| Napoleon I | |
| Emperor of the French, King of Italy Mediator of the Swiss Confederation Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine | |
 Napoleon in His Study by Jacques-Louis David (1812) | |
| Reign | 20 March 1804–6 April 1814 1 March 1815–22 June 1815 |
|---|---|
| Coronation | 2 December 1804 |
| Full name | Napoleon Bonaparte |
| Born | 15 August 1769 |
| Birthplace | Ajaccio, Corsica |
| Died | 5 May 1821 (aged 51) |
| Place of death | Longwood, St. Helena |
| Buried | Les Invalides, Paris |
| Predecessor | French Consulate (as Executive Power of the French First Republic, with himself as First Consul); Previous ruling Monarch : Louis XVI as King of the French (died 1793) |
| Successor | Louis XVIII (de facto) Napoleon II (de jure) |
| Consort | Josephine de Beauharnais Marie Louise of Austria |
| Issue | Napoleon II |
| Royal House | Bonaparte |
| Father | Carlo Buonaparte |
| Mother | Letizia Ramolino |
Napoleon I (born Napoleone di Buonaparte, later Napoleon Bonaparte) (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on modern European history. List of Queens and Empresses of France Wikipedia_talkFeatured_lists#Proposed_change_to_all_featured_lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund États confédérés du Rhin officially and Confédération du Rhin in practice) lasted Jacques-Louis David (August 30 1748 &ndash December 29 1825 was a highly influential French painter in the Neoclassical style considered to be Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden. Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1769 ( MDCCLXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Ajaccio ( Adiacium Ajaccio; Aiacciu; Aiaccio) is a commune in France. Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Year 1821 ( MDCCCXXI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year Longwood is a district of the British island of Saint Helena, where Napoleon was exiled from 1816 until his death on 5 May 1821. Saint Helena (pronounced saint he-LEE-na) named after St Helena of Constantinople, is an island of volcanic origin and a British overseas territory Les Invalides in Paris, France, is a complex of buildings in the city's 7th arrondissement containing Museums and monuments all relating Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. Louis XVI ( 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) Louis-Auguste de France, ruled as King of France and Navarre Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. Joséphine de Beauharnais (born Marie Josèphe Rose de Tascher de la Pagerie June 23 1763 &ndash May 29 1814) was the first Marie Louise of Austria (Maria Luisa von Österreich French: Marie Louise d'Autriche; Italian: Maria Luisa d'Austria; b Bonaparte is a French family name of Italian origin Originally Buonaparte, this family claims numerous influential descendents including Corsican Carlo Maria Buonaparte (March 29/27 1746 &ndash February 24, 1785) was a Corsican lawyer and politician who briefly served as a personal assistant of the Nobile Maria Letizia Bonaparte née Ramolino ( Marie-Lætitia Ramolino Madame Mère de l'Empereur) ( 24 August, 1750 Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1769 ( MDCCLXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Year 1821 ( MDCCCXXI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year The history of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day He was a general during the French Revolution, the ruler of France as First Consul of the French Republic, Emperor of the French, King of Italy, Mediator of the Swiss Confederation and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. First Consul (Premier Consul was a title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia, but also Regno Italico; 17 March 1805 – 11 April Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund États confédérés du Rhin officially and Confédération du Rhin in practice) lasted
Born in Corsica and trained in mainland France as an artillery officer, he rose to prominence as a general of the French Revolution, leading several successful campaigns against the First Coalition and the Second Coalition arrayed against France. Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The First Coalition ( 1792 – 1797) was the first major concerted effort of multiple European powers to contain Revolutionary France. The " Second Coalition " ( 1799 &ndash 1802) was the second attempt by other European powers to contain or eliminate Revolutionary In 1799, Napoleon staged a coup d'état and installed himself as First Consul; five years later he became Emperor of the French. In the first decade of the nineteenth century, he turned the armies of France against almost every major European power, dominating continental Europe through a lengthy streak of military victories—epitomized through battles such as Austerlitz and Friedland—and the formation of extensive alliance systems, appointing close friends and family members as monarchs and government figures of French-dominated states. The Battle of Austerlitz (Bitva u Slavkova also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of Napoleon's greatest victories effectively destroying the The Battle of Friedland ( June 14, 1807) saw Napoleon's French army decisively defeat Bennigsen's Russian army about twenty-seven Miles
The disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812 marked a turning point in Napoleon's fortunes. The French invasion of Russia in 1812 was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. The campaign wrecked the Grande Armée, which never regained its previous strength. In October 1813, the Sixth Coalition defeated his forces at Leipzig and invaded France, forcing him to abdicate in April 1814 and exiling him to the island of Elba. In the War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814 a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and a number The Battle of the Nations (or Battle of Leipzig or Völkerschlacht bei Leipzig) on 16–19 October 1813 was one of the most decisive defeats suffered by Napoleon Elba (Ilva is an island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino. Less than a year later, he returned to France and regained control of the government in the Hundred Days (les Cent Jours) prior to his final defeat at Waterloo in June 1815. The Hundred Days was the period between Napoleon Bonaparte 's return from exile on Elba to Paris on 20 March 1815 and the restoration In the Battle of Waterloo (Sunday 18 June 1815 near Waterloo Belgium Napoleon spent the last six years of his life under British supervision on the island of Saint Helena. Saint Helena (pronounced saint he-LEE-na) named after St Helena of Constantinople, is an island of volcanic origin and a British overseas territory
Napoleon developed relatively few military innovations, though his placement of artillery into batteries and the elevation of the army corps as the standard all-arms unit have become accepted doctrines in virtually all large modern armies. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine In Military organizations an artillery battery is a unit of Guns mortars or Rockets so grouped in order to facilitate better battlefield This article is about a military unit For alternative meanings see Corps (disambiguation. He drew his best tactics from a variety of sources and scored major victories with a modernized and reformed French army. His campaigns are studied at military academies all over the world and he is widely regarded as one of history's greatest commanders. Napoleon is also remembered for establishing the Napoleonic code, which laid the bureaucratic foundations for the modern French state. The Napoleonic Code, or Code Napoléon (originally called the Code civil des Français) is the French Civil code, established under
Contents |
Origins and education
Napoleon was born in the town of Ajaccio on Corsica, France, on 15 August 1769,[1] one year after the island was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa. Nobile Maria Letizia Bonaparte née Ramolino ( Marie-Lætitia Ramolino Madame Mère de l'Empereur) ( 24 August, 1750 Ajaccio ( Adiacium Ajaccio; Aiacciu; Aiaccio) is a commune in France. Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1769 ( MDCCLXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Most Serene Republic of Genoa (Repubblica di Genova was an independent state in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast from the 11th century He was named Napoleone di Buonaparte (in Corsican, Nabolione or Nabulione). Corsican ( Corsu or Lingua Corsa) is a Romance language spoken and written on the islands of Corsica ( France) and northern Sardinia [2] However, neither Napoleone nor his family used the nobiliary particle di and he later adopted the more French-sounding Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon wrote to Pasquale di Paoli (leader of a Corsican revolt against the French) in 1789: "I was born when my country was dying. Filippo Antonio Pasquale di Paoli ( Pascal Paoli, April 6, 1725 February 5, 1807 Thirty thousand French, vomited on our shores, drowning the throne of liberty in waves of blood- such was the horrid sight which first met my view. "[1] Napoleon's heritage earned him popularity among Italians during his Italian campaigns. [3]
The family, formerly known as Buonaparte, were minor Italian nobility coming from Tuscan stock of Lombard origin set in Lunigiana. The Nobility of Italy reflects the fact that medieval "Italy" was a set of separate states until 1870 and had many royal bloodlines The Lombards ( Latin Langobardi, whence the alternative names Langobards and Longobards) were a Germanic people originally from Lunigiana is an historical territory of Italy, which today falls within the provinces of La Spezia and Massa Carrara. [4] The family had moved to Florence and later broke into two branches; the original one, Buonaparte-Sarzana, were compelled to leave Florence, due to the defeat of the Ghibellines, coming to Corsica in the 16th century when the island was a possession of the Republic of Genoa. The Guelphs and Ghibellines were factions supporting respectively the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire in central and northern Italy The Most Serene Republic of Genoa (Repubblica di Genova was an independent state in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast from the 11th century
His father Carlo Buonaparte was born 1746 and in the Republic of Genoa; an attorney, he was named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI in 1778, where he remained for a number of years. Carlo Maria Buonaparte (March 29/27 1746 &ndash February 24, 1785) was a Corsican lawyer and politician who briefly served as a personal assistant of the The Most Serene Republic of Genoa (Repubblica di Genova was an independent state in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast from the 11th century Louis XVI ( 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) Louis-Auguste de France, ruled as King of France and Navarre The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, Maria Letizia Ramolino. Nobile Maria Letizia Bonaparte née Ramolino ( Marie-Lætitia Ramolino Madame Mère de l'Empereur) ( 24 August, 1750 [5] Her firm discipline helped restrain the rambunctious Napoleon, nicknamed Rabullione (the "meddler" or "disrupter").
Napoleon had an elder brother, Joseph, and younger siblings Lucien, Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline and Jérôme. Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte King of Naples and Sicily, King of Spain (during a time) and the Indies (never de facto and never de iure Lucien Bonaparte Prince Français 1st Principe di Canino and 1st Principe di Musignano (born Luciano Buonaparte; ( May 21, 1775 &ndash Maria Anna (Marie Anne Elisa Bonaparte Baciocchi Princesse Française Duchess of Lucca and Princess of Piombino, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, Comtesse de Early life Louis was born Luigi Buonaparte in Ajaccio, Corsica. Marie Paulette (Pauline Bonaparte Princesse Française Princess and Duchess of Guastalla ( October 20, 1780 - June 9, 1825) was the Maria Annunziata Carolina (Marie Annonciade Caroline Murat ( Née Bonaparte; 25 March 1782 &ndash 18 May 1839) better Jérôme-Napoléon Bonaparte French Prince King of Westphalia, 1st Prince of Montfort ( November 15, 1784 &ndash June 24, 1860 He was baptised Catholic just before his second birthday, on 21 July 1771 at Ajaccio Cathedral. Catholic is an Adjective derived from the Greek adjective '' / 'katholikos' meaning "whole" or "complete". Events 356 BC - Herostratus sets fire to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World Year 1771 ( MDCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Ajaccio Cathedral ( Cathédrale Notre-Dame-de-l'Assomption d'Ajaccio) is a Catholic cathedral located in Ajaccio, Corsica. [6]
Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background and family connections afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time. On 15 May 1779, at age nine, Napoleon was admitted to a French military school at Brienne-le-Château, a small town near Troyes. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Year 1779 ( MDCCLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common A military academy or service academy (American English is an educational institution which prepares candidates for service in the officer corps of the Army the Navy Air Force Brienne-le-Château is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France. Troyes (tʁwa is a commune, the préfecture (capital of the northeastern Aube département in France and is He had to learn French before entering the school, but he spoke with a marked Italian accent throughout his life and never learned to spell properly. [7] During his schooling years Napoleon was often teased by other students for his Corsican accent. However he buried himself in study. [8]
Upon graduation in 1784, Bonaparte was admitted to the elite École Royale Militaire (Military college) in Paris. The École Militaire (Military School is a vast complex of buildings housing various military teaching facilities located in Paris, France, southeast of the Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Although he had initially sought a naval assignment, he studied artillery and completed the two-year course of study in one year. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine [9] An examiner judged him as "very applied [to the study of] abstract sciences, little curious as to the others; [having] a thorough knowledge of mathematics and geography. "[10]
Early career
Upon graduation in September 1785, he was commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery regiment and took up his new duties in January 1786 at the age of 16. An officer is a member of an armed force who holds a position of authority Second Lieutenant is the lowest commissioned officer Military rank in many Armed forces. [11] Napoleon served on garrison duty in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 - though he took nearly two years of leave in Corsica and Paris during this period. Valence ( Occitan Valença) is a commune in southeastern France, the capital of the department of Drôme, situated Auxonne is a commune in the Côte-d'Or department in Bourgogne in eastern France. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an He spent most of the next several years in Corsica, where a complex three-way struggle was playing out between royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. Bonaparte supported the Jacobin faction and gained the rank of lieutenant-colonel of a regiment of volunteers. The Jacobin Club was the largest and most powerful political club of the French Revolution. Lieutenant Colonel ( Lieutenant-Colonel in English from the French grade 's spelling is a rank of Commissioned officer in the armies After coming into conflict with the increasingly conservative nationalist leader, Pasquale Paoli, Bonaparte and his family fled to the French mainland in June 1793. Filippo Antonio Pasquale di Paoli ( Pascal Paoli, April 6, 1725 February 5, 1807 [12]
Through the help of fellow Corsican Saliceti, Napoleon was appointed artillery commander of the French forces besieging Toulon, which had risen in revolt against the republican government and was occupied by British troops. Antoine Christophe Saliceti (baptised in the name of Antonio Cristoforo Saliceti: Antoniu Cristufaru Saliceti in Corsican; August 26, 1757 The Siege of Toulon ( 18 September - 18 December 1793) was an early Republican victory over a Royalist rebellion in the Southern French The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located [13] He spotted an ideal place for French guns to be set up so they could dominate the city's harbour, and the British ships would be forced to evacuate. The assault on the position, during which Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh, led to the recapture of the city and his promotion to Brigadier General. Brigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General. His actions brought him to the attention of the Committee of Public Safety, and he became a close associate of Augustin Robespierre, younger brother of the Revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre. The Committee of Public Safety (Comité de salut public le Haut Comité de la santé publique which is an entirely unrelated present-day institution--> set up by the Augustin Bon Joseph de Robespierre ( January 21, 1763 &ndash July 28, 1794) was the younger brother of French Revolutionary leader Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (maksimiljɛ̃ fʁɑ̃swa maʁi izidɔʁ də ʁɔbɛspjɛʁ ( 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) [14] Following the fall of the elder Robespierre he was briefly imprisoned in the Chateau d'Antibes on 6 August 1794, but was released within two weeks. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1794 ( MDCCXCIV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a [15] He also became engaged to Désirée Clary, later Queen of Sweden and Norway, but the engagement was broken off by Napoleon in 1796. Desideria Clary ( November 8, 1777 &ndash December 17, 1860) was the wife of King Charles XIV John of Sweden and [16]
13 Vendemiaire
Bonaparte was serving in Paris when royalists and counter-revolutionaries organised an armed protest against the National Convention on 3 October 1795. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Bonaparte was given command of the improvised forces defending the Convention in the Tuileries Palace. The Palais des Tuileries was a royal Palace in Paris. It stood on the right bank of the River Seine until 1871, when it was destroyed He seized artillery pieces with the aid of a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat - who later became his brother-in-law[17] - and used it the next day to repel the attackers, of which 300 died[17] and the rest fled. Joachim-Napoléon Murat (born Joachim Murat) ( Gioacchino Napoleone Murat) ( March 25 1767 &ndash October 13 1815) A brother-in-law is one's sister's husband or one's spouse's brother [18] This triumph earned him sudden fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new Directory, particularly that of its leader, Barras. The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following Paul François Jean Nicolas vicomte de Barras ( June 30, 1755 &mdash January 29, 1829) was a French politician of the Within weeks he was romantically attached to Barras's former mistress, Josephine de Beauharnais, whom he married on 9 March 1796. Joséphine de Beauharnais (born Marie Josèphe Rose de Tascher de la Pagerie June 23 1763 &ndash May 29 1814) was the first Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia. Year 1796 ( MDCCXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year [19]
First Italian campaign
Days after his marriage, Bonaparte took command of the French "Army of Italy" on 27 March 1796, leading it on a successful invasion of Italy. The French Revolutionary Wars continued from 1795, with the French in an increasingly strong position as members of the First Coalition made separate peaces The Army of Italy (Armée d'Italie was a Field army of the French Army stationed on the Italian border and used for operations in Italy itself Events 196 BC - Ptolemy V ascends to the throne of Egypt. 1309 - Pope Clement V excommunicates Year 1796 ( MDCCXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The French Revolutionary Wars continued from 1795, with the French in an increasingly strong position as members of the First Coalition made separate peaces At the battles of Montenotte and Lodi, he defeated Austrian forces, then drove them out of Lombardy and defeated the army of the Papal States. The Battle of Montenotte was fought on 12 April 1796, during the French Revolutionary Wars, between French forces under General Bonaparte The Battle of Lodi was fought on May 10, 1796 between French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte and an Austrian rear guard at Lombardy (Lombardia Latin: Langobardia, Western Lombard: Lumbardìa, Eastern Lombard: Lombardia) is one of the The Papal States, State(s of the Church or Pontifical States (in Italian Stato Ecclesiastico, Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa [20]
Because Pope Pius VI had protested the execution of Louis XVI, France retaliated by annexing two small papal territories. The Battle of Arcole ( November 15 - 17, 1796) (spelled Arcola in some English language texts was the result of a bold attempt by Napoleon Baron Antoine-Jean Gros ( March 16, 1771 - June 25, 1835) was a French painter, born in Paris Circa (often abbreviated c, ca, ca or cca and sometimes Italicized to show it is Latin) means "about" The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France Pope Pius VI (December 27 1717 &ndash August 29 1799 born Count Giovanni Angelo Braschi, Pope from 1775 to 1799 was born at Cesena. Louis XVI ( 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) Louis-Auguste de France, ruled as King of France and Navarre Bonaparte ignored the Directory's order to march on Rome and dethrone the Pope. The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 It was not until the following year that General Berthier captured Rome and took Pius VI prisoner on 20 February. Louis Alexandre Berthier, 1st Duc de Wagram, 1st Duc de Valengin, 1st Sovereign Prince de Neuchâtel ( February Events 1472 - Orkney and Shetland are left by Norway to Scotland, due to a Dowry payment The Pope died of illness while in captivity. In early 1797, Bonaparte led his army into Austria and forced that power to sue for peace. The French Revolutionary Wars continued from 1796, with France fighting the First Coalition. Suing for peace is an act by a warring nation to initiate a peace process in which the peace terms are more favorable than an Unconditional surrender. The resulting Treaty of Campo Formio gave France control of most of northern Italy, along with the Low Countries and Rhineland, but a secret clause promised Venice to Austria. The Treaty of Campo Formio was signed on October 17, 1797 (26 Vendémiaire Year VI of the French Republic by Napoleon Bonaparte and Count Ludwig Related categories Central Italy Southern Italy Insular Italy Northeast Italy The Low Countries, the historical region of de Nederlanden, are the countries on low-lying land around the delta of the Rhine, Scheldt The Rhineland ( Rheinland in German) is the general name for the land on both sides of the river Rhine in the west of Germany. The Most Serene Republic of Venice ((Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia Serenissima Repubblica [21] Bonaparte then marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending more than 1,000 years of independence. Later in 1797, Bonaparte organised many of the French-dominated territories in Italy into the Cisalpine Republic. The Cisalpine Republic ( Repubblica Cisalpina) was a French client republic in Northern Italy that lasted from 1797 to 1802.
His series of military triumphs was a result of his ability to apply his knowledge of conventional military thought to real-world situations, as demonstrated by his creative use of artillery tactics, using it as a mobile force to support his infantry. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine The Infantry is the oldest and most numerous of the Combat Arms in the Armed forces, and consists As he described it: ". . . Although I have fought sixty battles, I have learned nothing which I did not know at the beginning. Look at Caesar; he fought the first like the last. "[22] Contemporary paintings of his headquarters during the Italian campaign depict his use of the Chappe semaphore line, first implemented in 1792. Claude Chappe ( December 25, 1763 &ndash January 23, 1805) was a French inventor who in 1792 demonstrated a practical semaphore system A semaphore telegraph, optical telegraph, shutter telegraph chain, Chappe telegraph, or Napoleonic semaphore is a system He was also adept at both intelligence and deception and had a sense of when to strike. He often won battles by concentrating his forces on an unsuspecting enemy, by using spies to gather information about opposing forces, and by concealing his own troop deployments. In this campaign, often considered his greatest, Napoleon's army captured 160,000 prisoners, 2,000 cannons,[23] and 170 standards. [24] A year of campaigning had witnessed breaks with the traditional norms of 18th century warfare and marked a new era in military history.
While campaigning in Italy, General Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics. He published two newspapers, ostensibly for the troops in his army, but widely circulated within France as well. In May 1797 he founded a third newspaper, published in Paris, Le Journal de Bonaparte et des hommes vertueux. [25] Elections in mid-1797 gave the royalist party increased power, alarming Barras and his allies on the Directory. The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following [26] The royalists, in turn, began attacking Bonaparte for looting Italy and overstepping his authority in dealings with the Austrians. Bonaparte sent General Augereau to Paris to lead a coup d'etat and purge the royalists on 4 September (18 Fructidor). Charles Pierre François Augereau 1st Duc de Castiglione ( October 21, 1757 &ndash June 12, 1816) was a French soldier and military Events 476 - Romulus Augustus, last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, is deposed when Odoacer proclaims himself The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following This left Barras and his Republican allies in firm control again, but dependent on Bonaparte to maintain it. Bonaparte himself proceeded to the peace negotiations with Austria, then returned to Paris in December as the conquering hero and the dominant force in government, far more popular than any of the Directors. The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following [27]
Egyptian expedition
In March 1798, Bonaparte proposed a military expedition to seize Egypt, then a province of the Ottoman Empire, seeking to protect French trade interests and undermine Britain's access to India. The French Invasion of Egypt (1798-1801 was Napoleon Bonaparte 's unsuccessful campaign in Egypt and Syria to protect French trade The French Invasion of Egypt (1798-1801 was Napoleon Bonaparte 's unsuccessful campaign in Egypt and Syria to protect French trade The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Directory, although troubled by the scope and cost of the enterprise, readily agreed so the popular general would be away from the center of power. The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following [28]
In May, Bonaparte was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences. Baron Antoine-Jean Gros ( March 16, 1771 - June 25, 1835) was a French painter, born in Paris The French Academy of Sciences ( French: Académie des sciences) is a Learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the His Egyptian expedition included a group of 167 scientists: mathematicians, naturalists, chemists and geodesers among them;[29] their discoveries included the Rosetta Stone and their work was published in the Description of Egypt in 1809. Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals The Rosetta Stone is an Ancient Egyptian artifact (حجر رشيد in Arabic which was instrumental in advancing modern understanding of hieroglyphic writing This deployment of intellectual resources is considered by Ahmed Youssef[30] an indication of Bonaparte's devotion to the principles of the Enlightenment, and by Juan Cole as a masterstroke of propaganda, obfuscating the true imperialist motives of the invasion. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude [31] In a largely unsuccessful effort to gain the support of the Egyptian populace, Bonaparte also issued proclamations casting himself as a liberator of the people from Ottoman oppression, and praising the precepts of Islam. A proclamation (Lat proclamare, to make public by announcement is an official declaration The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. [32]
Bonaparte's expedition seized Malta from the Knights of Saint John on 9 June and then landed successfully at Alexandria on 1 July, temporarily eluding pursuit by the British Royal Navy. Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands The Knights Hospitaller (also known as the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) After landing he successfully fought The Battle of Chobrakit against the Mamelukes, an old power in the Middle East. Napoleon Bonaparte faced a crucial battle over a week before the Battle of the Pyramids. This battle helped the French plan their attack in the Battle of the Pyramids fought over a week later, about 6 km from the pyramids. The Battle of the Pyramids, also known as the Battle of Embabeh was a battle fought on July 21, 1798 between the French army in A pyramid is a Building where the upper surfaces are triangular and converge on one point Bonaparte's forces were greatly outnumbered by the Mamelukes cavalry - 20,000 against 60,000 - but Bonaparte formed hollow squares, keeping supplies safely on the inside. In all, 300 French and approximately 6,000 Egyptians were killed. [33]
While the battle on land was a resounding French victory, the British Royal Navy managed to win at sea. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) The ships that had landed Bonaparte and his army sailed back to France, while a fleet of ships of the line remained to support the army along the coast. A ship-of-the-line was a type of naval warship constructed from the 17th century through the mid-19th century to take part in the the naval tactic known as the Line of battle On 1 August the British fleet under Horatio Nelson fought the French in the Battle of the Nile, capturing or destroying all but two French vessels. Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson 1st Viscount Nelson 1st Duke of Bronté, KB (29 September 1758– 21 October 1805 was a British The Battle of the Nile or Aboukir Bay (August 1-2 1798 saw a British fleet under Rear-Admiral Horatio Nelson defeat a French With Bonaparte land-bound, his goal of strengthening the French position in the Mediterranean Sea was frustrated, but his army succeeded in consolidating power in Egypt, though it faced repeated uprisings. [34]
In early 1799, he led the army into the Ottoman province of Damascus (Syria and northern Israel) and defeated numerically superior Ottoman forces in several battles, but his army was weakened by disease—mostly bubonic plague—and poor supplies. Circa (often abbreviated c, ca, ca or cca and sometimes Italicized to show it is Latin) means "about" Jean-Léon Gérôme ( May 11, 1824 – January 10, 1904) was a French painter and sculptor in the style Not to be confused with Hurst Castle, Henry VIII's Device Fort near Portsmouth in England A wilāyah (ولاية or vilâyet (in Persian and Ottoman Turkish) is an administrative division usually Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as Napoleon led 13,000 French soldiers to the conquest of the coastal towns of El Arish, Gaza, Jaffa, and Haifa. Gaza (غزة, עַזָּה ʕazzā is the largest city in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian territories. Jaffa يَافَا;(יָפוֹ Yafo; also Japho, Joppa) is an ancient Port city believed to be one of the oldest in the world Haifa (חֵיפָה; حَيْفَا) is the largest City in Northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country with [35]
The storming of Jaffa was particularly brutal. Although the French took control of the city within a few hours of the attack beginning, the French soldiers bayoneted approximately 2,000 Turkish soldiers trying to surrender. The soldiers' then turned on the inhabitants of the town. Men, women, and children were robbed and murdered for three days, and the massacre ended with even more bloodshed, as Napoleon ordered 3,000 Turkish prisoners executed. [35]
Napoleon was unable to reduce the fortress of Acre, after his army was weakened by the plague, and returned to Egypt in May. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. To speed up the retreat, Bonaparte took the controversial step of ordering the poisoning of plague-stricken men along the way; it is not clear how many died. [36] His supporters have argued this decision was necessary given the continuing harassment of stragglers by Ottoman forces. Back in Egypt, on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir. Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler The Battle of Abukir Bay was Napoleon Bonaparte's decisive victory over Seid Mustafa Pasha's Turkish army on July 25, 1799 during the French [37]
With the Egyptian campaign stagnating, and political instability developing back home, Bonaparte left Egypt for France in August, 1799, leaving his army under General Kléber. Jean Baptiste Kléber ( 9 March, 1753 &ndash 14 June, 1800) was a French general during the French Revolutionary Wars. [38]
Ruler of France
Coup d'état of 18 Brumaire
Whilst in Egypt, Bonaparte stayed informed of European affairs by relying on the irregular delivery of newspapers and dispatches. Timeline of the Napoleonic eraThe Napoleonic Era is a period in the History of France and Europe 18 Brumaire, the coup of 18 Brumaire or sometimes simply Brumaire refers to the Coup d'état by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the On 23 August 1799, he set sail for France, taking advantage of the temporary departure of British ships blockading French coastal ports. Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Although he was later accused of abandoning his troops, the Directory ordered his departure, as France had suffered a series of military defeats to Second Coalition forces, and a possible invasion of French territory loomed. The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following By 1799, the French Revolutionary Wars had resumed after a period of relative peace in 1798. The " Second Coalition " ( 1799 &ndash 1802) was the second attempt by other European powers to contain or eliminate Revolutionary
By the time he reached Paris in October, a series of French victories meant an improvement in the previously precarious military situation. The Council of Five Hundred ( Conseil des Cinq-Cents) or simply the Five Hundred was the Lower house of the legislature of France An Orangery was a building frequently found in the grounds of fashionable residences from the 17th to the 19th century and given a classicising architectural form The Château de Saint-Cloud was a royal Château in France, built on a magnificent site overlooking the Seine at Saint-Cloud in Hauts-de-Seine The Republic was bankrupt, however, and the corrupt and inefficient Directory was more unpopular than ever with the public. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. [39]
Bonaparte was approached by one of the Directors, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, seeking his support for a coup d'état to overthrow the constitutional government. The Constitution of 1795, Constitution of 22 August 1795, Constitution of the Year III, or Constitution of 5 Fructidor was a national Constitution The plot included Bonaparte's brother Lucien, then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred, Roger Ducos, another Director, and Talleyrand. Lucien Bonaparte Prince Français 1st Principe di Canino and 1st Principe di Musignano (born Luciano Buonaparte; ( May 21, 1775 &ndash The Council of Five Hundred ( Conseil des Cinq-Cents) or simply the Five Hundred was the Lower house of the legislature of France Pierre Roger Ducos (1747&ndash1816 better known as Roger Ducos, was a French political figure during the Revolution and First Empire, a member Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord 1st Sovereign Prince of Beneventum (2 February 1754 17 May 1838 the Prince of Diplomats, was a French On 9 November - 18 Brumaire - Bonaparte was charged with the safety of the legislative councils and the following day, he led troops to seize control and disperse them, leaving a legislative rump to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, and Ducos as provisional Consuls to administer the government. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all 18 Brumaire, the coup of 18 Brumaire or sometimes simply Brumaire refers to the Coup d'état by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew A Rump legislature is a Legislature formed of part usually a minority of the legislators originally elected or appointed to office Although Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, he was outmaneuvered by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. The Constitution of the Year VIII was a national Constitution of France, adopted December 24 1799 (during the Year VIII of the French Revolutionary First Consul (Premier Consul was a title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. This made Bonaparte the most powerful person in France, powers that were increased by the Constitution of the Year X, which declared him First Consul for life. The Constitution of the Year X was a national Constitution of France adopted during the Year X (1802 of the French Revolutionary Calendar. First Consul (Premier Consul was a title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. [40]
Bonaparte instituted several lasting reforms, including centralized administration of the departements, higher education, a tax system, a central bank, law codes, and road and sewer systems. In the Terminology of Political geography and Historiography a National department (département departamento is an administrative Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is the entity responsible for the Monetary policy of a country or of a group of member states He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church, seeking to reconcile the mostly Catholic population with his regime. The Concordat of 1801 is a reflection of an agreement between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII that reaffirmed the Roman Catholic Church as the majority It was presented alongside the Organic Articles, which regulated public worship in France. The Organic Articles ( French: "Les Articles Organiques") was the name of a Law administering public Worship in France. His set of civil laws, the Napoleonic Code or Civil Code, has importance to this day in modern continental Europe, Latin America and the US, specifically Louisiana. The Napoleonic Code, or Code Napoléon (originally called the Code civil des Français) is the French Civil code, established under The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The State of Louisiana ( or, État de Louisiane, pronounced) is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America [41]
The Code was prepared by committees of legal experts under the supervision of Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès, who held the office Second Consul from 1799 to 1804; Bonaparte participated actively in the sessions of the Council of State that revised the drafts. Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès 1st Duc de Parma, ( 18 October 1753 &ndash 8 March 1824) was First Consul (Premier Consul was a title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. This article is about the present-day French institution For institutions with the same name during the Ancien Régime in France see Conseil du Roi. Other codes were commissioned by Bonaparte to codify criminal and commerce law. In 1808, a Code of Criminal Instruction was published, which enacted precise rules of judicial procedure. Due process (more fully due process of law) is the principle that a person has a right to receive notice and be heard in an orderly proceeding in order to protect his or her [42] Although by today's standards the code excessively favours the prosecution, when enacted it sought to protect personal freedoms and to remedy the prosecutorial abuses commonplace in contemporary European courts.
Second Italian campaign
In 1800, Bonaparte returned to Italy, which the Austrians had reconquered during his absence in Egypt. The " Second Coalition " ( 1799 &ndash 1802) was the second attempt by other European powers to contain or eliminate Revolutionary He and his troops crossed the Alps in spring - he rode a mule, not the white charger on which David famously depicted him. Jacques-Louis David (August 30 1748 &ndash December 29 1825 was a highly influential French painter in the Neoclassical style considered to be [43]
While the campaign began badly, Napoleon's forces eventually routed the Austrians in June at the Battle of Marengo, leading to an armistice. Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Bonaparte is a French family name of Italian origin Originally Buonaparte, this family claims numerous influential descendents including Corsican In the Battle of Marengo was fought on 14 June 1800 between French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte and Austrian forces near the city of Alessandria Napoleon's brother Joseph, who was leading the peace negotiations in Lunéville, reported that due to British backing for Austria, Austria would not recognise France's newly gained territory. Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte King of Naples and Sicily, King of Spain (during a time) and the Indies (never de facto and never de iure Lunéville is a commune in the French région of Lorraine. It is a Sous-préfecture of the Meurthe-et-Moselle As negotiations became more and more fractious, Bonaparte gave orders to his general Moreau to strike Austria once more. Jean Victor Marie Moreau ( February 14, 1763 &ndash September 2, 1813) was a French general who helped Napoleon Bonaparte Moreau led France to victory at Hohenlinden. The Battle of Hohenlinden was fought on December 3 1800 during the French Revolutionary Wars, near Munich, modern Germany. As a result, the Treaty of Lunéville was signed in February 1801: the French gains of the Treaty of Campo Formio were reaffirmed and increased. The Treaty of Lunéville was signed on February 9 1801 between the French Republic and the Holy Roman Empire by Joseph Bonaparte and The Treaty of Campo Formio was signed on October 17, 1797 (26 Vendémiaire Year VI of the French Republic by Napoleon Bonaparte and Count Ludwig Later that year, Bonaparte became President of the French Academy of Sciences and appointed Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre its Permanent Secretary. The French Academy of Sciences ( French: Académie des sciences) is a Learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the Jean Baptiste Joseph chevalier Delambre ( September 19, 1749 Amiens - August 19, 1822 Paris) was a French [29] He also re-established slavery in France; it had been banned following the revolution. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another [44]
Interlude of peace
The British signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, setting the terms for peace, which included the withdrawal of British troops from several colonial territories recently occupied. The Treaty of Amiens temporarily ended the hostilities between France and the United Kingdom during the French Revolutionary Wars. The peace between France and Britain was uneasy and short-lived. The monarchies of Europe were reluctant to recognise a republic, fearing the ideas of the revolution might be exported to them. In Britain, the brother of Louis XVI was welcomed as a state guest although officially Britain recognised France as a republic. Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. Britain failed to evacuate Malta, as promised, and protested against France's annexation of Piedmont, and Napoleon's Act of Mediation in Switzerland, although neither of these areas were covered by the Treaty. Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands Annexation ( Latin ad, to and nexus, joining is the legal incorporation of some territory into another geo-political entity (either adjacent or non-contiguous Piedmont ( Piemonte; Piedmontese and Occitan: Piemont; French: Piémont) is one of the 20 Regions of Italy. The Act of Mediation was issued by Napoleon Bonaparte on 19 February, 1803 establishing the Swiss Confederation. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation
In 1803 Bonaparte faced a major setback and eventual defeat in the Haitian Revolution, when an army he sent to reconquer Saint-Domingue and establish a base following a slave revolt, was destroyed by a combination of yellow fever and fierce resistance led by Haitian Generals Toussaint L'Ouverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines. The Revolution (1791–1804 was the most successful of African Slave rebellions in the Western Hemisphere Saint-Domingue was a French Colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola from 1659 to 1804 when it became the independent nation of As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Yellow fever (also called yellow jack, black vomit or sometimes American Plague) is an acute viral disease François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture Jean-Jacques Dessalines ( September 20, 1758 – 17 October 1806 was a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent [45] Facing imminent war with Britain and bankruptcy, he recognised that French possessions on the mainland of North America would now be indefensible and sold them to the United States—the Louisiana Purchase—for less than three cents per acre ($7. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For the film see Louisiana Purchase (film. The Louisiana Purchase (French Vente de la Louisiane "Louisiana Sale" In many national currencies, the cent is a monetary unit that equals 1/100 of the basic monetary unit The acre is a unit of Area in a number of different systems including the imperial and U 40/km²). [46] The dispute over Malta ended with Britain declaring war on France in 1803 to support French royalists. Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands
Coronation as Emperor
In January 1804, Bonaparte's police uncovered an assassination plot against him, ostensibly sponsored by the Bourbons. The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. [47] In retaliation, Bonaparte ordered the arrest of the Duc d'Enghien, in a violation of the sovereignty of Baden. Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Condé duc d'Enghien (pronounced /dɑ̃ɡɛ̃/ the i is silent ( August 2, 1772 &ndash March 21, 1804) was Baden is a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. After a hurried secret trial, the Duke was executed on 21 March. A secret trial is a trial that is not open to the public, nor reported in the news Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. [48]
Bonaparte used this incident to justify the re-creation of a hereditary monarchy in France, with himself as Emperor, on the theory that a Bourbon restoration would be impossible once the Bonapartist succession was entrenched in the constitution. An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty.
Napoleon crowned himself Emperor on 2 December 1804 at Notre Dame de Paris[49] he then crowned his wife Josephine Empress. An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a NotreDameFlyingButtressjpg|right|thumb|250px|Notre Dame de Paris Flying Buttress]] Notre Dame de Paris is a Gothic Cathedral on the eastern half of the Joséphine de Beauharnais (born Marie Josèphe Rose de Tascher de la Pagerie June 23 1763 &ndash May 29 1814) was the first At Milan's cathedral on 26 May 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Events 451 - The Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sassanid Empire takes place Year 1805 ( MDCCCV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or The Iron Crown of Lombardy ( Corona Ferrea) is both a reliquary and one of the most ancient royal insignia of Europe
In May 1809, Napoleon declared the Pontifical States annexed to the empire and Pius VII responded by excommunicating him. The Papal States, State(s of the Church or Pontifical States (in Italian Stato Ecclesiastico, Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa Pope Pius VII, OSB (August 14 1740&mdashAugust 20 1823 born Count Barnaba Niccolò Maria Luigi Chiaramonti, was Pope from March 14 1800 to August Excommunication is a religious Censure used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community Though Napoleon did not instruct his officers to kidnap the Pope, once Pius was a prisoner, Napoleon did not offer his release. The Pope was moved throughout Napoleon's territories, sometimes whilst ill, and Napoleon sent delegations to pressure him into issues including giving-up power and signing a new concordat with France. The Pope remained confined for 5 years, and did not return to Rome until May 1814. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 [50]
Napoleonic Wars
Third Coalition
In 1805 Britain convinced Austria and Russia to join a Third Coalition against France. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions The War of the Third Coalition in 1805 saw the defeat of an alliance of Austria, Portugal, Russia, and others by France and its client states The War of the Third Coalition in 1805 saw the defeat of an alliance of Austria, Portugal, Russia, and others by France and its client states Napoleon knew the French fleet could not defeat the Royal Navy and tried to lure its fleet away from the English Channel in the hope that a Spanish and French fleet could take control of the Channel long enough for French armies to cross to England. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. [51] However, with Austria and Russia preparing an invasion of France, he had to change his plans and turn his attention to the continent. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The newly formed Grande Armee secretly marched to Germany. On 20 October 1805, it surprised the Austrians at Ulm though the next day, Britain's victory at the Battle of Trafalgar, meant the British navy gained control of the seas. Events 1740 - Maria Theresa takes the throne of Austria. France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony Year 1805 ( MDCCCV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or The Battle of Ulm ( October 16 - 19, 1805) was a series of minor skirmishes at the end of Napoleon Bonaparte's Ulm Campaign, culminating The Battle of Trafalgar ( 21 October 1805) was a historic sea battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the combined fleets of the The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service)
A few weeks later, Napoleon defeated Austria and Russia at Austerlitz - a decisive victory for which he remained more proud than any other - on 2 December, the first anniversary of his coronation. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Battle of Austerlitz (Bitva u Slavkova also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of Napoleon's greatest victories effectively destroying the Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire [52] Again Austria had to sue for peace.
Fourth Coalition
The Fourth Coalition was assembled the following year, and Napoleon defeated Prussia at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in October. The Fourth Coalition against Napoleon's French Empire was defeated in a war spanning 1806&ndash1807 The Fourth Coalition against Napoleon's French Empire was defeated in a war spanning 1806&ndash1807 Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt (older name Auerstädt were fought on October 14, 1806 on the plateau west of the river Saale [53] He marched on against advancing Russian armies through Poland, and was involved at the bloody stalemate of the Battle of Eylau on 6 February 1807. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Battle of Eylau or Battle of Preussisch-Eylau (February 7–8 1807 was a bloody and inconclusive battle between Napoléon's Grande Armée and Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio Year 1807 ( MDCCCVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common After a decisive victory at Friedland, he signed a treaty at Tilsit in East Prussia with Tsar Alexander I of Russia, dividing Europe between the two powers. The Battle of Friedland ( June 14, 1807) saw Napoleon's French army decisively defeat Bennigsen's Russian army about twenty-seven Miles The Treaties of Tilsit were two agreements signed by Napoleon I of France in the aftermath of his victory at Friedland in the town of Tilsit Sovetsk (Сове́тск prior to 1945 known by its German name Tilsit (Tilžė Tylża is a town now in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia East Prussia (Ostpreußen; Rytų Prūsija or Rytprūsiai; Prusy Wschodnie Восточная Пруссия or Vostochnaya Prussiya) refers to the main part Alexander I of Russia ( Russian: Александр I Павлович / Aleksandr I Pavlovich (23 December 1777 – November 19 1825 served as Emperor of Power in international relations is defined in several different ways He placed puppet rulers on the thrones of German states, including his brother Jerome as king of the new state of Westphalia. Jérôme-Napoléon Bonaparte French Prince King of Westphalia, 1st Prince of Montfort ( November 15, 1784 &ndash June 24, 1860 The Kingdom of Westphalia was a historical state that existed from 1807 - 1813 in parts of present-day Germany. In the French-controlled part of Poland, he established the Duchy of Warsaw, with King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony as ruler. The Duchy of Warsaw (Księstwo Warszawskie Duché de Varsovie Herzogtum Warschau Варшавское герцогство was a Polish state established by Napoleon For the king of Poland see Augustus I of Poland Frederick Augustus I (full name Frederick Augustus Joseph Maria Anton Johann Nepomuk Aloys Xavier) (Friedrich The Free State of Saxony (Freistaat Sachsen ˈzaksən Swobodny Stat Sakska is the easternmost federal state of Germany. Between 1809 and 1813, Napoleon also served as Regent of the Grand Duchy of Berg for his brother Louis Bonaparte. Berg was a medieval territory in today's North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Early life Louis was born Luigi Buonaparte in Ajaccio, Corsica.
In addition, Napoleon also waged economic war, attempting to enforce a Europe-wide commercial boycott of Britain called the "Continental System", though it had, "little success in its mission of destroying the economic organisation of Great Britain. The Continental System was the Foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland during the "[54]
Peninsular War
Portugal did not comply with the Continental System and in 1807 Napoleon invaded Portugal with the support of Spain. The Peninsular War or Spanish War of Independence pitted an alliance of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal against France Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. [55] Under the pretext of reinforcing the Franco-Spanish army occupying Portugal, Napoleon invaded Spain as well, replacing Charles IV with his brother Joseph and placing brother-in-law Joachim Murat in Joseph's stead at Naples. Charles IV ( November 11, 1748 - January 20, 1819) was King of Spain from December 14, 1788 until his abdication Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte King of Naples and Sicily, King of Spain (during a time) and the Indies (never de facto and never de iure Joachim-Napoléon Murat (born Joachim Murat) ( Gioacchino Napoleone Murat) ( March 25 1767 &ndash October 13 1815) This led to unexpected resistance from the Spanish army and civilians in the Dos de Mayo Uprising. On May 2 1808 ( Dos de Mayo) the people of Madrid rebelled against the occupation of the city by French troops provoking a brutal repression
Following a French retreat from much of the country, Napoleon himself took command and defeated the Spanish army, retook Madrid and then outmaneuvered a British army sent to support the Spanish, driving it to the coast. The Spanish Army ( Ejército de Tierra in Spanish; literally "Land Army" is one of oldest active armies in the world and a branch of the Spanish But before the Spanish population had been fully subdued, Austria again threatened war and Napoleon returned to France. The costly and often brutal Peninsular War continued, and Napoleon left several hundred thousand of his finest troops to battle Spanish guerrillas as well as British and Portuguese forces commanded by the Duke of Wellington. The Peninsular War or Spanish War of Independence pitted an alliance of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal against France Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS ( c French control over the Iberian Peninsula deteriorated in 1812, and collapsed the following year when Joseph abdicated his throne. The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra The last French troops were driven from the peninsula in 1814.
Fifth Coalition
In 1809, Austria abruptly broke its alliance with France and Napoleon was forced to assume command of forces on the Danube and German fronts. The War of the Fifth Coalition in 1809 pitted a coalition of the Austrian Empire and the United Kingdom against Napoleon 's French Empire and After achieving early successes, the French faced difficulties crossing the Danube and then suffered a defeat in May at Aspern-Essling near Vienna. The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj In the Battle of Aspern-Essling ( 21 May – 22 May, 1809) Napoleon attempted a forced crossing of the Danube near Vienna Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. The Austrians failed to capitalise on the situation and allowed Napoleon's forces to regroup. The Austrians were defeated once again at Wagram and a new peace was signed between Austria and France. In the Battle of Wagram ( 5 – 6 July 1809) Napoleon Bonaparte 's French forces defeated Archduke Charles' Austrian In the following year the Austrian Archduchess Marie Louise married Napoleon, following his divorce of Josephine. Marie Louise of Austria (Maria Luisa von Österreich French: Marie Louise d'Autriche; Italian: Maria Luisa d'Austria; b
The other member of the coalition was Britain. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Along with fighting in the Iberian Peninsula, the British planned to open another front in mainland Europe. However, by the time the British landed at Walcheren, Austria had already sued for peace. The Walcheren Campaign was an unsuccessful British expedition to the Netherlands in 1809 intended to open another front in the Austrian Empire The expedition was a disaster and was characterized by little fighting but 4,000 casualties thanks to the popularly dubbed "Walcheren Fever". [57]
Invasion of Russia
Although the Congress of Erfurt had sought to preserve the Russo-French alliance, by 1811 tensions were again increasing between the two nations. The French invasion of Russia in 1812 was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. The Congress of Erfurt was the meeting between Emperor Napoleon I of France and Tsar Alexander I of Russia from 27 Though Alexander and Napoleon had a friendly personal relationship since their first meeting in 1807, Alexander had been under strong pressure from the Russian aristocracy to break off the alliance with France. The Russian Nobility (Дворянство Dvoryanstvo) arose in the 14th century and essentially governed Russia until the October Revolution To keep other countries from revolting against France, Napoleon decided to make an example of Russia.
The first sign the alliance was deteriorating was the easing of application of the Continental System in Russia, angering Napoleon. The Continental System was the Foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland during the By 1812, advisors to Alexander suggested the possibility of an invasion of the French Empire and the recapture of Poland.
Russia deployed large numbers of troops on the Polish borders, eventually placing more than 300,000 there of its total army strength of 410,000. After receiving initial reports of Russia's war preparations, Napoleon began expanding his Grande Armee to more than 450,000 men - in addition to at least 300,000 men already deployed in Iberia. [58] Napoleon ignored repeated advice against an invasion of the vast Russian heartland,[59] and prepared for an offensive campaign.
On 22 June 1812, Napoleon's invasion of Russia commenced. Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 1812 ( MDCCCXII) a leap year started on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The French invasion of Russia in 1812 was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. [60] In an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists and patriots, Napoleon termed the war the "Second Polish War" - the first Polish war being the liberation of Poland from Russia, Prussia and Austria. The Bar Confederation ( Polish: Konfederacja barska; 1768&ndash1772 was an association of Polish nobles ( Szlachta) formed at the fortress Polish patriots wanted the Russian part of partitioned Poland to be incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and a new Kingdom of Poland created, though this was rejected by Napoleon, who feared it would bring Prussia and Austria into the war against France. The Duchy of Warsaw (Księstwo Warszawskie Duché de Varsovie Herzogtum Warschau Варшавское герцогство was a Polish state established by Napoleon Napoleon also rejected requests to free the Russian serfs, fearing this might provoke a conservative reaction in his rear.
The Russians under Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly avoided a decisive engagement which Napoleon longed for, preferring to retreat ever deeper into Russia. Prince Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly ( –) known in Russia as Mikhail Bogdanovich Barklay-de-Tolli ( Cyrillic: Михаи́л Богда́нович A brief attempt at resistance was made at Smolensk in the middle of August, but the Russians were defeated in a series of battles in the area and Napoleon resumed his advance. The Russians then repeatedly avoided battle with the Grande Armee, though in a few cases this was only because Napoleon uncharacteristically hesitated to attack when the opportunity arose. Thanks to the Russian army's scorched earth tactics, the Grande Armee had more and more trouble foraging food for its men and horses. A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between [61] Along with hunger, the French also suffered from the harsh Russian winter.
Barclay was criticised for his tentative strategy of continual retreat and was replaced by Kutuzov. Prince Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov (князь Михаи́л Илларио́нович Голени́щев-Куту́зов ( &mdash) was the Russian Kutuzov, however, continued Barclay's strategy and eventually offered battle outside Moscow on 7 September. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. Losses were almost even for both armies, with slightly more casualties on the Russian side, after what may have been the bloodiest day of battle in history: the Battle of Borodino. The Battle of Borodino (Бородинская битва Borodinskaja bitva, Bataille de la Moskowa) fought on September 7, 1812, was [62] Although Napoleon was far from defeated, the Russian army had accepted, and withstood, the major battle the French had hoped would be decisive. After the battle, the Russian army withdrew and retreated past Moscow.
Napoleon entered Moscow, assuming its fall would end the war and Alexander would negotiate peace. However, on orders of the city's military governor and commander-in-chief, Fyodor Rostopchin, rather than capitulating, Moscow was ordered burned. Count Fyodor Vasilievich Rostopchin (Фёдор Васильевич Ростопчин (3 A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between [63] Within the month, fearing loss of control back in France, Napoleon and his army left.
The French suffered greatly in the course of a ruinous retreat; the Armee had begun as over 450,000 frontline troops, but in the end fewer than 40,000 crossed the Berezina River in November 1812, to escape. [64] The strategy employed by Barclay and Kutuzov had worn down the invaders and maintained the Tsar's domination over the Russian people. French losses in the campaign were 570,000 in total[65] against around 400,000 Russian casualties and several hundred thousand civilian deaths. [66]
One study concluded the winter only had a major effect once Napoleon was in full retreat:
"In regard to the claims of "General Winter", the main body of Napoleon's Grande Armée diminished by half during the first eight weeks of his invasion before the major battle of the campaign. The Russian (or Soviet) Winter is a common excuse for military failures of invaders in Russia This decrease was partly due to garrisoning supply centres, but disease, desertions, and casualties sustained in various minor actions caused thousands of losses. At Borodino on 7 September 1812 — the only major engagement fought in Russia — Napoleon could muster no more than 135,000 troops, and he lost at least 30,000 of them to gain a narrow and Pyrrhic victory almost 1000 km deep in hostile territory. Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. Year 1812 ( MDCCCXII) a leap year started on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year A Pyrrhic victory (ˈpɪrɪk is a victory with devastating cost to the victor The sequels were his uncontested and self-defeating occupation of Moscow and his humiliating retreat, which began on 19 October, before the first severe frosts later that month and the first snow on 5 November. Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany) "[67]
Sixth Coalition, defeat and first exile
There was a lull in fighting over the winter of 1812–13 while both the Russians and the French recovered from their massive losses. In the War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814 a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and a number A small Russian army harassed the French in Poland and eventually French troops withdrew to the German states to rejoin the expanding force there. This force continued to expand, with the French ultimately having a force of 360,000 troops in the field. [68]
Heartened by Napoleon's losses in Russia, Prussia rejoined the Coalition that now included Russia, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Portugal. Napoleon assumed command in Germany and inflicted a series of defeats on the Allies culminating in the Battle of Dresden on 26–27 August 1813, causing almost 26,000 casualties to the Coalition forces, whilst the French sustained only around 8,000. The Battle of Dresden was fought on 26 - 27 August, 1813 around Dresden, Germany resulting in a French victory under Napoleon [69]
Despite these initial successes, the numbers continued to mount against Napoleon as Sweden and Austria joined the Coalition. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Eventually the French army was pinned down by a force twice its size at the Battle of Leipzig from 16–19 October. The Battle of the Nations (or Battle of Leipzig or Völkerschlacht bei Leipzig) on 16–19 October 1813 was one of the most decisive defeats suffered by Napoleon Some of the German states switched sides in the midst of the battle to fight against France. This was by far the largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars and cost more than 100,000 casualties in total. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions [70]
After this Napoleon withdrew back into France. His army was now reduced to 70,000 men still in formed units and 40,000 stragglers,[71] against more than 3 times as many Allied troops. [72] The French were surrounded and vastly outnumbered, with British armies pressing from the south, in addition to the Coalition forces moving in from the German states.
Paris was occupied on 31 March 1814 and Napoleon proposed the army march on the capital. Elba (Ilva is an island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino. Events 307 - After divorcing his wife Minervina, Constantine marries Fausta, the daughter of the retired Roman Emperor Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common His soldiers and regimental officers were eager to fight on, but his marshals mutinied. The Marshal of France (Maréchal de France and pl Maréchaux de France is a military distinction in contemporary France, not a Military rank. Mutiny is a conspiracy among members of a group of similarly-situated individuals (typically members of the Military; or the Crew of any ship even On 4 April, the marshals, led by Ney, confronted him. Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I. Michel Ney, 1st Duc d' Elchingen, 1st Prince de la Moskowa ( January 10 1769 &ndash December 7 1815 They said they refused to march. Napoleon asserted the army would follow him and Ney replied that the army would follow its generals. On 6 April 1814, Napoleon abdicated in favor of his son, but the Allies refused to accept this and demanded unconditional surrender. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Unconditional surrender is a surrender without conditions except for those provided by International law. Napoleon abdicated again, unconditionally, on 11 April; however, the Allies allowed him to retain his title of Emperor. Events 491 - Flavius Anastasius becomes Byzantine Emperor, with the name of Anastasius I. In the Treaty of Fontainebleau the victors exiled him to Elba, a small island in the Mediterranean 20 km off the coast of Italy. The Treaty of Fontainebleau was an agreement established in Paris ( Fontainebleau) on April 11, 1814 between Napoleon Bonaparte and Elba (Ilva is an island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest After his abdication Napoleon attempted to commit suicide by taking poison from a vial he carried. However, the poison had weakened with age and he survived to be deported to Elba. [73] In exile, he ran Elba as a little country; he created a tiny navy and army, opened mines, and helped farmers improve their land. [74]
The Hundred Days
In France, the royalists had taken over and restored Louis XVIII to power. The Hundred Days was the period between Napoleon Bonaparte 's return from exile on Elba to Paris on 20 March 1815 and the restoration Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. Meanwhile Napoleon, separated from his wife and son (who had come under Austrian control), cut off from the allowance guaranteed to him by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and aware of rumours that he was about to be banished to a remote island in the Atlantic, escaped from Elba on 26 February 1815 and returned to the French mainland on 1 March 1815. The Treaty of Fontainebleau was an agreement established in Paris ( Fontainebleau) on April 11, 1814 between Napoleon Bonaparte and Events 747 BC - Epoch (origin of Ptolemy 's Nabonassar Era 364 - Valentinian I is proclaimed Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Louis XVIII sent the 5th Regiment of the Line, led by Marshal Ney to meet him at Grenoble on 7 March 1815. Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. Michel Ney, 1st Duc d' Elchingen, 1st Prince de la Moskowa ( January 10 1769 &ndash December 7 1815 Grenoble is a city and commune in south-east France situated at the foot of the Alps where the Drac joins the Isère River. Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Napoleon approached the regiment alone, dismounted his horse and, when he was within earshot of Ney's forces, shouted, "Soldiers of the Fifth, you recognise me. If any man would shoot his emperor, he may do so now. "[75] Following a brief silence, the soldiers shouted, "Vive L'Empereur!" With that, they marched with Napoleon to Paris. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city On 13 March, the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw and four days later the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Russia, Austria and Prussia bound themselves to put 150,000 men into the field to end his rule. Events 1138 - Cardinal Gregorio Conti is elected Antipope as Victor IV, succeeding Anacletus II. The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of the major powers of Europe, chaired by the Austrian statesman Clemens Wenzel von Metternich An outlaw or bandit is a person living the lifestyle of outlawry; the word literally means "outside the Law " by folk-etymology from the original The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state [76] Napoleon arrived in Paris on 20 March and governed for a period now called the Hundred Days. Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden. The Hundred Days was the period between Napoleon Bonaparte 's return from exile on Elba to Paris on 20 March 1815 and the restoration
By the start of June the armed forces available to Napoleon had reached 200,000[77] and the French Army of the North crossed the frontier into the United Netherlands, in modern-day Belgium. "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Napoleon was finally defeated by the Duke of Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher at Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS ( c Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher Fürst (Prince von Wahlstatt (gɛphaɐt lebəʁɛçt fɔn blyçɐ December 16 1742 - September 12 1819 In the Battle of Waterloo (Sunday 18 June 1815 near Waterloo Belgium Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Wellington's army withstood repeated attacks by the French and drove them from the field, simultaneously the Prussians arrived in force and broke through Napoleon's right flank. The French army left the battlefield in disorder, allowing Coalition forces to enter France and restore Louis XVIII to the French throne. Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre.
Off the port of Rochefort, after considering an escape to the United States, Napoleon made his formal surrender to Captain Frederick Maitland of HMS Bellerophon on 15 July 1815. Rochefort is a commune in western France, a Seaport on the Atlantic Ocean. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Rear admiral Sir Frederick Lewis Maitland KCB ( 7 September 1777 &ndash 30 November 1839) was an officer in the Early history She fought at the battle of The Glorious First of June, the Battle of the Nile and the Battle of Trafalgar, becoming one of the most Events 1099 - First Crusade: Christian soldiers take the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem after the final Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year
Exile and death on Saint Helena
Napoleon was imprisoned and then exiled by the British to the island of St. Helena - in the Atlantic Ocean, 2,000 km from Africa, the nearest major landmass - in October 1815. Early history She fought at the battle of The Glorious First of June, the Battle of the Nile and the Battle of Trafalgar, becoming one of the most Plymouth ( is a city and unitary authority area on the coast of Devon, England about south west of London. Saint Helena (pronounced saint he-LEE-na) named after St Helena of Constantinople, is an island of volcanic origin and a British overseas territory Saint Helena (pronounced saint he-LEE-na) named after St Helena of Constantinople, is an island of volcanic origin and a British overseas territory Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Before Napoleon moved to Longwood House in November 1815, he lived in a pavilion on the estate The Briars belonging to William Balcombe (1779-1829), and became friendly with the family, especially the younger daughter Lucia Elizabeth (Betsy) who later wrote Recollections of the Emperor Napoleon (London, 1844). Longwood House was the residence of Napoleon Bonaparte during his exile on the island of Saint Helena, from 10 December 1815 until his death This relationship ended in March 1818 when Balcombe was accused of acting as an intermediary between Napoleon and Paris. [78] Whilst there, with a small cadre of followers, he dictated his memoirs and criticised his captors. There were several plots to rescue Napoleon from captivity, including one from Brazil and another from Texas, where 400 exiled soldiers from the Grand Armee dreamed of a resurrection of the Napoleonic Empire in America. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. There was even a plan to rescue him using a submarine. A submarine is a Watercraft that can operate independently below water as distinct from a Submersible that has only limited underwater capability [79]
The question of the British treatment of Napoleon is a matter of dispute. His accommodation was poorly built, and the location was damp, windswept and generally considered unhealthy. The behaviour of Hudson Lowe exacerbated a difficult situation in the eyes of Napoleon and his supporters: the news that rescue expeditions were being planned by the Bonapartists in the United States led, for example, to the enforcement of stricter regulations in October 1816, Lowe causing sentries to be posted round Longwood garden at sunset instead of at 9 p. Sir Hudson Lowe KCB, GCMG ( 28 July 1769 - 10 January 1844) was an Anglo-Irish military commander best known The United States of America —commonly referred to as the m. [80] Napoleon and his entourage did not accept the legality or justice of his captivity, and the slights they received could become magnified. In the early years of exile Napoleon received many visitors, to the anger and consternation of the French minister Richelieu. Armand Emmanuel Sophie Septemanie du Plessis duc de Richelieu (25 September 1766 - 17 May 1822 was a prominent French statesman during the Bourbon Restoration From 1818 however, as the restrictions placed on him were increased, he lived the life of a recluse.
In 1818 The Times, which Napoleon received in exile, in reporting a false rumour of his escape, said this had been greeted by spontaneous illuminations in London. The Times is a daily national Newspaper published in the United Kingdom since 1785 when it was known as The Daily Universal Register. There was sympathy for him also in the political opposition in the British Parliament. Lord Holland, the nephew of Charles James Fox, the former Whig leader, made a speech to the House of Lords that the prisoner should be treated with no unnecessary harshness. Henry Richard Vassal-Fox 3rd Baron Holland of Holland and 3rd Baron Holland of Foxley ( 21 November 1773 - 22 October 1840) was an The Right Honourable Charles James Fox ( 24 January 1749 &ndash 13 September 1806) was a prominent British Whig The House of Lords is the second house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and is also commonly referred to as "the Lords" [81] Napoleon based his hopes for release on the possibility of Holland becoming Prime Minister.
Napoleon also enjoyed the support of Admiral Lord Cochrane who was closely involved in Chile and Brazil's struggle for independence. Admiral Lord Sir Thomas Alexander Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald, Marquês do Maranhão GCB, RN (14 December Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the It was Cochrane's expressed aim to make him Emperor of a unified South American state, a scheme that was frustrated by Napoleon's death in 1821. For Lord Byron, amongst others, Napoleon was the epitome of the Romantic hero, the persecuted, lonely and flawed genius. Conversely, the news that Napoleon had taken up gardening at Longwood appealed to more domestic British sensibilities.
Death
Napoleon died, having confessed his sins and received Extreme Unction and Viaticum at the hands of Father Ange Vignali on 5 May 1821. Anointing of the Sick is the ritual anointing of a sick person and is a Sacrament of the Catholic Church. Viaticum is the term the Catholic Church and some Anglo Catholic Anglicans uses for the Eucharist (Communion given to a dying person Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Year 1821 ( MDCCCXXI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year [82] He had asked in his will to be buried on the banks of the Seine, but was buried on St. The Seine (sɛn in French) is a slow flowing major River and commercial waterway within the regions of Île-de-France and Haute-Normandie Helena, in the "valley of the willows". He was buried in an unmarked tomb. [83]
In 1840 his remains were taken to France in the frigate Belle-Poule and were to be entombed in a porphyry sarcophagus at Les Invalides, Paris. Porphyry is a variety of Igneous rock consisting of large-grained Crystals such as Feldspar or Quartz, dispersed in a fine-grained Les Invalides in Paris, France, is a complex of buildings in the city's 7th arrondissement containing Museums and monuments all relating Egyptian porphyry - used for the tombs of Roman emperors - was unavailable, so red quartzite was obtained from Russian Finland, eliciting protests from those who still remembered the Russians as enemies. Quartzite (from German Quarzit) not to be confused with the Mineral Quartz, is a hard Metamorphic rock which was originally Hundreds of millions have visited his tomb since that date. A replica of his St. Helena tomb is also to be found at Les Invalides. Les Invalides in Paris, France, is a complex of buildings in the city's 7th arrondissement containing Museums and monuments all relating
Cause of death
Professor Antommarchi, the physician chosen by Napoleon's family, led the autopsy, and the cause of death was found to be stomach cancer. Francesco Antommarchi (1780 Corsica — April 3 1838, Santiago de Cuba on Cuba) Napoleon Bonaparte I 's attached An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy, or obduction, is a Medical procedure that consists of a thorough Examination Stomach or gastric cancer can develop in any part of the Stomach and may spread throughout the stomach and to other organs particularly the Esophagus and [84] In the latter half of the twentieth century, several people claimed other causes for his death including that he was the victim of deliberate arsenic poisoning. Arsenic Poisoning kills by Allosteric inhibition of essential metabolic Enzymes, leading to death from multi-system [85] Later studies provided more evidence that he died from stomach cancer.
Arsenic poisoning theory
In 1955 the diaries of Napoleon's valet, Louis Marchand, appeared in print. His description of Napoleon in the months before his death led Sten Forshufvud and Ben Weider, to conclude he had been killed by arsenic poisoning. Sten Forshufvud was a Swedish Dentist and expert on poisons who formulated and supported the controversial theory that Napoleon was assassinated Benjamin "Ben" Weider (born February 1, 1924 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada) is the co-founder of the International Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 Arsenic was used as a poison during the era because, at that time, it was undetectable when administered over a long period. As Napoleon's body was found to be remarkably well-preserved when it was moved in 1840, this supported the arsenic theory because arsenic is a strong preservative. [86] Forshufvud and Weider noted Napoleon was attempting to quench abnormal thirst by drinking high levels of orgeat which contained cyanide compounds in the almonds used for flavouring and which, Forshufvud and Weider maintained, the antimony potassium tartrate used in his treatment, were preventing his stomach from expelling. Orgeat syrup is a sweet Syrup made from Almonds, Sugar and Rose water or orange -flower water Tartaric acid is a white crystalline Organic acid. It occurs naturally in many plants particularly Grapes Bananas and Tamarinds and is
They claimed the thirst was a possible symptom of arsenic poisoning, and the calomel given to Napoleon became a massive overdose, causing stomach bleeding, killing him and leaving behind extensive tissue damage. Mercury(I chloride is the Chemical compound with the formula Hg2Cl2 Forshufvud and Weider suggested the autopsy doctors[87] could have mistaken this damage for cancer after effects. [88] A 2008 article showed the type of arsenic in the hair shafts was not of the organic type but of a mineral type suggesting the death was murder. [89] Different researchers in another 2008 study analysed samples of Napoleon's hair from throughout his life, and also samples from his family and other contemporaries. All samples had high levels of arsenic, approximately 100 times higher than the current average. According to researchers, Napoleon's body was already heavily contaminated with arsenic as a boy, the high arsenic concentration in his hair was not due to poisoning and he was constantly exposed to arsenic[90] from materials such as glues and dyes of the era. The body can tolerate quite large doses of arsenic if ingested regularly, and arsenic had become a fashionable cure-all from 1780. [91]
Stomach cancer
The original autopsy concluded Napoleon died of stomach cancer without Antommarchi knowing Napoleon’s father had died of this form of cancer. Carlo Maria Buonaparte (March 29/27 1746 &ndash February 24, 1785) was a Corsican lawyer and politician who briefly served as a personal assistant of the [92] In May 2005, a team of Swiss physicians claimed the reason for Napoleon's death was stomach cancer[93] and in October of that year a document was unearthed in Scotland presenting an account of the autopsy, which again seemed to confirm Antommarchi's conclusion. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. [94] A 2007 study found no evidence of arsenic poisoning in the organs and concluded stomach cancer was the cause of death. [95]
Religious Faith
- Further information: Napoleon and the Jews
Not long after Napoleon’s death Henry Parry Liddon asserted that Napoleon, while in exile on St. The ascendancy of Napoleon Bonaparte proved to be an important event in the emancipation of the Jews of Europe from old laws restricting them to Jewish Henry Parry Liddon ( August 20, 1829 - September 9, 1890) was an English theologian Helena, compared himself unfavourably to Christ. According to Liddon's sources, Napoleon said to Count Montholon that while he and others such as "Alexander, Caesar and Charlemagne" founded vast empires, their achievements relied on force, while Jesus "founded his empire on love. " After further discourse about Christ and his legacy, Napoleon then reputedly said, "It. . . proves to me quite convincingly the Divinity of Jesus Christ. "[96]
An earlier quotation attributed to Napoleon suggests he may once have also been an admirer of Islam:
I hope the time is not far off when I shall be able to unite all the wise and educated men of all the countries and establish a uniform regime based on the principles of Qur'an which alone are true and which alone can lead men to happiness. [97]
However, Napoleon's private secretary during his conquest of Egypt, Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne, wrote in his memoirs that Napoleon had no serious interest in Islam or any other religion beyond their political value. Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne ( July 19, 1769 - February 7, 1834) French Diplomat, was born at Sens. [98]
Marriages and children
Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais in 1796, when he was aged 26. Joséphine de Beauharnais (born Marie Josèphe Rose de Tascher de la Pagerie June 23 1763 &ndash May 29 1814) was the first Joséphine de Beauharnais (born Marie Josèphe Rose de Tascher de la Pagerie June 23 1763 &ndash May 29 1814) was the first He formally adopted her son Eugène and cousin Stéphanie after assuming the throne to arrange "dynastic" marriages for them. Eugène Rose de Beauharnais Prince Français Prince of Venice, Viceroy of the Kingdom of Italy, Hereditary Grand Duke of Frankfurt, 1st Duke of Leuchtenberg Stéphanie Grand Duchess of Baden (Stéphanie Louise Adrienne de Beauharnais ( August 28, 1789 &ndash January 29, 1860) was the consort Josephine had her daughter Hortense marry Napoleon's brother, Louis. Hortense Eugénie Cécile Bonaparte ( Née de Beauharnais) Queen Consort of Holland ( 10 April 1783 - 5 October 1837 Early life Louis was born Luigi Buonaparte in Ajaccio, Corsica. [99]
Napoleon's and Josephine's marriage was unconventional, and both were known to have affairs. Josephine agreed to divorce so he could remarry in the hopes of producing an heir. Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the termination of a Marriage. [100]
On 11 March 1810, he was married by proxy to Marie Louise, Archduchess of Austria, then in a ceremony on 1 April; this meant he had married into the family of German rulers. Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty Year 1810 ( MDCCCX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year A proxy marriage is a Marriage in which either the bride or the groom is not physically present for the wedding Marie Louise of Austria (Maria Luisa von Österreich French: Marie Louise d'Autriche; Italian: Maria Luisa d'Austria; b Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne The following image is a Family tree of every king monarch confederation president and emperor of Germany, from Louis the German in 843 through to [101] They remained married until his death, although the Archduchess did not join him in his exile. The couple had one child Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles (20 March 1811 – 22 July 1832), known from birth as the King of Rome. Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden. Year 1811 ( MDCCCXI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Events 1099 - First Crusade: Godfrey of Bouillon is elected the first Defender of the Holy Sepulchre of The Kingdom of Year 1832 ( MDCCCXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian King of the Romans ( Latin: Rex Romanorum) was the title used by the elected ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, the Imperator futurus He was later Napoleon II though he reigned in name only and for just two weeks. He was awarded the title of the Duke of Reichstadt in 1818 and had no children himself.
Napoleon Bonaparte acknowledged two illegitimate children, both of whom had children themselves: Charles, Count Léon, (1806 – 1881) by Louise Catherine Eléonore Denuelle de la Plaigne (1787 – 1868) and Alexandre Joseph Colonna, Count Walewski, (4 May 1810 – 27 October 1868) by Countess Walewski (1789 – 1817). Charles Count Léon (1806 - 1881 was the illegitimate son of Emperor Napoleon I of France and Louise Catherine Eléonore Denuelle de la Plaigne (1787 - 1868 Louise Catherine Eléonore Denuelle de la Plaigne (1787 &ndash 1868 was a mistress of French Emperor Napoleon I and mother of Charles Count Léon Alexandre Florian Joseph Duke Colonna-Walewski ( May 4, 1810 - October 27, 1868) was a Polish and French Politician Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV Year 1810 ( MDCCCX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Events 312 - Constantine the Great is said to have received his famous Vision of the Cross. Year 1868 ( MDCCCLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Marriage first meeting with Napoleon Bonaparte In 1804 Marie Lączyńska married Count Athenasius Walewski her senior by several years by whom she had a son in 1805
Napoleon may have had further illegitimate offspring: Émilie Louise Marie Françoise Josephine Pellapra by Françoise-Marie LeRoy; Karl Eugin von Mühlfeld by Victoria Kraus; Hélène Napoleone Bonaparte by Countess Albine de Montholon| and Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire (19 August 1805 – 24 November 1895) whose mother remains unknown. Émilie Louise Marie Françoise Joséphine Pellapra, by marriage Countess of Brigode then later Princess of Chimay was born in Lyon on November 11 1806 and died Château de Françoise-Marie LeRoy was the mother of Émilie Louise Marie Françoise Joséphine Pellapra. Hélène Napoleone Bonaparte (1816-1910 was the daughter of Albine de Montholon. Albine de Montholon was the wife of Charles Tristan marquis de Montholon. Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire ( August 19, 1805 &ndash November 24, 1895) was a French Philosopher, Journalist Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Year 1805 ( MDCCCV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or Events 380 - Theodosius I makes his adventus, or formal Year 1895 ( MDCCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year
Legacy
- Further information: Napoleon in popular culture
Napoleonic Code, Unification and the Nation State
The Napoleonic Code was adopted throughout much of Europe and remained in force after Napoleon's defeat. Les Invalides in Paris, France, is a complex of buildings in the city's 7th arrondissement containing Museums and monuments all relating Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor of the French, has become a worldwide Cultural icon symbolizing Strength, Genius, and Military The Napoleonic Code, or Code Napoléon (originally called the Code civil des Français) is the French Civil code, established under The Napoleonic Code, or Code Napoléon (originally called the Code civil des Français) is the French Civil code, established under Napoleon himself said: "My true glory is not to have won 40 battles. . . Waterloo will erase the memory of so many victories. . . . But. . . what will live forever, is my Civil Code. "[102] Dieter Langewiesche of the Tübingen University described the code as a "revolutionary project" which spurred the development of bourgeois society in Germany by expanding the right to own right to own property and breaking feudalism. Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen ( German: Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, sometimes called the "Eberhardina Carolina" is a public university Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed He also credits Napoleon with reorganising what had been the Holy Roman Empire, made-up of more than 1,000 entities, into a more streamlined network of 40 states, providing the basis for the German Confederation and the future unification of Germany under the German Empire in 1871. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification [103] The movement of national unification in Italy was also precipitated by Napoleonic rule in the country. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest [104] This all played a part in the development of nationalism and the Nation State. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy [105]
Bonapartism
- Further information: Bonapartism and Bonapartism (epithet)
Napoleon also left a Bonapartist dynasty that was later to rule France again; his nephew, Napoleon III, became Emperor of the Second French Empire and was the first President of France. In French political history Bonapartism has two meanings In a strict sense this term refers to people who For supporters of the dynastic claims of the Bonaparte family see Bonapartist. In French political history Bonapartism has two meanings In a strict sense this term refers to people who Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The President of the French Republic (Président de la République française colloquially referred to in English as the President of France, is France 's elected In a wider sense, Bonapartism refers to a Marxist concept of a government that forms when class rule is not secure and a military, police, and state bureaucracy intervenes to establish order. For supporters of the dynastic claims of the Bonaparte family see Bonapartist. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. [106]
Autocracy
Napoleon is seen by John Abbott as having ended lawlessness and disorder. [107] However, Napoleon is often compared with later autocrats:[108] he did not overly concerned when facing the prospect of war and death for thousands and turned his search for undisputed rule into a series of conflicts throughout Europe, ignoring treaties and conventions alike.
5,000 civilians were executed by Napoleon's troops following a popular uprising
Napoleon institutionalized systematic plunder and looting of conquered territories. The Third of May 1808 (also known as es ''El tres de mayo de 1808 en Madrid'', or es ''Los fusilamientos de la montaña del Príncipe Pío'', or French museums contain art stolen by Napoleon's forces from across Europe and brought to the Louvre in Paris for a grand central Museum; his example would later serve as inspiration for more notorious imitators. The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France [109]
He was considered a tyrant and usurper, by his opponents within France - mostly monarchist loyalists as well as republicans. In modern usage a tyrant is a single ruler holding absolute power over a State or within an Organization. "Usurp" redirects here You might be also looking for WikipediaChanging username/Usurpations. When other European powers offered Napoleon terms that would have restored France's borders to positions that would have pleased the Bourbon kings, he refused compromise, and only accepted surrender. A great power is a Nation or State that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale
Critics of Napoleon argue his true legacy was a loss of status for France and needless deaths: 'After all, the military record is unquestioned—17 years of wars, perhaps six million Europeans dead, France bankrupt, her overseas colonies lost. And it was all such a great waste, for. . . when the self-proclaimed tête d'armée was done, France's "losses were permanent" and she "began to slip from her position as the leading power in Europe to second-class status — that was Bonaparte's true legacy. "'[110] Nevertheless, there are those in the international community who still admire his accomplishments. [111]
Napoleon complex
British propaganda of the time depicted Napoleon as of smaller than average height and the image of him as a small man persists. Napoleon complex is a Colloquial term describing an alleged type of Inferiority complex which is said to affect some people who are physically short However, the French inch of the time equalled 2. 7 centimetres, whilst the Imperial inch is 2. Imperial units or the Imperial system is a collection of units first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act of 1824 54 centimetres. [112] According to contemporary sources, he grew to just under 1. 7 m as an adult, around average height for a Frenchman at the time. [113] Napoleon's nickname of le petit caporal has added to the confusion, as non-Francophones have mistakenly interpreted petit by its literal meaning of "small". French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people In fact, it is an affectionate term reflecting on his camaraderie with ordinary soldiers. [114] Whether truly short or not, Napoleon's name has been lent to the Napoleon complex, a colloquial term describing a type of inferiority complex. Napoleon complex is a Colloquial term describing an alleged type of Inferiority complex which is said to affect some people who are physically short An inferiority complex, in the fields of Psychology and Psychoanalysis, is a feeling that one is inferior to others in some way
Warfare
- Further information: Military strategy, Napoleonic weaponry and warfare, and Marshal of France
Napoleon's biggest influence in the military sphere was in the conduct of warfare. Military strategy is a National defence policy implemented by Military organisations to pursue desired strategic goals Derived from the Greek Napoleon I of France was a tactical genius on the battlefield a mastermind who found triumph where others would find defeat The Marshal of France (Maréchal de France and pl Maréchaux de France is a military distinction in contemporary France, not a Military rank. Weapons and technology remained largely static through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, but 18th century operational strategy underwent massive restructuring. Sieges became infrequent to the point of near-irrelevance, and a new emphasis towards the destruction, not just outmaneuvering, of enemy armies emerged. Invasions of enemy territory occurred over broader fronts, therefore introducing strategic opportunities which made wars costlier and, just as importantly, more decisive - this strategy has since become known as Napoleonic warfare, though he did not give it this name. Defeat for a European power now meant much more than losing isolated enclaves; near-Carthaginian peaces intertwined whole national efforts – sociopolitical, economic, and militaristic – into gargantuan collisions that severely upset international conventions. Carthaginian Peace refers to a Peace brought about through the total destruction of the enemy In fact, Napoleon's initial success may have sowed the seeds for his downfall; not used to such catastrophic defeats in the rigid power system of 18th century Europe, nations found life under the French yoke intolerable, sparking revolts, wars, and general instability that plagued the continent until 1815.
He is credited with introducing the concept of the modern professional conscript army to Europe, an innovation which other states followed. Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority He did not introduce many new concepts into the French military system, borrowing mostly from previous theorists and the implementations of preceding French governments, but he did expand or develop much of what was already in place. Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff system became more fluid, and cavalry once again became a crucial formation in French military doctrine. This article is about a military unit For alternative meanings see Corps (disambiguation.
Historians place the generalship of Napoleon as one of the greatest military strategists who ever lived, along with Alexander and Caesar. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Wellington, when asked who was the greatest general of the day, answered: "In this age, in past ages, in any age, Napoleon. "[115]
Notes and references
- ^ a b William Milligan Sloane. The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte pp. 35–9. Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works Retrieved on 2008-06-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem
- ^ Spelled on his death certificate Lapulion according to Jacques Godechot in Jean Mistler's Napoleon tome 1. A death certificate, sometimes medical certificate of the cause of death (MCCD is a document issued by a government official such as a registrar of Vital statistics Jean Mistler (1897 - 1988 was a French writer in Sorèze, Tarn, France. Naissance d'un empire (Birth of an empire) pp. 29
- ^ Durant, Will and Durant, Ariel (1975). "The Story of Civilisation: Part XI", The Age of Napoleon. New York: Simon and Schuster, 91. ISBN 0-671-21988-X.
- ^ Rocca (1996). Il piccolo caporale. Mondadori. See also: Mazzucchelli (1930). Napoleone III. Il Corbaccio. and Merezkovskij (1988). Nepoleon. Archivio Nazionale di Stato di Modena.
- ^ Cronin, Vincent (1994). Vincent Cronin (born May 24, 1924 in Tredegar, Wales) is a British historical cultural and biographical writer whose works have Napoleon. London: HarperCollins, pp. 20–21;. ISBN 0-00-637521-9. See also: McLynn, Frank (1998). Napoleon: A Biography. London: Pimlico, p. 8. ISBN 0-7126-6247-2.
- ^ Cathedral - Ajaccio. La Fondation Napoleon. Retrieved on 2008-05-31. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt.
- ^ (McLynn 1998, p. 18)
- ^ Napoleon Bonaparte 1769-1821 AD Emperor of the French - Conqueror of Europe. hyperhistory. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the At Brienne, Bonaparte first met the Champagne maker Jean-Remy Moët. Champagne is a Sparkling wine produced by inducing the in-bottle Secondary fermentation of Wine to effect Carbonation. Jean-Rémy Moët (1758 – 1841 was a French Vintner and Wine merchant who helped bring the Champagne house of Moët et Chandon The friendship of these two men would have lasting impact on the history of the Champagne region and on the beverage itself. The Champagne wine region ( archaic Champany is a historic province within the Champagne administrative province in the northeast of France. D. & P. Kladstrup. Champagne. HarperCollins, pp. HarperCollins is a Publishing company owned by News Corporation. 61–68. ISBN 0060737921.
- ^ Touring: Ecole Militaire. Napoleonic Guide. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ Asprey, Robert (2000). The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. New York: Basic Books, pp. 13. ISBN 0465048811. Though reported to have 'a thorough knowledge' of maths at the Ecole, there does not seem to be any direct evidence supporting a connection with him and Napoleon's theorem. In Mathematics, Napoleon 's Theorem states that if Equilateral triangles are constructed on the sides of any Triangle, either all Napoleon's Theorem. MathPages. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 455 - The Vandals enter Rome, and plunder the city for two weeks
- ^ (McLynn 1998, p. 31)
- ^ Schom, Alan (1998). Napoleon Bonaparte: A Life. Perennial, pp. 11–12. ISBN 0-06-092958-8.
- ^ (Schom 1998, p. 16)
- ^ (Schom 1998, pp. 22–23)
- ^ (Schom 1998, p. 25)
- ^ Clary. Histoire et Figurine. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ a b The 13 Vendémiaire, Republican Coronation Of Napoleon. International Napoleonic Society. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ It was claimed he later boasted he had cleared the streets with "a whiff of grapeshot", though this quotation actually came from Thomas Carlyle (1837). Grapeshot is a type of anti-personnel Ammunition used in Cannons Instead of solid shot a mass of loosely packed metal slugs is loaded into a canvas Thomas Carlyle (4 December 1795 – 5 February 1881 was a Scottish essayist satirist and historian whose work was highly influential during the Victorian era. The French Revolution: A History (in English). The French Revolution A History was written by the Scottish Essayist philosopher, and Historian Thomas Carlyle. London: Chapman & Hall.
- ^ Memoirs of The Empress Josephine. Merrill and Baker. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ Bonaparte's blitzkrieg in Italy. Napoleon, His Army and Enemies. Retrieved on 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed
- ^ Treaty of Campo Formio. The Napoleon Series. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ Napoleon's Maxims on the Art of Waging War. The New York Times (1915-09-05). Year 1915 ( MCMXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Events 1590 - Alexander Farnese 's army forces Henry IV of France to raise the siege of Paris. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ Horne, Alistair. "1", The Age of Napoleon, Trade Paperback, Modern Library. ISBN 0-8129-7555-3. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 781 BC - The first historic Solar eclipse is recorded in China.
- ^ De Bourrienne, Louis. "V", Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte 2. Full Books. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 781 BC - The first historic Solar eclipse is recorded in China.
- ^ The Journal de Bonaparte et des Hommes Vertuex. Columbia University Press. Retrieved on 2008-06-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1276 - While taking exile in Fuzhou in southern China, away from the advancing Mongol invaders, the remnants of the
- ^ (Schom 1998, pp. 69–70)
- ^ (Schom 1998, p. 87)
- ^ (Schom 1998, pp. 72–73)
- ^ a b Ken Alder: The Measure of All Things - The Seven-Year Odyssey and Hidden Error That Transformed the World (The Free Press; New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Singapore; 2002; ISBN 0-7432-1675-X)
- ^ Youssef, Ahmed (1998). The Fascination of Egypt: From the Dream to the Project. Paris: Harmattan. Retrieved on 2008-06-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins
- ^ Cole, Juan. Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1403964319. Retrieved on 2008-06-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins
- ^ In a letter to Sheikh El-Messiri, (28 August 1798), Napoleon stated, "I hope the time is not far off when I shall be able to unite all the wise and educated men of all the countries and establish a uniform regime based on the principles of the Quran which alone are true and which alone can lead men to happiness. " Letter published in (1861) in Henri Plon: Correspondance Napoleon, p. 420.
- ^ Smith, Digby (1998). The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book. Greenhill Books, pp. 140.
- ^ (Schom 1998, pp. 139–144)
- ^ a b Insects, Disease, and Military History: The Napoleonic Campaigns and Historical Perception. American Entomologist. Entomology (from Greek grc ἔντομος entomos, "that which is cut in pieces or engraved/segmented" hence "insect" and grc -λογία Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ Herold, J. C. (1962). Bonaparte in Egypt. New York: Harper & Row.
- ^ (Schom 1998, pp. 176–179)
- ^ (Schom 1998, pp. 186–188)
- ^ (Schom 1998, p. 194)
- ^ Constitution du 16 thermidor an X. Constitutional council. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following Article 1. - Le Peuple français nomme, et le Sénat proclame Napoleon Bonaparte Premier consul à vie. Translation: The French people name, and the Senate proclaims Napoleon Bonaparte First Consul for life.
- ^ "A Civil Law to Common Law Dictionary" (1994). Louisiana Law Review 54. KinsellaLaw. com.
- ^ Code d'instruction criminelle de 1808 (Code of Criminal Instruction 1808). Le droit criminel. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ Chandler, D. G. (2002). Napoleon. Leo Cooper, p. 51. ISBN 0-85052-750-3.
- ^ Slave Revolt in St. Domingue. MacroHistory and World Report. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ A 2005 book, The Crime of Napoleon advances the thesis that the French used gas chambers. The Crime of Napoleon (in French Le Crime de Napoléon) is a Controversial book published in 2005 by French philosopher Claude Ribbe A gas chamber is an apparatus for killing consisting of a sealed chamber into which a Poisonous or Asphyxiant gas is introduced
- ^ The Louisiana Purchase. U. S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ Napoleon faced several Royalist and Jacobin plots - or alleged plots - during his life including the Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise (also known as 'The Infernal Machine') and the 'Conspiration des poignards' (Daggers Conspiracy) of 10 October 1800. The plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise, also known as the Machine infernale ( English: Infernal machine) plot was an Assassination attempt on the The Conspiration des poignards (Daggers Conspiracy or Complot de l'Opéra (Opera Plot was a conspiracy assassination against Napoleon Bonaparte, of which the members Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated Year -of the Julian calendar. The Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar until Friday, but 12 days ahead since Saturday. Holmberg, Tom; Max Sewell (2005). The Infernal Machine. Research subjects: miscellaneous. www. napoleon-series. org. Retrieved on 2006-03-23. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow.
- ^ Gay, Peter; Robert Kiefer Webb (1973). Modern Europe to 1815. Harper & Row, pp. 512.
- ^ Claims he seized the crown out of the hands of Pope Pius VII during the ceremony - to avoid subjecting himself to the authority of the pontiff - are apocryphal; the coronation procedure had been agreed in advance. Pope Pius VII, OSB (August 14 1740&mdashAugust 20 1823 born Count Barnaba Niccolò Maria Luigi Chiaramonti, was Pope from March 14 1800 to August
- ^ The great victories; occupation of Rome; imprisonment of Pius VII (1805-09). Catholic Encylopedia. Retrieved on 2008-05-31. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt.
- ^ O'Meara's account of Napoleon on the invasion of the England. Napoleon. org. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the
- ^ Battle of Austerlitz. TheFreeDictionary. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ Prussian Army of the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon, His Army and Enemies. Retrieved on 2008-06-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected
- ^ Hecksher, Eli (1922). The Continental System: An Economic Interpretation, English, Clarendon Press.
- ^ Napoleon’s Total War. Weider History Group. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ See also: Napoleonic medal
- ^ The British Expeditionary Force to Walcheren: 1809. Napoleonic medals are Medals including those struck by the Paris Medal Mint celebrating the accomplishments of Napoleon I of France. The Napoleon Series. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ Riehn, Richard. 1812 Napoleon's Russian Campaign. Wiley, pp. 81. ISBN 0-471-54302-0.
- ^ (2006) History of the Expedition to Russia. Project Gutenberg.
- ^ Napoleon crosses the Nieman river into Russia. University of Texas. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ George Nafziger, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia (1984) ISBN 0-88254-681-3 See also: George Nafziger, "Rear services and foraging in the 1812 campaign: Reasons of Napoleon's defeat" (Russian translation online)
- ^ See Borodino article for comparisons to the Battle of the Somme. George F Nafziger is an American writer an author and editor of numerous books and articles in Military history. The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme Offensive, fought from July to November 1916 was among the largest battles of the First World War
- ^ (1945) "VI 'The Fire'", With Napoleon in Russia, The Memoirs of General Coulaincourt. William Morrow and Co, pp. 109–107.
- ^ Markham, Felix. Napoleon. Mentor, pp. 190 and 199.
- ^ Zamoyski, Adam (2004). Moscow 1812: Napoleon's Fatal March. HarperCollins, pp. 537. ISBN 0-00-712375-2.
- ^ Bogdanovich, Michael. History of Patriotic War 1812, pp. 492–503.
- ^ Fighting the Russians in Winter: Three Case Studies. US Army Command and General Staff College. The Command and General Staff College ( C&GSC) at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas is a United States Army facility that functions as a Graduate school Retrieved on 2006-03-31. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 307 - After divorcing his wife Minervina, Constantine marries Fausta, the daughter of the retired Roman Emperor
- ^ Tarbell, Ida. "Chapter XX Campaign Of 1813 - Campaign Of 1814 - Abdication", A Short Life of Napoleon. Kessinger Publishing. Retrieved on 2008-06-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable
- ^ Battle of Dresden. Napoleon, His Army and Enemies. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ Battle of Leipzig ('The Battle of Nations'), 16-18 October 1813. HistoryOfWar. org. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ Rothenberg, Gunther (1978). The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon. Indiana University Press, p. 57. Retrieved on 2008-06-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable
- ^ Fremont-Barnes, Gregory; Todd Fisher (2004). The Napoleonic Wars: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. Osprey, p. 14. Retrieved on 2008-06-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable
- ^ (Schom 1998, p. 702)
- ^ Meg Jones (1995-05-23). Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Events 1430 - Siege of Compiègne: Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians while leading an army to relieve Compiègne Elba: Why did Napoleon ever leave this island paradise. Milwaukee Sentinel. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ Napoleon Returns. The Travelling Historian. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 781 BC - The first historic Solar eclipse is recorded in China.
- ^ Barbero, Alessandro. The Battle : A New History Of Waterloo. St Martins Pr, pp. 2. ISBN 0-8027-1453-6.
- ^ Chesney, Charles (2006). Waterloo Lectures:A Study Of The Campaign Of 1815. Kessinger Publishing, p. 35. ISBN 1428649883.
- ^ Balcombe, Alexander Beatson (1811 - 1877). Australian Dictionary of Biography Online. Retrieved on 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed
- ^ Sir Walter Scott (1827). Sir Walter Scott 1st Baronet (15 August 1771 &ndash 21 September 1832 was a prolific Scottish Historical novelist and Poet popular throughout The Life of Napoleon Buonaparte, Emperor of the French. J. & B. Williams, p. 401.
- ^ Forsyth, W. (1853). History of the Captivity of Napoleon at St. Helena. See also: Gourgaud, C. (1947). Journal inidite de SainteHelene 1815-1818. Paris: Flammarion. and Seaton, R. C. (1903). Napoleon's Captivity in relation to Sir Hudson Lowe. London: Macmillan Company. and Lieut. -Col. Basil Jackson (1903). Notes and Reminiscences of a Staff-Officer. London: Dutton & Co. and Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery (1906). Archibald Philip Primrose 5th Earl of Rosebery, KG, PC (7 May 1847 &ndash 21 May 1929 was a British Liberal Statesman and Napoleon; the Last Phase. London: A. L. Humphreys. and Rose, J. H. (1904). Napoleonic Studies. London: G. Bell and sons.
- ^ (Scott 1827, p. 344)
- ^ Henry B. Murray (1873). "How the Great Nepoleon Died". Notes and Queries 12: p. 223.
- ^ This was done because Hudson Lowe insisted the inscription should read ‘Napoleon Bonaparte'. Sir Hudson Lowe KCB, GCMG ( 28 July 1769 - 10 January 1844) was an Anglo-Irish military commander best known Charles Tristan, marquis de Montholon and Henri Gratien Bertrand wanted the Imperial title ‘Napoleon'. Charles Tristan marquis de Montholon (1782&ndash August 21, 1853) was born in Paris. Henri Gratien Comte Bertrand ( 28 March 1773 - 31 January 1844) French general was born at Châteauroux as a member of As a result the tomb was left nameless. Tonight, I have come for you alone!. Epinions. com. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ "An ulcer which penetrated the coats of the stomach was discovered an inch from the pylorus sufficient to allow the passage of a little finger. The pylorus (from Greek πυλωρος = "gate guard" is the region of the Stomach that connects to the Duodenum. The internal surface of the stomach to almost its whole extent was a mass of cancerous tissue or schirrous portions advancing to cancer. " Wilson, J (8 August 1975). "Dr. Archibald Arnott: Surgeon to the 20th Foot and Physician to Napoleon" 3: pp. 293–295. British Medical Journal. See also: Antommarchi, F. G (1826). The Last Days of Napoleon: Memoirs of the Last Two Years of Napoleon's Exile. London: H. Colburn. Retrieved on 2007-11-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi
- ^ In the days immediately prior to his death, doctors imposed treatments which a 2004 group of researchers claimed had led to death by causing a serious potassium deficiency. Doctors may have killed Napoleon. New Scientist (2004-07-23). New Scientist is a weekly International science magazine and website covering recent developments in science and technology for a general English -speaking "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 1632 - Three hundred colonists bound for New France depart from Dieppe France. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ In 2001 a French researcher added credence to the theory, finding arsenic levels Napoleon's hair to be 7 to 38 times higher than normal. Napoleon 'may have been poisoned'. BBC (2001-06-01). Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling See also: Napoleon poisoning theory revived. Australian Broadcasting Corporation (2001-06-01). The Australian Broadcasting Corporation, commonly abbreviated to the 'ABC' is Australia's national public broadcaster. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected Retrieved on 2008-06-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- ^ Antommarchi was the only pathologist present. Krajewska, Barbara. Arsenic and the Emperor. La Fondation Napoleon. Retrieved on 2008-06-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins
- ^ More recent analysis showed similar concentrations of arsenic were found in Napoleon's hair in samples taken from 1805, 1814 and 1821. This suggested that if arsenic had been the cause, he would have died years earlier and the most likely source was hair tonic.
- ^ International Surgery Journal Article Supports the Conclusion That Napoleon Was Murdered. Savas Beatie LLC. Retrieved on 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed
- ^ Napoleon Poisoning Claims Debunked. Discovery Channel (2008-02-12). Discovery Channel is an American Satellite and Cable TV channel (also delivered via IPTV, Terrestrial television and 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1429 - English Forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orleans from attack by the Retrieved on 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed Broad, William J. . "Hair Analysis Deflates Napoleon Poisoning Theories", The New York Times, 2008-06-10. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem Retrieved on 2008-06-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes.
- ^ The wallpaper used in Napoleon's house contained a high level of arsenic compound used for colouring by British manufacturers. The adhesive, which in the cooler, British environment was innocuous, may have grown mould and turned the compound into the poisonous gas arsine in the humid climate. Arsine is the chemical compound with the formula As[[hydrogen H]]3 (The Strange Story of Napoleon's Wallpaper. Grand Illusions. Retrieved on 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed ) This would not have explained the irregular arsenic absorption patterns suggested in the analysis Forshufvud commissioned and the original proponent of the wallpaper theory did not claim the concentration levels of arsine would actually lead to Napoleon's death.
- ^ Johnson, P. Napoleon: A life. Penguin Books, 2002. pgs. 180–181.
- ^ Trousers button up the mystery of how Napoleon met his final Waterloo. guardian.co.uk (2005-05-05). guardiancouk, formerly known as Guardian Unlimited, is a British website owned by the Guardian Media Group. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Retrieved on 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed
- ^ Rossella Lorenzi (2005-10-14). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Napoleon died of stomach cancer, new report. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation, commonly abbreviated to the 'ABC' is Australia's national public broadcaster. Retrieved on 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed
- ^ Lugli, Alessandro et al. (January 2007). "Napoleon Bonaparte's gastric cancer: a clinicopathologic approach to staging, pathogenesis, and etiology". Nature Clinical Practice Gastroenterology & Hepatology 4(1):: pp. 52–57. See also: Sara Goudarzi. Mystery Of Napoleon's Death Said Solved. MSNBC. MSNBC is a 24-hour cable television news channel based in the United States and available in Canada. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following and also: What Killed Napoleon?. American Broadcasting Company. The American Broadcasting Company ( ABC) is an American Television network. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ Note 171 of Lecture 3 - The Divinity of Our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Holy, Holy, Holy: the Biblical Doctrine of the Trinity. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling Also see: Paragraph 315 onwards of "Napoleon Bonaparte". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved on 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed
- ^ Christian Cherfils (1914). Bonaparte and Islam. Paris: Pedone, pp. 105 and 125.
- ^ "Bonaparte's principle was. . . to look upon religions as the work of men, but to respect them everywhere as a powerful engine of government. . . If Bonaparte spoke as a Mussulman, it was merely in his character of a military and political chief in a Mussulman country. To do so was essential to his success, to the safety of his army, and. . . to his glory. . . In India he would have been for Ali, at Thibet for the Dalai-lama, and in China for Confucius. The Dalai Lama is the spiritual and political leader of the Tibetan people according to Tibetan Buddhism. Confucius ( lit " Master Kung " September 28, 551 BC - 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher " From Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne, Memoirs of Bonaparte, R. W. Phipps Ed. , New York: Charles Schribner's Sons, 1889, p. 168–169; as quoted on Bonaparte and Islam.. George Mason University Center for History and New Media. Retrieved on 2008-01-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France.
- ^ Hortense de Beauharnais, Queen of Holland. The Royal Articles. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ Lettres à Josephine. La Bibliothèque électronique de Lisieux. Retrieved on 2008-06-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- ^ Every single ruler of Germany was related to every other by marriage, and hence they can all be put into this single tree.
- ^ Chartier, Jean-Luc. Jean-Etienne Portalis (1746 1807), Author of the Civil Code. Napoleonic Society. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 781 BC - The first historic Solar eclipse is recorded in China.
- ^ The Road to National Unification. Raffael Scheck. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 455 - The Vandals enter Rome, and plunder the city for two weeks
- ^ Compare and contrast the Italian and German unifications. TheCorner. org. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 455 - The Vandals enter Rome, and plunder the city for two weeks
- ^ Alter, Peter (2006). in Tim Blanning and Hagen Schulze: United and Diversity in European Culture c. 1800. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 61-76.
- ^ Bonapartism. Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 455 - The Vandals enter Rome, and plunder the city for two weeks
- ^ Abbott, John. Napoleon Bonaparte pp. 3. FullBooks. com. Retrieved on 2008-06-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins
- ^ Most famously with Hitler in Pieter Geyl [1947] (1982). Pieter Catharinus Arie Geyl ( December 15, 1887 &ndash December 31, 1966) was a Dutch Historian Napoleon For and Against. Penguin. Penguins ( order Sphenisciformes, family Spheniscidae) are a group of aquatic, flightless Birds living almost See also: France commemorating Napoleon's 200th. The Boston Globe. The Boston Globe (and Boston Sunday Globe) is the most widely circulated daily Newspaper in Boston and in New England, Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
- ^ Napoleon was a model for Hitler in terms of art looting. Herald Times (2007-04-29). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the See also: Masterpieces of the Louvre. Time Magazine (1958-06-30). Time (trademarked in capitals as TIME) is a weekly American Newsmagazine, similar to Newsweek and Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, is defeated and killed by troops of the Usurper Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the
- ^ Paul Johnson. The Claremont Institute: The Little Tyrant, A review of Napoleon: A Penguin Life. The Claremont Institute. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following The quoted passages within this text are from Johnson.
- ^ The International Napoleonic Congress was held in Dinard, France in July 2005 included participation by members of the French and American military, French politicians, scholars from Israel and Russia, and a parade recreating the Grand Army. Dinard (Dinarzh Gallo: Dinard) is a commune in the Ille-et-Vilaine department in Bretagne in northwestern France
- ^ Weights and Measures. historydata. com. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ Holmberg, Tom. First-Hand Descriptions of Napoleon. The Napoleon Series. Retrieved on 2008-06-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins Napoleon's height was put at around 5 ft 2 French inches by French sources (his valet Constant, General Gourgaud, and Francesco Antommarchi at Napoleon's autopsy), equivalent to 1. Gaspar Baron Gourgaud ( September 14, 1783 - 1852 also known simply as Gaspard Gourgaud was a French soldier prominent in the Napoleonic wars Francesco Antommarchi (1780 Corsica — April 3 1838, Santiago de Cuba on Cuba) Napoleon Bonaparte I 's attached 69 m. La taille de Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon Bonaparte's height). www. 1789-1815. com (2002-11-25). See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1034 - Máel Coluim mac Cináeda, King of Scots dies Donnchad, the Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling English sources put his height at around 5 ft 7 ins, equivalent, on the Imperial scale, to 1. 7 m. La taille de Napoleon (Napoleon's height). La Fondation Napoleon. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following How tall was Napoleon?. La Fondation Napoleon. Retrieved on 2005-12-18. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the
- ^ Petit ami and petit amie are French for "boyfriend" and "girlfriend", and mon petit chou - "my little cabbage" - is a term of affection. Napoleon also surrounded himself with the soldiers of his elite guard, who were usually six feet or taller.
- ^ Longford (1992). Wellington, p. 508. See also: How Canova and Wellington honoured Napoleon. Apollo. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the
Further reading and external links
- Napoleon I of France bibliography
- The Constitution of the Consulate and The Imperial Constitution, are both in French and available on Wikisource. This article covers nonfiction For fictional representations see Cultural depictions of Napoleon I of France. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Wikisource is a Wikimedia project to build a free, Wiki Library of Source texts along with translations into any language
- Memoirs of Napoleon, available at Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works
- The Life of Napoleon I, available at Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works
- The History of Napoleon Buonaparte, available at Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works
- Bonaparte, biography
- Napoleon Series
- Napoleon I of France, biography
- Napoleon, detailed biography of Napoleon
- Napoleon 101, a podcast about Napoleon by J. David Markham
- Napoleon: A Traveling Exhibition
- The Napoleonic Society of America
- International Napoleonic Society
- Fighting the Russians in Winter: Three Case Studies
Titles
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| NAME | Bonaparte, Napoleon |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | Napoleon I Bonaparte, Emperor of the French, King of Italy |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | French general and ruler |
| DATE OF BIRTH | 15 August 1769 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Ajaccio, Corsica |
| DATE OF DEATH | 5 May 1821 |
| PLACE OF DEATH | St. Helena |
J David Markham (born 26 December 1945 is an award-winning Educator, Author and an internationally respected Historian. Bonaparte is a French family name of Italian origin Originally Buonaparte, this family claims numerous influential descendents including Corsican The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Events 627 - Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeats Emperor Khosrau II 's Persian Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Pierre Roger Ducos (1747&ndash1816 better known as Roger Ducos, was a French political figure during the Revolution and First Empire, a member The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the First Consul (Premier Consul was a title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. Events 627 - Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeats Emperor Khosrau II 's Persian Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine. Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès 1st Duc de Parma, ( 18 October 1753 &ndash 8 March 1824) was Charles-François Lebrun 1st Duc de Plaisance, Prince of the Empire ( March 19, 1739 &ndash June 16, 1824) The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Louis XVI ( 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) Louis-Auguste de France, ruled as King of France and Navarre List of Queens and Empresses of France Wikipedia_talkFeatured_lists#Proposed_change_to_all_featured_lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine. Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. Francis II (Franz II Heiliger Römischer Kaiser ( 12 February 1768 &ndash 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling Events 451 - The Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sassanid Empire takes place Year 1805 ( MDCCCV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or Victor Emmanuel II King of Italy ( Vittorio Emanuele II; March 14, 1820 – January 9, 1878) was the King of Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. List of Queens and Empresses of France Wikipedia_talkFeatured_lists#Proposed_change_to_all_featured_lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund États confédérés du Rhin officially and Confédération du Rhin in practice) lasted Events 1191 - Saladin 's garrison surrenders ending the two-year Siege of Acre. Year 1806 ( MDCCCVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. Year 1813 ( MDCCCXIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Francis II (Franz II Heiliger Römischer Kaiser ( 12 February 1768 &ndash 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to A pretender is a claimant to an abolished throne or to a throne already occupied by somebody else List of Queens and Empresses of France Wikipedia_talkFeatured_lists#Proposed_change_to_all_featured_lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1769 ( MDCCLXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Ajaccio ( Adiacium Ajaccio; Aiacciu; Aiaccio) is a commune in France. Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Year 1821 ( MDCCCXXI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year Saint Helena (pronounced saint he-LEE-na) named after St Helena of Constantinople, is an island of volcanic origin and a British overseas territory
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