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Natural theology is that part of the philosophy of religion dealing with attempts to prove the existence of God and other divine attributes purely philosophically, that is, without recourse to any special or supposedly supernatural revelation. Philosophy of religion is a branch of Philosophy that is concerned with the philosophical study of religion including arguments over the nature and existence of God religious Arguments for and against the existence of God have been proposed by philosophers theologians and others (The flip-side of this endeavor is sometimes referred to as "natural atheology," in which atheistic philosophers attempt to prove that God does not exist or to refute the proofs of theistic philosophers. ) The expression 'natural theology' (theologia naturalis) survives in quotes of Varro by Augustine of Hippo, drawing on Stoic tradition, with reference to the deepest theological insights of the classical philosophers. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Natural theology (or natural religion) is theology based on reason and ordinary experience, explaining the gods rationally, as part of the physical world. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Experience as a general concept comprises Knowledge of or skill in or Observation of some thing or some event gained through involvement in or Thus it is distinguished from revealed theology (or revealed religion) which is based on scripture and religious experiences of various kinds; and also from transcendental theology, theology from a priori reasoning (see Immanuel Kant et alia). Religious Experience (also known as a spiritual, Sacred, or mystical experience is an altered state of consciousness where an Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg

Natural theology was originally part of philosophy and theology, and theologians still study it; but most of its content also forms part of the philosophy of religion. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Philosophy of religion is a branch of Philosophy that is concerned with the philosophical study of religion including arguments over the nature and existence of God religious

Contents

Development

Astrotheology

Prior to Isaac Newton, 'astrotheology', natural theology based upon astronomy, was a prominent theological view. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Newton himself believed that the facts of astrophysics yielded evidence of divine contrivance of the universe, and attributed the action, at a distance, of gravity to this immaterial divine agency. However, his astronomical achievements made necessary a distinction between astrotheology and natural theology which was based upon biology. Once his work had explained the patterns of motion, they did not seem to demand further purposive explanation, so natural theology turned to biology for evidence of purpose. Thereafter astrotheology became a neglected position, having its last prominent advocacy in the Bridgewater Treatises of 1833. [1][2]

Key proponents

The earliest literary evidence comes from Hindu sacred texts such as the Upanishads. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical The Upanishads are metaphysical musings by the ancient sages of India and contain questions like - "Who was there before the creation?" Besides these, the Vedas also delve into scientifically analyzing the concept of God. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. According to the Vedas creation of the universe is shrouded in mystery. The Rig Veda says:

"Then was not non-existence nor existence: there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. What covered in, and where? and what gave shelter? Was water there, unfathomed depth of water? Death was not then, nor was there aught immortal: no sign was there, the day's and night's divider. "

Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BC) in his Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum established a distinction of three kinds of theology: mythical, civil (political) and natural (physical), of which the latter is concerned with the question "what are the gods". Marcus Terentius Varro (116 BC &ndash 27 BC also known as Varro Reatinus to distinguish him from his younger contemporary Varro Atacinus, was a Roman Marcus Terentius Varro (116-27 BC in his (lost Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum established a distinction of three kinds of theology civil (political Political theology is a branch of both Political philosophy and Theology that investigates the ways in which theological concepts or ways of thinking underlie Varro's solution is a materialist (Epicurean) reduction of the gods to effects in the physical world (physikos). St. Augustine of Hippo quotes Varro frequently in his De civitate Dei, translating Varro's physikos with Latin naturalis.

Plato gives the earliest surviving account of a "natural theology", in his Laws establishing the existence of the gods by rational argument. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle in his Metaphysics argues for the existence of an "unmoved mover", an argument taken up in medieval scholastics. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The unmoved mover is a philosophical concept described by Aristotle as the first cause that sets the Universe into motion Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries

From the 8th century, the Mutazilite school of Islam, compelled to defend their principles against the orthodox Islam of their day, looked for support in philosophy, and are among the first to pursue a rational theology, called Ilm-al-Kalam (scholastic theology). Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries

English bishop Thomas Barlow wrote Execreitationes aliquot metaphysicae de Deo (1637) and spoke often of natural theology during the reign of Charles II. Thomas Barlow may refer to Thomas Barlow (merchant, New Brunswick merchant banker and office holder Sir Thomas Barlow 1st Baronet Charles II (Charles Stuart 29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685 was the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

John Ray (1627–1705) also known as John Wray, was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. John Ray ( November 29, 1627 &ndash January 17, 1705) was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the The English people (from the adjective in Englisc) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to England who predominantly speak English Natural history is the Scientific research of Plants or Animals leaning more towards the Observational than Experimental methods He published important works on plants, animals, and natural theology. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae.

William Derham (1657–1735), was a friend and disciple of John Ray. William Derham ( 26 November 1657 - 5 April 1735) was an English clergyman and natural philosopher He continued Ray's tradition of natural theology in two of his own works, The Physico-Theology, published in 1713, and the Astro-Theology, 1714. Year 1713 ( MDCCXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Year 1714 ( MDCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a These would later help influence the work of William Paley (see below).

Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274) is the most famous classical proponent of this approach: the Angelic Doctor's Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles both present various versions of the Cosmological argument and Teleological argument, respectively. The Summa Theologica (or the Summa Theologiae or simply the Summa, written 1265 &ndash 1274) is the most famous The Summa contra Gentiles (hereafter referred to as SCG) was written by St The cosmological argument is an Argument for the Existence of God or a " First Cause " A teleological argument, or argument from design, is an Argument for the Existence of God or a creator based on perceived evidence of order purpose design The Ontological argument is also presented, but rejected in favor of proofs dealing with cause and effect alone. An Ontological argument for the existence of God attempts the method of a priori proof, which uses intuition and reason alone

In An Essay on the Principle of Population, the first edition published in 1798, Thomas Malthus ended with two chapters on natural theology and population. The book An Essay on the Principle of Population was first published anonymously in 1798 through J Year 1798 ( MDCCXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Thomas Robert Malthus FRS (13 February 1766 – 23 December 1834 was an English political economist and demographer who expressed views Malthus—a devout Christian—argued that revelation would "damp the soaring wings of intellect", and thus never let "the difficulties and doubts of parts of the scripture" interfere with his work. Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication (Interestingly, Malthus' work would later be cited as inspiration by both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 &ndash 7 November 1913 was an British naturalist, Explorer, Geographer )

William Paley gave a well-known rendition of the teleological argument for God. William Paley (July 1743 &ndash 25 May 1805) was a British Christian apologist, Philosopher, and utilitarian. A teleological argument, or argument from design, is an Argument for the Existence of God or a creator based on perceived evidence of order purpose design In 1802 he published Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity collected from the Appearances of Nature. Year 1802 ( MDCCCII) was a Common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar or a Common year starting on Wednesday of the In this he described the Watchmaker analogy, for which he is probably best known. The watchmaker analogy, or watchmaker Argument, is a Teleological argument for the Existence of God. Searing criticisms of arguments like Paley's are found in David Hume's posthumous Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy

Thomas Paine wrote the definitive book on the natural religion of Deism, The Age of Reason (1794–1807). Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual Deism is the belief that a supreme God exists and created the physical universe and that religious truths can be arrived at by the application of reason alone without dependence on revelation The Age of Reason Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology, a Deistic treatise written by eighteenth-century British radical and American In it he uses reason to establish a belief in Nature's Designer who man calls God. He also establishes the many instances that Christianity and Judaism require us to give up our God-given reason in order to accept their claims to revelation.

American education reformer and abolitionist, Horace Mann (1796–1859) taught political economy, intellectual and moral philosophy, and natural theology. Abolitionism was a political movement of the 18th and 19th century which sought to make Slavery illegal particularly in the United States and British West Indies This article is about an early leader in education for the private school located in New York City see Horace Mann School. Political economy originally was the term for studying production buying and selling and their relations with law custom and government Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life

Professor of chemistry and natural history, Edward Hitchcock also studied and wrote on natural theology. Edward Hitchcock ( 24 May 1793 &ndash 27 February 1864) was a noted American Geologist and the third President of Amherst He attempted to unify and reconcile science and religion, focusing on geology. His major work in this area was The Religion of Geology and its Connected Sciences (Boston, 1851). 1851 ( MDCCCLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year

The Gifford Lectures are lectures established by the will of Adam Lord Gifford. The Gifford Lectures were established by the will of Adam Lord Gifford (died 1887) Lord Adam Gifford ( 29 February 1820 – 20 January 1887) was a Scottish judge born in Edinburgh. They were established to "promote and diffuse the study of Natural Theology in the widest sense of the term—in other words, the knowledge of God. " The term natural theology as used by Gifford means theology supported by science and not dependent on the miraculous. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding A miracle is an event believed to be caused by interposition of Divine intervention by a Supernatural being in the Universe by which the ordinary operation

The Bridgewater Treatises

Debates over the applicability of teleology to scientific questions came to a head in the nineteenth century, as Paley's argument about design came into conflict with radical new theories on the transmutation of species. A teleological argument, or argument from design, is an Argument for the Existence of God or a creator based on perceived evidence of order purpose design William Paley (July 1743 &ndash 25 May 1805) was a British Christian apologist, Philosopher, and utilitarian. Transmutation of species is a term to describe the altering of one Species into another In order to support the canonical scientific views at the time, which explored the natural world within Paley's framework of a divine designer, The Earl of Bridgewater, a gentleman naturalist, commissioned eight Bridgewater Treatises upon his deathbed to explore 'the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation. William Paley (July 1743 &ndash 25 May 1805) was a British Christian apologist, Philosopher, and utilitarian. Francis Henry Egerton 8th Earl of Bridgewater ( November 11 1756 - February 11, 1829) known as Francis Egerton until 1823 was a noted '[3] The treatises are:

  1. The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition of Man, by Thomas Chalmers, D. Thomas Chalmers ( March 17, 1780 - May 31, 1847) Scottish mathematician and a leader of the Free Church of Scotland D.
  2. On The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man, by John Kidd, M. John Kidd ( September 10, 1775 &ndash September 7, 1851) was an English Physician, Chemist and geologist D.
  3. Astronomy and General Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Whewell, D. William Whewell ( May 24, 1794 &ndash March 6, 1866) was an English Polymath, Scientist, Anglican Priest D.
  4. The hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design, by Sir Charles Bell. Sir Charles Bell (November 1774 in Doun in Monteath Edinburgh - April 28, 1842, in North Hallow Worcestershire) was a Scottish
  5. Animal and Vegetable Physiology, Considered with Reference to Natural Theology Animal and Vegetable Physiology considered with reference to Natural Theology, by Peter Mark Roget. Peter Mark Roget roʊˈʒeɪ ( January 18, 1779 &ndash September 12, 1869) was a British Physician, Natural theologian
  6. Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Buckland, D. The Very Rev Dr William Buckland DD ( Axminster, 12 March, 1784 – Islip, 14 August, 1856) was an English D.
  7. The Habits and Instincts of Animals with reference to Natural Theology, Vol. 2, by William Kirby. William Kirby ( September 19, 1759 &ndash July 4, 1850) was an English Entomologist, an original member of the Linnean
  8. Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion, considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Prout, M. William Prout FRS ( January 15, 1785 &ndash April 9, 1850) was an English Chemist, Physician D.

In response to the claim in Whewell's treatise that "We may thus, with the greatest propriety, deny to the mechanical philosophers and mathematicians of recent times any authority with regard to their views of the administration of the universe", Charles Babbage published what he called The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, A Fragment. As his preface states, this volume was not part of that series, but rather his own reflections on the subject. He draws on his own work on calculating engines to consider God as a divine programmer setting complex laws underlying what we think of as miracles, rather than miraculously producing new species on a Creative whim. There was also a fragmentary supplement to this, posthumously published by Thomas Hill. Thomas Hill may refer to People In the arts: * Thomas Hill (actor, American actor * Thomas Hill (author

A notable critic of the Bridgewater Treatises was Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote Criticism (1850)

See also

References

  1. ^ Adaptation: Natural Selection in Evolution, Academic Press, Michael R. Edgar Allan Poe (January 19 1809 – October 7 1849 was an American poet, short-story Writer, editor and Literary critic, Deism is the belief that a supreme God exists and created the physical universe and that religious truths can be arrived at by the application of reason alone without dependence on revelation Natural magic in the context of Renaissance magic is that part of the Occult which deals with Natural forces directly as opposed to Ceremonial magic Natural history is the Scientific research of Plants or Animals leaning more towards the Observational than Experimental methods Arguments for and against the existence of God have been proposed by philosophers theologians and others Theistic evolution is the general opinion that classical religious teachings about God and creation are compatible with some or all of the modern scientific understanding Intelligent Creation science or scientific creationism is a movement within Creationism which attempts to use scientific means to disprove the accepted scientific theories on Rose, George V. Lauder, pp 18-20.
  2. ^ The Modern Predicament: A Study In The Philosophy Of Religion, H. J. Paton, 2004, p20
  3. ^ Robson, John, 'The Fiat and Finger of God: The Bridgewater Treatises', Lightman, Bernard, and Frank Turner ed. , Victorian Faith in Crisis: Essays on Continuity and Change in Nineteenth-Century Religious Belief. 1990

Further reading

External links

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