^ Tacitus, History I.1
- ^ Suetonius The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, chapter 16
- ^ Tertullian Apologeticum, lost text quoted in Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History II.25.4
- ^ a b Lactantius, Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died II
- ^ Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28
- ^ Suetonius The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 25
- ^ a b Ascension of Isaiah Chapter 4.2
- ^ Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History II.25.5
- ^ In the apocryphal Acts of Paul, in the apocryphal Acts of Peter, in the First Epistle of Clement 5:6, and in The Muratorian Fragment
- ^ Apocryphal Acts of Peter
- ^ Lactantius wrote that Nero crucified Peter, and slew Paul. Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius? Firmianus Lactantius was an Early Christian author (ca , Lactantius, Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died II; John Chrysostom wrote Nero knew Paul personally and had him killed, John Chrysostom, Concerning Lowliness of Mind 4; Sulpicius Severus says Nero killed Peter and Paul, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28-29
- ^ Sibylline Oracles 5.361-376, 8.68-72, 8.531-157
- ^ Sulpicius Severus and Victorinus of Pettau also say Nero is the Antichrist, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28-29; Victorinus of Pettau, Commentary on the Apocalypse 17
- ^ Hillers, Delbert, “Rev. This article refers to the Christian saint For other uses of the name see Chrysostomos. Sulpicius Severus (c 363 &ndash between 420 and 425 wrote the earliest Biography of Saint Martin of Tours. Sulpicius Severus (c 363 &ndash between 420 and 425 wrote the earliest Biography of Saint Martin of Tours. Saint Victorinus of Poetovio (died 303 or 304 was a Catholic ecclesiastical Writer who flourished about 270 and who was martyred during the persecutions of Emperor 13, 18 and a scroll from Murabba’at”, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 170 (1963) 65.
- ^ The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Ed. Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990. 1009
- ^ Just, S. J. , Ph. D. , Prof. Felix. The Book of Revelation, Apocalyptic Literature, and Millennial Movements, University of San Francisco, USF Jesuit Community. Retrieved on 2007-05-18. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine.
- ^ Gwinn, Matthew. Nero. Retrieved on 2007-05-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1535 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail on his second voyage to North America with three ships 110 men and
References
Primary sources
- Tacitus, Histories, I-IV (c. 105)
- Tacitus, Annals, XIII–XVI (c. 117)
- Josephus, War of the Jews, Books II-VI (c. 94)
- Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book XX (c. 94)
- Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 61–63 (c. 229)
- Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba (c. 110)
- Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius Tyana, Books 4–5, (c. 220)
- Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, the Life of Nero (c. 121)
Secondary material
- Nero Nero:The Actor-Emperor
- Nero entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
- Nero basic data & select quotes posted by Romans On Line
- Nero Caesar biographical sketch archived in Bible History Online
- Nero biography by Herbert W. Benario in De Imperatoribus Romanis
- Grant, Michael. Nero. New York: Dorset Press, 1989 (ISBN 0-88029-311-X).
- Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus entry in the Illustrated History of the Roman Empire
- Griffin, Miriam T. Nero: The End of a Dynasty. New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1985 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-03285-4); London; New York: Routledge, 1987 (paperback, ISBN 0-7134-4465-7).
- Warmington, Brian Herbert. Nero: Reality and Legend (Ancient Culture and Society). London, Chatto & Windus, 1969 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7011-1438-X); New York: W. W Norton & Company, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 0-393-00542-9); New York: Vintage, 1981 (paperback, ISBN 0-7011-1454-1).
| Preceded by Claudius |
Roman Emperor 54 – 68 |
Succeeded by Galba |
| Julio-Claudian dynast 54 – 68 |
Succeeded by (none) |
|
| Preceded by Marcus Acilius Aviola and Marcus Asinius Marcellus |
Consul of the Roman Empire together with Lucius Antistius Vetus 55 |
Succeeded by Quintus Volusius Saturninus and Publius Cornelius Lentulus Scipio |
| Preceded by Quintus Volusius Saturninus and Publius Cornelius Lentulus Scipio |
Consul of the Roman Empire 57-58 |
Succeeded by Gaius Vipstanus Apronianus and Gaius Fonteius Capito |
| Preceded by Gaius Vipstanus Apronianus and Gaius Fonteius Capito |
Consul of the Roman Empire with Cossus Cornelius Lentulus 60 |
Succeeded by Publius Petronius Turpilianus and Lucius Iunius Caesennius Paetus |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| NAME | Nero |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus; Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | Fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty; reigned 13 October 54 – 9 June 68 |
| DATE OF BIRTH | December 15, 37 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Anzio, Italy |
| DATE OF DEATH | June 9, 68 |
| PLACE OF DEATH | Rome, Italy |
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to For a simplified list see Concise list of Roman Emperors. For more information see History of the Roman Empire. Year 54 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 68 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Servius Sulpicius Galba ( December 24, 3 BC &ndash January 15, 69) also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Marcus Asinius Marcellus was Consul in 54 along with Marcus Acilius Aviola at the Emperor Claudius ' death This is a list of Roman consuls Key Abbreviations Imp = Imperator suff The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Year 55 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Quintus Volusius Saturninus was a Roman that lived in the 1st century and was a Roman senator during the reign of Nero and was consul in 56. Publius Cornelius Lentulus Scipio was a prominent Roman senator during the reign of Tiberius Quintus Volusius Saturninus was a Roman that lived in the 1st century and was a Roman senator during the reign of Nero and was consul in 56. Publius Cornelius Lentulus Scipio was a prominent Roman senator during the reign of Tiberius This is a list of Roman consuls Key Abbreviations Imp = Imperator suff The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Year 57 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 58 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Gaius Fonteius Capito was a consul of the Roman Empire on 59, succeeding Nero. Gaius Fonteius Capito was a consul of the Roman Empire on 59, succeeding Nero. This is a list of Roman consuls Key Abbreviations Imp = Imperator suff The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Year 60 was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Publius Petronius Turpilianus was a Roman politician and general The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Year 37 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits Year 68 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest
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