An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age was a period in the development of human technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (short PPNA around 9000 BC represents the early Neolithic in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian region of the Fertile Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB is a division of the Neolithic developed by Dame Kathleen Kenyon during her Archaeological excavations at Jericho The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos The Levant is a geographical term that refers to a large area in Southwest Asia, south of the Taurus Mountains, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea in Tell Halaf ( Akkadian: Guzana; تل حلف, Syria) The Tell (mound of Ubaid (عبيد near Ur in southern Iraq has given its name to the Prehistoric Pottery Neolithic to Chalcolithic Neolithic Europe is the time between roughly from 7000 BC (the approximate time of the first farming societies in Greece) to ca The Vinča culture was an early culture of Europe (between the 6th and the 3rd millennium BC stretching around the course of Danube in what today is Serbia This is a list of Neolithic cultures of China that have been discovered by archaeologists The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in the South Asia. Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: م‍ﮩ‍رگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what Paleo-Indians or Paleo-Americans were the ancient peoples of the Americas who were present at the end of the last Ice Age. The Chalcolithic (Greek khalkos + lithos ' Copper stone' period or Copper Age period known as the '''Eneolithic''' ('''Æneolithic''' is a The Uruk period (ca 4000 to 3100 BC existed from the protohistoric Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age period in the history of Mesopotamia, The Yamna (from Russian / Ukrainian яма "pit" also known as Pit Grave or Ochre Grave culture) is a late copper age /early The Corded Ware culture, alternatively characterized as the Battle Axe culture or Single Grave culture is an enormous European Archaeological horizon that The emergence of Metallurgy in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica occurred relatively late in the region's history with distinctive works of metal apparent in The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and Animal husbandry, also called Animal science, stockbreeding or simple husbandry, is the agricultural practice of breeding Pottery is the Ceramic ware made by potters It also refers to a group of materials that includes Earthenware, Stoneware Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their A wheel is a circular device that is capable of rotating on its axis facilitating movement or transportation whilst supporting a load ( Mass) or performing labour in machines About 150 arrangements of prehistoric circular ditches are known to archaeologists spread over Germany, Austria and Slovakia and the Czech Republic henge is a prehistoric Architectural structure. In form it is a nearly circular or oval-shaped flat area over 20 Metres (65 feet) in diameter Prehistoric religion is a general term for the religious beliefs and practices of prehistoric peoples The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for

Excavated dwellings at Skara Brae Scotland, Europe's most complete Neolithic village. ||-||-||-| Skara Brae (ˈskɑrə ˈbreɪ is a large stone-built Neolithic settlement located on the Bay of Skaill on the west coast of mainland Orkney

Skara Brae Scotland. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. Evidence of home furnishings i. e. shelves.

Map showing distribution of some of the main culture complexes in Neolithic Europe, ca. Neolithic Europe is the time between roughly from 7000 BC (the approximate time of the first farming societies in Greece) to ca 4500 BC

The Neolithic^[1] (from Greek νεολιθικός - neolithikos, from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos, "stone") or "New" Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology that is traditionally the last part of the Stone Age. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which Humans widely used stone for toolmaking Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which Humans widely used stone for toolmaking The Neolithic era follows the terminal Holocene Epipalaeolithic periods, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution" and ending when metal tools became widespread in the Copper Age (chalcolithic) or Bronze Age or developing directly into the Iron Age, depending on geographical region. The Holocene is a Geological epoch which began approximately 10000 years ago (about 8000 BC The Epipaleolithic is a term used for the "final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other The Chalcolithic (Greek khalkos + lithos ' Copper stone' period or Copper Age period known as the '''Eneolithic''' ('''Æneolithic''' is a The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man.

Neolithic culture appeared in the Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 8500 BC. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Jericho ( Arabic, ʼArīḥā; Hebrew, Standard Yəriḥo Tiberian Yərîḫô It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered wild cereal use, which then evolved into true farming. The Epipaleolithic is a term used for the "final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the The Natufian culture (natʏˈfjẽː existed in the Mediterranean region of the Levant. The Natufians can thus be called "proto-Neolithic" (11,000–8500 BC). As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas are thought to have forced people to develop farming. The Younger Dryas Stadial, named after the alpine / tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala, and also referred to as the Big Freeze, was a brief (approximately By 8500–8000 BC farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Anatolia, North Africa and North Mesopotamia.

Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of crops, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt and the keeping of dogs, sheep and goats. Domestication (from Latin domesticus) refers to the process whereby a Population of Animals Einkorn wheat (from German Einkorn, literally "one grain" can refer either to the wild species of Wheat, Triticum boeoticum (the spelling The millets are a group of small- Seeded Species of Cereal crops or grains widely grown around the world for Food and Fodder Spelt ( Triticum spelta) is a Hexaploid species of Wheat. Spelt was an important staple in parts of Europe from the Bronze Age to medieval times The dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated Subspecies of the gray wolf, a Mammal of the Canidae family of the order The domestic goat ( Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of goat Domesticated from the Wild goat of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe By about 7000 BC it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery. Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family Pigs, also called hogs or' swine', are Ungulates which have been domesticated as sources of food leather and similar products since ancient times ^[2] Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery, and, in Britain, it remains unclear to what extent plants were domesticated in the earliest Neolithic, or even whether permanently settled communities existed. The Ancient Near East refers to early Civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq Prehistoric Britain was a period in the human occupation of Great Britain that was the later part of Prehistory, conventionally ending with the Roman invasion In other parts of the world, such as Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally-distinctive Neolithic cultures which arose completely independent of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. Early Japanese societies used pottery before developing agriculture. The is the time in Japanese prehistory from about 14000 BC to 400 BC. ^[3][4][5]

Unlike the Palaeolithic, where more than one human species existed, only one human species (Homo sapiens sapiens) reached the neolithic. The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus

Periods by pottery phase

In Southwest Asia (i. Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia (largely overlapping with the Middle East) is the southwestern portion of Asia. e. , the Middle East), cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing soon after the 10th millennium BC. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Early development occurred in the Levant (e. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the g. , Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (short PPNA around 9000 BC represents the early Neolithic in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian region of the Fertile Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB is a division of the Neolithic developed by Dame Kathleen Kenyon during her Archaeological excavations at Jericho Neolithic cultures are also attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by ca. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding 8000 BC.

The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 7,000-8,000 BC, neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains, filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The Prehistoric Beifudi site (北福地 near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, is the Excavation of a recently discovered Prehistoric ( Postal map spelling: Hopeh) is a northern province of the People's Republic of China. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Cishan culture (磁山文化 ( 6000 - 5500 BC) was a Neolithic Yellow River culture in northern China, centered primarily around The Xinglongwa culture (興隆洼文化 ( 6200 - 5400 BC) was a Neolithic culture in northeastern China, found mainly around the Inner Mongolia The Taihang Mountains ( are a Chinese Mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Henan, Shanxi and Hebei The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases. ^[6]

Neolithic 1 — Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)

The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) began in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine & Jbeil (Byblos), Lebanon) around 8500 to 8000 BC. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the The actual date is not established with certainty due to different results in carbon dating by scientists in the British Museum and Philadelphia laboratories. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. Philadelphia (ˌfɪləˈdɛlfiə

The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture In the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The Natufian culture (natʏˈfjẽː existed in the Mediterranean region of the Levant. The grain was ground into flour. Emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated (animal husbandry and animal breeding). Emmer wheat ( Triticum dicoccon) also known as farro especially in Italy is a low yielding awned Wheat. Animal husbandry, also called Animal science, stockbreeding or simple husbandry, is the agricultural practice of breeding This article focuses on selective breeding in domesticated animals

Settlements became more permanent with circular houses, much like those of the Natufians, with single rooms. However, these houses were for the first time made of mudbricks. A mudbrick is a firefree Brick made of Clay, or mud mixed with a binding material such as rice husks or straw The husband had one house, while each of his wives lived with their children in surrounding houses. The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (like Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned. There are also some enclosures that suggest grain and meat storage.

Neolithic 2 — Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)

The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 7500 to 7000 BC in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine). Like the PPNA dates there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. But this terminological structure is not agreeable for SouthEast Anatolia and Middle Anatolia Basin settlements.

Settlements have rectangular mudbrick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ancestor cult where people preserved skulls from the dead which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The rest of the corpse may have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses.

Neolithic 3 — Pottery Neolithic (PN)

The Neolithic 3 (PN) began around 6000 to 5500 BC in the Fertile Crescent. The Fertile Crescent is a Crescent -shaped region in the Middle East, originally incorporating the Levant and Ancient Mesopotamia, and often By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the Halafian (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and Ubaid (Southern Mesopotamia). Tell Halaf ( Akkadian: Guzana; تل حلف, Syria) The Tell (mound of Ubaid (عبيد near Ur in southern Iraq has given its name to the Prehistoric Pottery Neolithic to Chalcolithic

The Chalcolithic period began about 4500 BC, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for

Periods by region

In the Fertile Crescent

Halafian ware

Around 9,000 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the fertile crescent. The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (short PPNA around 9000 BC represents the early Neolithic in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian region of the Fertile The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (short PPNA around 9000 BC represents the early Neolithic in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian region of the Fertile Around 8,000 BC during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) the world's first town Jericho appeared in the Levant and was surrounded by a stone wall and contained a population of 2000-3000 people and a massive stone tower. The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (short PPNA around 9000 BC represents the early Neolithic in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian region of the Fertile The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (short PPNA around 9000 BC represents the early Neolithic in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian region of the Fertile Jericho ( Arabic, ʼArīḥā; Hebrew, Standard Yəriḥo Tiberian Yərîḫô ^[7]. Around (5,500 BC) the Halafian culture appeared in the Levant, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, Northern Mesopotamia and subsisted on dryland agriculture. Tell Halaf ( Akkadian: Guzana; تل حلف, Syria)

Southern Mesopotamia

Alluvial plains (Sumer/Elam). Little rainfall, makes irrigation systems necessary. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops Ubaid culture from 5500 BC. The Tell (mound of Ubaid (عبيد near Ur in southern Iraq has given its name to the Prehistoric Pottery Neolithic to Chalcolithic

Europe

Reconstruction of Neolithic house in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Tuzla is a city and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. At the time of the 1991 census it had 131000 inhabitants Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Latin script: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина is a country on the Balkan

In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared by ca. Neolithic Europe is the time between roughly from 7000 BC (the approximate time of the first farming societies in Greece) to ca 7000 BC,^[8] and in Central Europe by ca. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and 5500 BC. Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are included the Starčevo-Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramic, and Vinča. The Starčevo culture, also called Starčevo-Körös culture or Starčevo-Körös-Criş culture was a widespread early Neolithic Archaeological culture The Vinča culture was an early culture of Europe (between the 6th and the 3rd millennium BC stretching around the course of Danube in what today is Serbia Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. Cultural diffusion, as first conceptualized by Alfred L Kroeber in his influential 1940 paper Stimulus Diffusion, or trans-cultural diffusion in later reformulations Human migration denotes any movement by Humans from one locality to another sometimes over long distances or The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing the Vinča signs though it is almost universally accepted amongst archeologists that the Sumerian cuneiform script was the earliest true form of writing and the Vinča signs most likely represented pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing. The Vinča culture was an early culture of Europe (between the 6th and the 3rd millennium BC stretching around the course of Danube in what today is Serbia The Vinča signs, also known as the Vinča alphabet Vinča-Turdaş script or Old European script, are a set of symbols found on prehistoric artifacts The Vinča signs, also known as the Vinča alphabet Vinča-Turdaş script or Old European script, are a set of symbols found on prehistoric artifacts A pictogram ( also spelled pictogramme) or pictograph is a Symbol representing a Concept, object, activity place or event An ideogram or ideograph (from Greek idea "idea" + grafo "to write" is a Graphic symbol that represents an Idea

South and East Asia

The oldest Neolithic site in South Asia is Mehrgarh from 7000 BC on the "Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia. Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: م‍ﮩ‍رگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what Balochistan, or Baluchistan, Pashto, ( Balochi, Hazara, Brahui, Sindhi, Urdu: بلوچستان Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and "^[9]

One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa, at Middle Ganges region, C14 dated around 7th millennium BC. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent ^[10]. Recently another site near the confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers called Jhusi yielded a C14 dating of 7100 BC for its Neolithic levels. The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent For the goddess of the river who is sometimes called Yamuna see Yami The Yamuna (Sanskrit यमुना WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Jhusi is a town and a Nagar panchayat in Allahabad district in the Indian state ^[11]

In South India the Neolithic began by 3000 BC and lasted until around 1400 BC when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BC in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil.

Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Tuticorin District of Southern India (now part of Tamilnadu state) have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture ^[12] The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around 1000 BC, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at Adichanallur, 24 km from Tirunelveli, where archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed 12 urns with Tamil Brahmi script on them containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, plus husks, grains of rice, charred rice and Neolithic celts, giving evidence confirming it of the Neolithic period 2800 years ago. Adichanallur is an Archaeological site near Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu, India. Thoothukudi District, also known as Tuticorin District, is a district of Tamil Nadu state in southern India. Tirunelveli (திருநெல்வேலி is a city in Tamil Nadu and was formed into a Municipal corporation in 1999 by merging three municipalities viz The Archaeological Survey of India is an Indian government agency in the Department of Culture that is responsible for archaeological studies and the preservation of Brāhmī script refers to the oldest members of the Brahmic family of alphabets. Celt tool Transyslvaniajpg|right|thumb|250px|Celts from Transylvania This proved that Tirunelveli area has been the abode for human habituation since the Neolithic period about 3,000 years ago. Adhichanallur has been announced as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies. ^[13], ^[14]

We have to keep in mind that Adhichanallur is a Megalithic period site, not a Neolithic place.

In East Asia the earliest sites include Pengtoushan culture around 7500 BC to 6100 BC, Peiligang culture around 7000 BC to 5000 BC. The Pengtoushan culture (彭頭山文化 (7500-6100 BC) was a Neolithic culture centered primarily around the central Yangtze River region in northwestern Hunan The Peiligang culture (裴李崗文化 Péilǐgāng Wénhuà is a name given by archaeologists to a group of Neolithic communities in the Yi-Luo river basin in

America

In Mesoamerica a similar set of events (i. Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation e. , crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC, although here the term Pre-Classic (or Formative) is used instead of mid-late Neolithic, Archaic Era for the Early Neolithic, and Paleo-Indian for the preceding period though these cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic. Paleo-Indians or Paleo-Americans were the ancient peoples of the Americas who were present at the end of the last Ice Age.

Social organization

Anthropomorphic Neolithic figurine

During most of the Neolithic people lived in small tribes of 150-2000 members that were composed of multiple Bands or lineages. A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use ^[15] There is little scientific evidence for developed social stratification in the majority of Neolithic societies; social stratification is more closely associated with the later Bronze Age. Scientific evidence is Evidence which serves to either support or counter a scientific Theory or Hypothesis. In Sociology, social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of Social classes Castes and strata within a Society. In Sociology, social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of Social classes Castes and strata within a Society. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for ^[16] Although some late Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms similar to Polynesian societies such as the Ancient Hawaiians most Neolithic societies were relatively simple and egalitarian^[17] although Neolithic cultures were noticeably more hierarchical than the Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and Hunter-gatherer cultures in general^[18][19] The domestication of animals (c. 7000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality as livestock -which were often regarded as a form of capital amongst more complex pastoral Neolithic societies allowed competition between households to result in inherited inequalities of wealth as Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds of goats and cows gradually acquired more livestock which allowed economic inequalities to become more pronounced. Ancient Hawaii refers to the period of Hawaiian history preceding the unification of the Kingdom of Hawai'i by Kamehameha the Great in 1810. Egalitarianism (derived from the French word égal, meaning equal) is a political doctrine that holds that all people should be treated as equals and have The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting Circa (often abbreviated c, ca, ca or cca and sometimes Italicized to show it is Latin) means "about" ^[20]

A Neolithic artifact from Romania.

Evidence of social inequality is still disputed however, as settlements such as Catalhoyuk reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting more egalitarian societies with no evidence to suggest any concept of capital though some homes appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others. Çatalhöyük (ʧɑtɑl højyk in Turkish also Çatal Höyük and Çatal Hüyük, or any of the three without Diacritics çatal is Turkish Families and households were still largely economically independent and the household was probably the center of life in the Neolithic. Excavations in Central Europe have, however, revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures ("Linearbandkeramik") were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 BC and 4600 BC. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and About 150 arrangements of prehistoric circular ditches are known to archaeologists spread over Germany, Austria and Slovakia and the Czech Republic These structures (and their later Neolithic equivalents such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henges) required considerable time and labour to construct, which could suggest that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour--though non-hierarchical voluntary work remains a strong possibility. Causewayed enclosures are a type of large prehistoric earthworks common to the early Neolithic Europe. A tumulus (plural tumuli) is a Mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves henge is a prehistoric Architectural structure. In form it is a nearly circular or oval-shaped flat area over 20 Metres (65 feet) in diameter There is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the Rhine, as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a palisade and outer ditch. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge ^[21][22] An earlier view saw the Linear Pottery Culture as living a "peaceful, unfortified lifestyle. "^[23] Since then settlements with palisades and weapon-traumatized bones have been discovered, such as at Herxheim,^[24] which, whether the site of a massacre or of a martial ritual, demonstrates ". . . systematic violence between groups. " and warfare was probably much more common during the Neolithic than in the preceding Paleolithic period. ^[25] Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual; whether a 'big man', or proto-chief or a matriarch, functioning as a lineage-group head, or whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as has been the case in the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age^[26]. A big man, within the context of Anthropology, refers to a highly influential individual in a Tribe, especially in Melanesia and Polynesia A traditional tribal chief is the leader of a Tribe, or the head of a tribal form of self-government A matriarch, clan-mother or 'chief' is an Autocratic female ruler of a human family Clan, or Kinship, or of an animal grouping A chiefdom is a type of complex society of varying degrees of centralization that is led by an individual known as a chief. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for Theories to explain the apparent egalitarianism of Neolithic (and more importantly Paleolithic) societies have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Primitive communism is A term usually associated with Karl Marx, but most fully elaborated by Friedrich Engels (in The Origin of the Family 1884 and referring

Dancing and formal rituals may have been used to retain collective discipline and social cohesion in pre-state levantene neolithic socieities.

Shelter

The shelter of the early people changed dramatically from the paleolithic era to the neolithic era. In the paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster. ^[27] The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible. Doorways were made on the roof, with ladders positioned both on the inside and outside of the houses. ^[27] The roof was supported by beams from the inside. The rough ground was covered by platforms, mats, and skins on which residents slept.

Farming

Main article: Neolithic Revolution

A significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance upon an essentially nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the foods produced from cultivated lands. The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and Subsistence is the food necessary to sustain life The following is a list of subsistence techniques: Hunting and Gathering A farm is an area of land including various structures devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food ( Produce, Grains, or Livestock Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting Subsistence is the food necessary to sustain life The following is a list of subsistence techniques: Hunting and Gathering Transhumance is a term with two accepted usages Older sources use transhumance for vertical seasonal Livestock movement typically to higher These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to towns, and later cities and states whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands. A town is a type of settlement ranging from a few to several thousand (occasionally hundreds of thousands inhabitants although it may be applied loosely even to huge metropolitan A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population.

The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the onset of early agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the Neolithic Revolution, a term first coined by the Australian archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe. The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and A neologism (from Greek neo = "new" + logos = "word" is a word that although devised relatively recently in a specific time period has been Vere Gordon Childe (14 April 1892 Sydney, New South Wales –19 October 1957 Mt

One potential benefit of the development and increasing sophistication of farming technology was an ability (if conditions allowed) to produce a crop yield which would be surplus to the immediate needs of the community. When such surpluses were produced they could be preserved and sequestered for later use during times of seasonal shortfalls, traded with other communities (giving rise to a nascent non-subsistence economy), and in general allowed larger populations to be sustained. A subsistence economy is an Economy in which a group attempts to produce no more output per period than they must consume in that period in order to survive but do not attempt The storage site might need to be defended from marauders, increasing the cultural investment in a particular site.

However, it should be noted that early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine, such as may be caused by drought or pestilence. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a Species defined as a pest, usually because it is perceived to be detrimental to a person's Health In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent which otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities. ^[28] Nevertheless, despite what must have been ??, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued.

Another significant change undergone by many of these newly-agrarian communities was one of diet. This article is primarily about the human diet For a discussion of animal diets see List of feeding behaviours. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by the increase in population above the carrying capacity of the land and a high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative nutritional benefits and disadvantages of these dietary changes, and their overall impact on early societal development is still the subject of some debate. Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support

In addition, increased population density, decreased population mobility, increased continuous proximity to domesticated animals, and continuous occupation of comparatively population-dense sites would have altered patterns of disease and sanitary needs. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Sanitation is the hygienic means of preventing human contact from the hazards of wastes to promote health

Technology

Neolithic peoples were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e. g. pottery, bone implements). Pottery is the Ceramic ware made by potters It also refers to a group of materials that includes Earthenware, Stoneware They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. In Archaeology, a projectile point is an object that was hafted and used either as Knife or Projectile tip or both commonly called an Arrowhead But it was the polished stone axe above all other tools which made forest clearance on a large scale feasible. Chipped stone tools were made by Stone age peoples worldwide Paleolithic tools were relatively simple repeated small flakes being struck or pressed from a cobble Together with the adze, fashioning wood for shelter, structures and canoes for example, that enabled them to exploit their newly won farmland. An adze or adz (ædz is a tool used for smoothing rough-cut Wood in hand Woodworking.

Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilising mud-brick to construct houses and villages. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south At Çatalhöyük, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. Çatalhöyük (ʧɑtɑl højyk in Turkish also Çatal Höyük and Çatal Hüyük, or any of the three without Diacritics çatal is Turkish In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. The Neolithic long house was a long narrow timber dwelling built by the first farmers in Europe around 7000 years ago Wattle and daub (or wattle-and-daub) is a Building material used for making walls in which a woven lattice of wooden strips called wattle is daubed Elaborate tombs for the dead were also built. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges, flint mines and cursus monuments. A long barrow is a prehistoric monument dating to the early Neolithic period A chamber tomb is a Tomb for Burial used in many different Cultures In the case of individual burials the chamber is thought to signify a higher status Causewayed enclosures are a type of large prehistoric earthworks common to the early Neolithic Europe. henge is a prehistoric Architectural structure. In form it is a nearly circular or oval-shaped flat area over 20 Metres (65 feet) in diameter Cursus (plural 'cursūs' or 'cursuses' was a name given by early British Archaeologists such as William Stukeley to the large parallel lengths of banks with external It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like salt as preservatives. Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants

With limited exceptions (a few copper hatchets and spear heads in the Great Lakes region), the peoples of the Americas and the Pacific retained the Neolithic level of tool technology up until the time of European contact. See Hatchet (novel for the Young adult novel. See Hatchet (film for the Horror film. This is an article about a particle accelerator For uses of spear, see Spear or Spear (disambiguation. The Laurentian Great Lakes are a chain of freshwater lakes located in eastern North America, on the Canada–United States border. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt There are numerous examples (Inca, Maya, Native Hawaiians, Aztec, Iroquois, Mississippian, Maori), however, of development of complex socio-political organization, building technology, scientific knowledge and linguistic culture in these regions that parallel post-neolithic developments in Africa and Eurasia. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political The Iroquois Confederacy (also known as the "League of Peace and Power" the "Five Nations" the "Six Nations" or the "People of the Longhouse The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American culture that flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern This article discusses the Māori people of New Zealand For their language see Māori language, and for other meanings see Māori (disambiguation.

Clothing

Finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins (ideal for fastening leather, but not cloth) indicate that most clothing was manufactured from animal skins - although finds of perforated stones, which (depending on size) may have served as spindle whorls or loom weights, might suggest that woolen cloth and linen became available during the British Neolithic. Though obviously not British and not Neolithic (Ötzi the Iceman belonged to the later Copper age) , Ötzi the Iceman may give an idea of the kind of clothing worn in the Neolithic Age. Ötzi the Iceman ( pronounced) Frozen Fritz, and Similaun Man are modern nicknames of a well-preserved natural Mummy of a man The Chalcolithic (Greek khalkos + lithos ' Copper stone' period or Copper Age period known as the '''Eneolithic''' ('''Æneolithic''' is a Ötzi the Iceman ( pronounced) Frozen Fritz, and Similaun Man are modern nicknames of a well-preserved natural Mummy of a man

Early settlements

Neolithic settlements include:

• Tabon Cave Complex in Quezon, Palawan, Philippines 5,000 - 2,000 BC
• Spirit Cave in Thailand, 9000-5500 BC
• Franchthi Cave in Greece, epipalaeolithic (ca. This is a list of notable Archaeological sites sorted by country The Tabon Caves are a set of caves in the sleepy town of Quezon that lies in the southern part of the Province of Palawan, Philippines. ° Quezon is a 2nd class municipality in the province of Palawan, Philippines. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP The Spirit Cave (ถ้ำผีแมน tham phi maen) is an archaeologic site in Pang Mapha district, Mae Hong Son Province, Northwestern Thailand The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Franchthi cave (or Frankhthi cave Greek: Σπήλαιον Φράγχθη in the Peloponnese, in the southeastern Argolid, is a Cave overlooking Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία 10,000 BC) settlement, reoccupied between 7500–6000 BC
• Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, ca. Göbekli Tepe ( Turkish for "Hill with a Belly") is a hilltop sanctuary built on the highest point of an elongated mountain ridge about 15km northeast 9000 BC
• Jericho in Israel, Neolithic from around 8350 BC, arising from the earlier Epipaleolithic Natufian culture
• Nevali Cori in Turkey, ca. Jericho ( Arabic, ʼArīḥā; Hebrew, Standard Yəriḥo Tiberian Yərîḫô For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The Epipaleolithic is a term used for the "final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the The Natufian culture (natʏˈfjẽː existed in the Mediterranean region of the Levant. Nevalı Çori was an early Neolithic settlement on the middle Euphrates, in the province of Şanlıurfa (Urfa, eastern Turkey. 8000 BC
• Çatalhöyük in Turkey, 7500 BC
• Pengtoushan culture in China, 7500–6100 BC
• 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan, 7250–5000 BC
• Jhusi in India, 7100 BC
• Sesklo in Greece, 6850 BC (with a +/- 660 year margin of error)
• Dispilio in Greece, ca. Çatalhöyük (ʧɑtɑl højyk in Turkish also Çatal Höyük and Çatal Hüyük, or any of the three without Diacritics çatal is Turkish Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Pengtoushan culture (彭頭山文化 (7500-6100 BC) was a Neolithic culture centered primarily around the central Yangtze River region in northwestern Hunan China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ' Ain Ghazal is a Neolithic site located in North-Eastern Jordan, on the outskirts of Amman. Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Jhusi is a town and a Nagar panchayat in Allahabad district in the Indian state India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Sesklo ( Sesclo, Greek Σέσκλο is an Aromanian / Vlach village nearby the city of Volos, in Thessaly (central Greece Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία The Dispilio Tablet (also known as the Dispilio Scripture or the Dispilio Disk) is a wooden tablet bearing inscribed markings ( charagmata) unearthed during Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία 5500 BC
• Jiahu in China, 7000 to 5800 BC
• Mehrgarh in Pakistan, 7000 BC
• Knossus on Crete, ca. Jiahu ( 賈湖 Pinyin: Jiǎhú was the site of a Neolithic Yellow River settlement based in the central plains of ancient China China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: م‍ﮩ‍رگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Knossos (alternative spellings Knossus, Cnossus, Greek Κνωσός kno̞ˈso̞s also known as the Knossos Palace is the largest Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the 7000 BC
• Lahuradewa in India, 6400 BC
• Porodin in Republic of Macedonia, 6500 BC ^[29]
• Vrshnik (Anzabegovo) in Republic of Macedonia, 6500 BC ^[29]
• Pizzo di Bodi (Varese) - Lombardy in Italy, ca 6320 +/- 80 BC
• Sammardenchia in Friuli, Italy , ca 6050 +- 90 PC,
• Hemudu culture in China, 5000–4500 BC, large scale rice plantation
• around 2000 settlements of Trypillian culture, 5400 BC — 2800 BC
• Knap of Howar and Skara Brae, Orkney, Scotland, from 3500 BC
• Brú na Bóinne in Ireland, ca. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Republic of Macedonia (Република The Republic of Macedonia (Република Lombardy (Lombardia Latin: Langobardia, Western Lombard: Lumbardìa, Eastern Lombard: Lombardia) is one of the Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The Hemudu culture (河姆渡文化 (5000 BC to 4500 BC was a Neolithic culture that flourished just south of the Hangzhou Bay in Jiangnan in modern China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Cucuteni culture, better known in the countries of the former Soviet Union as Trypillian culture or Tripolie culture, is a late Neolithic At Knap of Howar on the Orkney island of Papa Westray, a Neolithic farmstead has been wonderfully well preserved and is claimed to be the oldest preserved ||-||-||-| Skara Brae (ˈskɑrə ˈbreɪ is a large stone-built Neolithic settlement located on the Bay of Skaill on the west coast of mainland Orkney Orkney (also known as the Orkney Islands or incorrectly the Orkneys) is an Archipelago in northern Scotland, situated 10 miles (16 km north Archaeology and Geology continue to reveal the secrets of prehistoric Scotland, uncovering a complex and dramatic past before the Romans brought Scotland Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world 3500 BC
• Lough Gur in Ireland from around 3000 BC

The world's oldest known engineered roadway, the Sweet Track in England, dates from 3800 BC. Lough Gur, Loch Gair in Irish, is a Lake in County Limerick, Ireland near the town of Bruff. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. The Sweet Track is an ancient Causeway in the Somerset Levels, England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland

Footnotes

Bibliography

See also

External links

• McNamara, John (2005). Neolithic Europe is the time between roughly from 7000 BC (the approximate time of the first farming societies in Greece) to ca The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and Prehistoric religion is a general term for the religious beliefs and practices of prehistoric peoples Ötzi the Iceman ( pronounced) Frozen Fritz, and Similaun Man are modern nicknames of a well-preserved natural Mummy of a man The synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures gives a rough picture of the relationships between the various principal cultures of Prehistory The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" Neolithic Period (html). World Museum of Man. Retrieved on 2008-04-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 43 BC - Battle of Forum Gallorum: Mark Antony, besieging Julius Caesar 's assassin Decimus Junius Brutus in
• Rincon, Paul (Thursday, 11 May 2006). Brutal lives of Stone Age Britons (html). BBC News. Retrieved on 2008-04-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 43 BC - Battle of Forum Gallorum: Mark Antony, besieging Julius Caesar 's assassin Decimus Junius Brutus in
• Vincha Neolithic Script
• UB Préhistoire - Enseignements sur le Néolithique