In the philosophy of language, a natural language (or ordinary language) is a language that is spoken, written, or signed by humans for general-purpose communication, as distinguished from formal languages (such as computer-programming languages or the "languages" used in the study of formal logic, especially mathematical logic) and from constructed languages. Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors A brain-computer interface (BCI sometimes called a direct neural interface or a brain-machine interface, is a direct communication pathway between a human or animal Traumatic brain injury (TBI also called intracranial injury, occurs when Physical trauma injures the Brain. Anatomical regions of the brain are listed vertically following hierarchies that are standard in Neuroanatomy. Clinical neuropsychology is a sub-specialty of clinical Psychology that specialises in the diagnostic assessment and treatment of patients with Brain injury or Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS Neuroanatomy is the science for localizing function in the Human brain. Neurophysiology (from Greek grc νεῦρον neuron, "nerve" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία Phrenology (from Greek: φρήν phrēn, "mind" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" is a defunct field of study once The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS Wikipedia articles related to Brain Function Visual system Auditory system Olfactory system Arousal is a physiological and psychological state of being awake Attention is the Cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the Decision making can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes ( cognitive process) leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives The executive system is a theorized Cognitive system in Psychology that controls and manages other cognitive processes In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Gross motor coordination addresses the Gross motor skills walking running climbing jumping crawling lifting one's head sitting up etc In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. Planning in Organizations and Public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a Plan; and the psychological process of Problem solving forms part of thinking. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions problem solving has been defined as higher-order Cognitive Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both David Joseph Bohm ( December 20 1917, Wilkes-Barre Pennsylvania – October 27 1992, London) was an American António Rosa Damásio, GOSE, pron. ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (b Phineas P Gage (July 9? 1823 – May 21? 1860 was a railroad worker now remembered for his incredible survival of a Traumatic brain injury which destroyed one or both of Norman Geschwind (1926-1984 can be considered the father of modern Behavioral neurology in America Elkhonon Goldberg (b 1946 Riga, Latvia) is a Neuropsychologist and Cognitive neuroscientist known for his work in hemispheric specialization Donald Olding Hebb ( July 22, 1904 &ndash August 20, 1985) was a Canadian Psychologist who was influential in the area of Neuropsychology Kenneth M Heilman is an American Behavioral neurologist. Biography Early life and career Kenneth Heilman was born and raised in Brooklyn Muriel Deutsch Lezak is an American neuropsychologist best known for her book Neuropsychological Assessment, widely accepted as the standard in the field Benjamin Libet ( April 12, 1916 - July 23, 2007) was a researcher in the Physiology department of the University of California Rodolfo R Llinás (b Bogotá, Colombia in 1934 is the Thomas and Suzanne Murphy Professor of Neuroscience and Chairman of the department of Physiology & Neuroscience Alexander Romanovich Luria Александр Романович Лурия ( July 16, 1902 - August 14, 1977) was a famous Soviet Dr Brenda Milner CC FRS (born 15 July 1918, Manchester England) has contributed extensively to the research literature Karl H Pribram (born February 25, 1919 in Vienna Austria) is a professor at Georgetown University and George Mason University Oliver Wolf Sacks, CBE (born July 9, 1933, London is a British Neurologist residing in the United States who has written popular books about Roger Wolcott Sperry ( August 20, 1913 – April 17, 1994) was a neuropsychologist, neurobiologist and Nobel laureate who KC (Also known as Patient KC) is a famous patient in Neuropsychology who suffers from Anterograde amnesia and temporally graded Retrograde amnesia Neuropsychological tests are specifically designed tasks used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular Brain structure or pathway The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test, or simply the Bender-Gestalt test, is a Psychological test first developed by child Neuropsychiatrist Lauretta The Benton Visual Retention Test (or simply Benton Test) is an individually administered test for ages 8-adult that measures Visual perception and Visual memory The Clinical Dementia Rating or CDR is a numeric scale used to quantify the severity of Symptoms of Dementia (i A Continuous Performance Task/Test, or CPT, is a Psychological test which measures a person's sustained and selective Attention and impulsivity The Glasgow Coma Scale or GCS, sometimes also known as the Glasgow Coma Score is a neurological scale which aims to give a reliable objective The Hayling and Brixton tests are Neuropsychological tests of Executive function created by psychologists Paul W The lexical decision task is a procedure used in many Psychology and Psycholinguistics experiments The mini-mental state examination ( MMSE) or Folstein test is a brief 30-point questionnaire test that is used to assess Cognition. Demonstration Say aloud the colors of each of these words as fast Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS is a general test of intelligence ( IQ) published in February 1955 as a revision of the Wechsler - Bellevue test The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST is a Neuropsychological test of "set-shifting" i A Johari window is a cognitive psychological tool created by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955 in the United States used to help people better understand Philosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into the nature origins and usage of Language. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them A sign language (also signed language) is a Language which instead of acoustically conveyed Sound patterns uses visually transmitted sign patterns Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus A formal language is a set of words, ie finite strings of letters, or symbols. A programming language is an Artificial language that can be used to write programs which control the behavior of a machine particularly a Computer. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Mathematical logic is a subfield of Logic and Mathematics with close connections to Computer science and Philosophical logic. A constructed or artificial language known colloquially or informally as a conlang is a Language whose Phonology, Grammar
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Defining natural language
Though the exact definition is debatable, natural language is often contrasted with artificial or constructed languages such as Esperanto, Latino Sexione, and Occidental. A constructed or artificial language known colloquially or informally as a conlang is a Language whose Phonology, Grammar is by far the most widely spoken constructed International auxiliary language in the world The Language Occidental, later Interlingue, is a planned language created by the Balto-German naval officer and teacher Edgar de Wahl
Linguists have an incomplete understanding of all aspects of the rules underlying natural languages, and these rules are therefore objects of study. The understanding of natural languages reveals much about not only how language works (in terms of syntax, semantics, phonetics, phonology, etc), but also about how the human mind and the human brain process language. In Linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek grc συν- syn-, "together" and grc τάξις táxis, "arrangement" is the Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from Phonetics (from the Greek φωνή ( phonê) "sound" or "voice" is the study of the physical sounds of human speech Phonology ( Greek φωνή (phōnē voice sound + λόγος (lógos word speech subject of discussion is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain In linguistic terms, 'natural language' only applies to a language that has evolved naturally, and the study of natural language primarily involves native (first language) speakers.
The theory of universal grammar proposes that all natural languages have certain underlying rules which constrain the structure of the specific grammar for any given language. Universal grammar is a theory of Linguistics postulating principles of Grammar shared by all languages thought to be innate to humans ( linguistic nativism
While grammarians, writers of dictionaries, and language policy-makers all have a certain influence on the evolution of language, their ability to influence what people think they 'ought' to say is distinct from what people actually say. Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. Natural language applies to the latter, and is thus a 'descriptive' rather than a 'prescriptive' term. Thus non-standard language varieties (such as African American Vernacular English) are as natural as standard language varieties (such as Standard American English). African American Vernacular English ( AAVE) – also called African American English; less precisely Black English, Black Vernacular, General American is an accent of American English within American English General American and accents approximating it are contrasted with Southern American
Native language learning
The learning of one's own native language, typically that of one's parents, normally occurs spontaneously in early human childhood and is biologically driven. One hotly debated issue is whether the biological contribution includes capacities specific to language acquisition often referred to as Universal grammar. In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans A first language (also mother tongue, native language, arterial language, or L1) is the language a human being learns from birth A parent is a Father or Mother; one who sires or gives Child article read through the various talk pages for the debate -- it's been put on and removed twice Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles A crucial role of this process is performed by the neural activity of a portion of the human brain known as Broca's area. The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain Broca's area is a section of the human brain that is involved in Language processing, speech or sign production and comprehension
There are approximately 7,000 current human languages, and many, if not most seem to share certain properties, leading to the belief in the existence of Universal Grammar, as shown by generative grammar studies pioneered by the work of Noam Chomsky. Universal grammar is a theory of Linguistics postulating principles of Grammar shared by all languages thought to be innate to humans ( linguistic nativism In Theoretical linguistics, generative grammar refers to a particular approach to the study of Syntax. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political Recently, it has been demonstrated that a dedicated network in the human brain (crucially involving Broca's area, a portion of the left inferior frontal gyrus), is selectively activated by complex verbal structures (but not simple ones) of those languages that meet the Universal Grammar requirements. Broca's area is a section of the human brain that is involved in Language processing, speech or sign production and comprehension [1] [2]
Origins of natural language
There is disagreement among anthropologists on when language was first used by humans (or their ancestors). The origin of language ( glottogony) is a topic that has attracted considerable speculation throughout human history Estimates range from about two million (2,000,000) years ago, during the time of Homo habilis, to as recently as forty thousand (40,000) years ago, during the time of Cro-Magnon man. Homo habilis (ˈhoʊmoʊ ˈhæbəlɪs ("handy man" "skillful person" is a Species of the genus Homo, which lived Cro-Magnon ( French) is one of the main types of Homo sapiens of the European Upper Paleolithic, living approximately 40000 to 10000 years However recent evidence suggests modern human language was invented or evolved in Africa prior to the dispersal of humans from Africa around 50,000 years ago. Since all people including the most isolated indigenous groups such as the Andamanese or the Tasmanian aboriginals possess language, then it must have been present in the ancestral populations in Africa before the human population split into various groups to colonize the rest of the world. The Andamanese is a collective term to describe the peoples who are the aboriginal inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, located in the Bay of Bengal The Tasmanian Aborigines ( Aboriginal name Palawa) are the indigenous people of the island state of Tasmania, Australia. [3] [4]
Some claim that all nautural languages came out of one single language, known as Adamic. See also Divine language The Adamic language is according to Abrahamic traditions, the mythical language spoken by Adam and Eve in the Garden
Linguistic diversity
- See also: Multilingualism
As of early 2007, there are 6,912 known living human languages. [5] A "living language" is simply one which is in wide use by a specific group of living people. The exact number of known living languages will vary from 5,000 to 10,000, depending generally on the precision of one's definition of "language", and in particular on how one classifies dialects. A dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος dialektos) is a variety of a Language that is characteristic of a particular group of There are also many dead or extinct languages. According to some definitions an extinct language is a Language which no longer has any speakers, whereas a dead language is a language which is no longer spoken
There is no clear distinction between a language and a dialect, notwithstanding linguist Max Weinreich's famous aphorism that "a language is a dialect with an army and navy. A dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος dialektos) is a variety of a Language that is characteristic of a particular group of A dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος dialektos) is a variety of a Language that is characteristic of a particular group of Max Weinreich (1893/94 Kuldiga, Latvia - 1969 New York City, USA) was a linguist, specializing in Yiddish, and the " A language is a dialect with an Army and Navy " is one of the most frequently used Aphorisms in the discussion of the distinction between " In other words, the distinction may hinge on political considerations as much as on cultural differences, distinctive writing systems, or degree of mutual intelligibility. A writing system is a type of Symbolic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in Language. In Linguistics, mutual intelligibility is recognized as a relationship between Languages in which speakers of different but related languages can readily understand
It is probably impossible to accurately enumerate the living languages because our worldwide knowledge is incomplete, and it is a "moving target", as explained in greater detail by the Ethnologue's Introduction, p. Ethnologue Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International (formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics a Christian 7 - 8. With the 15th edition, the 103 newly added languages are not new but reclassified due to refinements in the definition of language.
Although widely considered an encyclopedia, the Ethnologue actually presents itself as an incomplete catalog, including only named languages that its editors are able to document. An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Ethnologue Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International (formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics a Christian With each edition, the number of catalogued languages has grown.
Beginning with the 14th edition (2000), an attempt was made to include all known living languages. SIL used an internal 3-letter code fashioned after airport codes to identify languages. This was the precursor to the modern ISO 639-3 standard, to which SIL contributed. ISO 639 -3 (ISO 639-32007 is an international standard for Language codes The standard describes three‐letter codes for identifying languages The standard allows for over 14,000 languages. In turn, the 15th edition was revised to conform to the pending ISO 639-3 standard.
Of the catalogued languages, 497 have been flagged as "nearly extinct" due to trends in their usage.
Per the 15th edition, 6,912 living languages are shared by over 5. 7 billion speakers. (p. 15)
Taxonomy
The classification of natural languages can be performed on the basis of different underlying principles (different closeness notions, respecting different properties and relations between languages); important directions of present classifications are:
- paying attention to the historical evolution of languages results in a genetic classification of languages—which is based on genetic relatedness of languages,
- paying attention to the internal structure of languages (grammar) results in a typological classification of languages—which is based on similarity of one or more components of the language's grammar across languages,
- and respecting geographical closeness and contacts between language-speaking communities results in areal groupings of languages. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language.
The different classifications do not match each other and are not expected to, but the correlation between them is an important point for many linguistic research works. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields (There is a parallel to the classification of species in biological phylogenetics here: consider monophyletic vs. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. A clade is a taxonomic group comprising a single Common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor polyphyletic groups of species. In Phylogenetics, a Taxon is polyphyletic ( Greek for "of many races" if the trait its members have in common evolved separately in different )
The task of genetic classification belongs to the field of historical-comparative linguistics, of typological—to linguistic typology. Historical linguistics (also called diachronic linguistics) is the study of language change Linguistic Typology is an international Peer-reviewed journal in the field of Linguistic typology, founded in 1997
See also Taxonomy, and Taxonomic classification for the general idea of classification and taxonomies. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos
Genetic classification
The world's languages have been grouped into families of languages that are believed to have common ancestors. List of language familiesA language family is a group of Languages related by descent from a common ancestor called the Proto-language of that family Some of the major families are the Indo-European languages, the Afro-Asiatic languages, the Austronesian languages, and the Sino-Tibetan languages. The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a Language family with about 375 languages ( SIL estimate and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa The Sino-Tibetan languages form a Language family composed of at least the Chinese and the Tibeto-Burman languages, including some 250 languages of
The shared features of languages from one family can be due to shared ancestry. (Compare with homology in biology. In Evolutionary biology, homology has come to mean any similarity between characters that is due to their shared ancestry. )
Typological classification
An example of a typological classification is the classification of languages on the basis of the basic order of the verb, the subject and the object in a sentence into several types: SVO, SOV, VSO, and so on, languages. Linguistic Typology is an international Peer-reviewed journal in the field of Linguistic typology, founded in 1997 For English usage of verbs see the wiki article English verbs. According to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle, every sentence can be divided in two main constituents, one being the subject of the sentence and the An object in Grammar is a Sentence element and part of the sentence predicate. In Linguistics, a sentence is a grammatical unit of one or more words bearing minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it often preceded and followed In Linguistic typology, subject-verb-object ( SVO) is a sentence structure where the subject comes first the Verb second and the object In Linguistic typology, Subject Object Verb (SOV is the type of languages in which the subject, object, and Verb of a sentence appear or usually Verb Subject Object ( VSO) is a term in Linguistic typology. It represents one type of languages when classifying languages according to the sequence of these (English, for instance, belongs to the SVO language type. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States In Linguistic typology, subject-verb-object ( SVO) is a sentence structure where the subject comes first the Verb second and the object )
The shared features of languages of one type (= from one typological class) may have arisen completely independently. (Compare with analogy in biology. Two structures in biology are said to be analogous if they perform the same or similar function by a similar mechanism but evolved separately ) Their cooccurence might be due to the universal laws governing the structure of natural languages—language universals. A linguistic universal is a statement that is true for all Natural languages For example All languages have Nouns and Verbs, or All spoken
Areal classification
The following language groupings can serve as some linguistically significant examples of areal linguistic units, or sprachbunds: Balkan linguistic union, or the bigger group of European languages; Caucasian languages; East Asian languages. In Linguistics, an areal feature is any typological feature shared by languages within the same geographical area A Sprachbund (ˈʃpraːxbʊnt in German plural Sprachbünde) from the German word for “language union” also known as a linguistic area, convergence The Balkan Sprachbund or linguistic area is the ensemble of Areal features —similarity in grammar syntax vocabulary and phonology—among languages of Most of the many Languages of Europe belong to the Indo-European Language family. East Asian languages describe two notional groupings of languages in East and Southeast Asia: Languages which have been greatly influenced by Although the members of each group are not closely genetically related, there is a reason for them to share similar features, namely: their speakers have been in contact for a long time within a common community and the languages converged in the course of the history. List of language familiesA language family is a group of Languages related by descent from a common ancestor called the Proto-language of that family These are called "areal features". In Linguistics, an areal feature is any typological feature shared by languages within the same geographical area
N. B. : one should be careful about the underlying classification principle for groups of languages which have apparently a geographical name: besides areal linguistic units, the taxa of the genetic classification (language families) are often given names which themselves or parts of which refer to geographical areas. A taxon (plural taxa) or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or a group of Organisms In Biological nomenclature according to List of language familiesA language family is a group of Languages related by descent from a common ancestor called the Proto-language of that family
Controlled languages
Controlled natural languages are subsets of natural languages whose grammars and dictionaries have been restricted in order to reduce or eliminate both ambiguity and complexity. Controlled natural languages (CNLs are subsets of natural languages obtained byrestricting the grammar and vocabulary in orderto reduce or eliminate Ambiguity and complexity The purpose behind the development and implementation of a controlled natural language typically is to aid non-native speakers of a natural language in understanding it, or to ease computer processing of a natural language. An example of a widely used controlled natural language is Simplified English, which was originally developed for aerospace industry maintenance manuals. Simplified English is a controlled language originally developed for Aerospace industry maintenance manuals This article is about the field of research and industry for the corporation see The Aerospace Corporation Aerospace comprises the
International auxiliary languages
It has been suggested that international auxiliary languages such as Interlingua, which have native speakers,[6] can be considered natural languages for that reason. An international auxiliary language (sometimes abbreviated as IAL or auxlang) or interlanguage is a Language meant for communication between people from Interlingua is an International auxiliary language (IAL developed between 1937 and 1951 by the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA A more substantive basis for this designation is that the vocabulary, grammar, and orthography of Interlingua are natural; they have been standardized and presented by a linguistic research body, but they predated it and are not themselves considered a product of human invention. The International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA was founded in 1924 to " promote widespread study discussion and publicity of all questions involved in the establishment [7] Most experts, however, consider Interlingua to be naturalistic rather than natural. [8] Latino Sine Flexione, a second naturalistic auxiliary language, is also natural in content but is no longer widely spoken. Latino sine flexione ( Latin without Inflections is an Auxiliary language invented by the Italian mathematician Giuseppe Peano (1858 - 1932 [9]
Constructed languages
Constructed languages such as Esperanto that have native speakers are by some also considered natural languages. A constructed or artificial language known colloquially or informally as a conlang is a Language whose Phonology, Grammar is by far the most widely spoken constructed International auxiliary language in the world A first language (also mother tongue, native language, arterial language, or L1) is the language a human being learns from birth However, constructed languages, while they are clearly languages, are not generally considered natural languages. [10] The problem is that other languages have been used to communicate and evolve in a natural way, while Esperanto has been selectively designed by Zamenhof from natural languages, not grown from the natural fluctuations in vocabulary and syntax. Nor has Esperanto been naturally "standardized" by children's natural tendency to correct for illogical grammar structures in their parents' language, which can be seen in the development of pidgin languages into creole languages (as explained by Steven Pinker in The Language Instinct). A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common in situations such as Trade A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. The Language Instinct is a book by Steven Pinker, published in 1994. The possible exception to this are true native speakers of such languages. [11] Unfortunately, native speakers of Esperanto usually show little interest in becoming part of the international community of Esperanto speakers when they grow up.
Natural Language Processing
Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of artificial intelligence and computational linguistics. Natural language processing ( NLP) is a subfield of Artificial intelligence and Computational linguistics. It studies the problems of automated generation and understanding of natural human languages.
Natural-language-generation systems convert information from computer databases into normal-sounding human language. Natural-language-understanding systems convert samples of human language into more formal representations that are easier for computer programs to manipulate.
Modalities
Natural language manifests itself in modalities other than speech.
Sign languages
In linguistic terms, sign languages are as rich and complex as any oral language, despite the previously common misconception that they are not "real languages". A sign language (also signed language) is a Language which instead of acoustically conveyed Sound patterns uses visually transmitted sign patterns Professional linguists have studied many sign languages and found them to have every linguistic component required to be classed as true natural languages[12].
Sign languages are not pantomime, much as most spoken language is not onomatopoeic. Pantomime (informally panto) (not to be confused with a Mime artist, referring to a theatrical performer of mime is a performance genre traditionally found Onomatopoeia (also spelled onomatopœia, from Greek: ονοματοποιΐα is a Word or a grouping of words that imitates the sound it is describing The signs do tend to exploit iconicity (visual connections with their referents) more than what is common in spoken language, but they are above all conventional and hence generally incomprehensible to non-speakers, just like spoken words and morphemes[13]. They are not a visual rendition of an oral language either. They have complex grammars of their own, and can be used to discuss any topic, from the simple and concrete to the lofty and abstract.
Written languages
In a sense, written language should be distinguished from natural language. A written language is the representation of a Language by means of a Writing system. Until recently in the developed world, it was common for many people to be fluent in spoken or signed languages and yet remain illiterate; this is still the case in poor countries today. A spoken language is a human Natural language in which the Words are uttered through the Mouth. A sign language (also signed language) is a Language which instead of acoustically conveyed Sound patterns uses visually transmitted sign patterns Furthermore, natural language acquisition during childhood is largely spontaneous, while literacy must usually be intentionally acquired. One hotly debated issue is whether the biological contribution includes capacities specific to language acquisition often referred to as Universal grammar. traditional definition of literacy is considered to be the ability to read and write or the ability to use Language to read, write, listen, [14]
See also
- Language
- Natural language processing (NLP)
- Universal grammar
- LGML Linguistics Markup Language
Notes
- ^ A. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Natural language processing ( NLP) is a subfield of Artificial intelligence and Computational linguistics. Universal grammar is a theory of Linguistics postulating principles of Grammar shared by all languages thought to be innate to humans ( linguistic nativism Linguistics Markup Language (LGML is an XML -based framework for describing the Syntax and Semantics of Natural languages Features Moro, M. Tettamanti, D. Perani, C. Donati, S. F. Cappa, F. Fazio “Syntax and the brain: disentangling grammar by selective anomalies”, NeuroImage, 13, January 2001, Academic Press, Chicago, pp. 110-118
- ^ Musso, M. , Moro, A. , Glauche. V. , Rijntjes, M. , Reichenbach, J. , Büchel, C. , Weiller, C. “Broca’s area and the language instinct,” Nature neuroscience, 2003, vol. 6, pp. 774-781.
- ^ Early Voices: The Leap to Language nytimes article by Nicholas Wade
- ^ Origins of language constraints on hypotheses
- ^ "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition", accessed 28 June 2007, ISBN 1 55671 159 X
- ^ Panorama in Interlingua, an Interlingua news magazine, sometimes mentions native speakers of the language. Nicholas Wade is a British-born scientific reporter editor and author who currently writes for the Science Times section of The New York Times. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Gode, Alexander, Interlingua-English: A dictionary of the international language. Alexander Gottfried Friedrich Gode-von-Aesch or simply Alexander Gode ( October 30, 1906 in Bremen - August 10, 1970 The Interlingua-English Dictionary (IED developed by the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA under the direction of Alexander Gode and published New York: Storm Publishers, 1951. (Original edition)
- ^ Gopsill, F. P. , "A historical overview of international languages". In International languages: A matter for Interlingua. Sheffield, England: British Interlingua Society, 1990.
- ^ Gopsill, F. P. , "Naturalistic international languages". In International languages: A matter for Interlingua. Sheffield, England: British Interlingua Society, 1990.
- ^ Gopsill, F. P. , "A historical overview of international languages". In International languages: A matter for Interlingua. Sheffield, England: British Interlingua Society, 1990.
- ^ Proponents contend that there are 200-2000 native speakers of Esperanto. Native Esperanto speakers (in Esperanto denaskuloj) are born into families in which Esperanto (and usually other languages is spoken
- ^ Auslan: the Sign Language of the Australian Deaf Community. Volume One, Chapter 1
- ^ Auslan: the Sign Language of the Australian Deaf Community. Volume One, Chapter 6
- ^ Pinker, Steven. 1994. The Language Instinct
References
- ter Meulen, Alice, 2001, "Logic and Natural Language," in Goble, Lou, ed. , The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic. Blackwell.
Dictionary
natural language
-noun
- (countable) a human language which has evolved naturally in a community, usually in contrast to computer programming languages or to artificially constructed languages such as Esperanto.
- (uncountable) natural languages (sense 1) considered collectively
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