An Ecuadorian air force IAI Kfir aircraft drops napalm on a target range during the joint US and Ecuadorian Exercise "Blue Horizon". For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout

Napalm is the name given to any of a number of flammable liquids used in warfare, often jellied gasoline. Flammability is the ease with which a substance will ignite causing Fire or Combustion. Liquid is one of the principal States of matter. A liquid is a Fluid that has the particles loose and can freely form a distinct surface at the boundaries of War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Napalm is actually the thickener in such liquids, which when mixed with gasoline makes a sticky incendiary gel. Thickening agents, or thickeners, are substances which when added to an aqueous mixture increase its Viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties Developed by the U. S. in World War II by a team of Harvard chemists led by Louis Fieser, its name is a combination of the names of its original ingredients, coprecipitated aluminium salts of naphthenic and palmitic acids. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Louis F Fieser ( April 7, 1899 &ndash July 25, 1977) was an Organic chemist, professor and in 1968 professor emeritus at Harvard In Chemistry, coprecipitation (CPT or co-precipitation is the carrying down by a Precipitate of substances normally soluble under the conditions employed WikipediaNaming Naphthenic acid is the name for an unspecific mixture of several cyclopentyl and cyclohexyl carboxylic acids with molecular weight of 120 to well over 700 au Palmitic acid,CH3(CH214COOH or hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature, is one of the most common saturated Fatty acids found in animals These were added to the flammable substance to cause it to gel. ^[1]

One of the major problems of early incendiary fluids was that they splashed and drained too easily. The U. S. found that a gasoline gel increased both the range and effectiveness of flamethrowers, but was difficult to manufacture because it used natural rubber, which was in high demand and expensive. Napalm provided a far cheaper alternative, solving the issues involved with rubber-based incendiaries. ^[1]

Modern napalm is composed primarily of benzene and polystyrene, and is known as napalm-B. Benzene, or benzol, is an organic Chemical compound and a known Carcinogen with the molecular formula C 6 H 6 Polystyrene ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn ( IUPAC Polyphenylethene is an aromatic Polymer made from the aromatic Monomer Styrene ^[1]

Napalm 878 was used in flamethrowers and bombs by the U. A flamethrower is a mechanical device designed to project a long controllable stream of Fire. A bomb is any of a range of devices that typically rely on the Exothermic Chemical reaction of an Explosive material to produce an extremely S. and Allied forces, to increase effectiveness of flammable liquids. The substance is formulated to burn at a specific rate and adhere to materials. Napalm is mixed with gasoline in various proportions to achieve this. Another useful (and dangerous) effect, primarily involving its use in bombs, was that napalm "rapidly deoxygenates the available air" as well as creating large amounts of carbon monoxide causing suffocation. Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO is a colorless odorless tasteless yet highly toxic Gas. Napalm bombs were also used in the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia ^[1]

Though napalm was a 20th century invention, it is part of a long history of incendiary materials in warfare. Early thermal weapons were devices or substances used in Warfare during the classical and medieval periods (approx 8th century BC until the mid-16th However, historically, it was primarily liquids that were used (see Greek fire). Greek fire was a burning-liquid weapon used by the Byzantine Empire. An infantry-based flammable liquid fuel weapon, the flamethrower, was introduced in World War I by the Germans, variations of which were soon developed by other nations in the conflict. A flamethrower is a mechanical device designed to project a long controllable stream of Fire. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All ^[1]

Usage in warfare

The French Aviation navale drops napalm over Viet Minh guerrilla positions during an ambush (December 1953). The Aviation navale ( Naval aviation) of the French Navy includes 162 airplanes (138 of them combat-capable and 6800 men both civilians and military personnel

Riverboat of the U. S. Brownwater Navy deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat mounted flamethrower in Vietnam. Brown-water navy is a term that originated in the United States Navy, referring to the small Gunboats and Patrol boats used in rivers A flamethrower is a mechanical device designed to project a long controllable stream of Fire.

On July 17, 1944, napalm incendiary bombs were dropped for the first time by American P-38 pilots on a fuel depot at Coutances, near St. Lô, France. Events 180 - Twelve inhabitants of Scillium in North Africa are executed for being Christians Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Coutances is a commune of Normandy, France, in the Manche département, of which it is a Sous-préfecture Saint-Lô is a town and commune of France, the Préfecture (capital of the Manche département, in Howard Zinn relates how he participated in a napalm bombing of German soldiers (and French civilians) who were awaiting the end of WWII in France about two weeks before the end of the war. Howard Zinn (born August 24 1922 is an American Historian, political scientist, social critic, activist and Playwright, best known ^[2] Napalm bombs were first used in the Pacific Theatre during the Battle of Tinian by Marine aviators; however, its use was complicated by problems with mixing, fusing and the release mechanisms. The Battle of Tinian was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on the island of Tinian in the Mariana Islands from ^[3] In World War II, The USAAF bombed cities in Japan with napalm, and used it in bombs and flamethrowers in Germany and the Japanese-held islands. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. It was used by the Greek National army against the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE) during the Greek Civil War, by United Nations forces in Korea, by France against the Viet Minh in the First Indochina War, by Mexico in the late 1960s against guerrilla fighters in Guerrero and by the United States during the Vietnam War. The Greek Civil War (ο Eμφύλιος, "the Civil War" fought from 1946 to 1949 by the Governmental forces receiving logistical support by the United Kingdom The United Nations Command (Korea is the unified command structure for the multinational military forces supporting the Republic of Korea (South Korea or ROK during and after This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The First Indochina War (also known as the French Indochina War, the The Anti-French War, the Franco-Vietnamese War, the Franco-Vietminh War, The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. The State of Guerrero is a state in the southern meridional region of Mexico. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia

The most well-known method of delivering napalm is from air-dropped incendiary bombs. Incendiary devices or incendiary bombs are Bombs designed to start Fires or destroy sensitive equipment using materials such as Napalm, Thermite A lesser-known method is the flame throwers used by combat infantry. Flame throwers use a thinner version of the same jellied gasoline to destroy gun emplacements, bunkers and cave hideouts. U. S. Marines fighting on Guadalcanal found them very effective against Japanese positions. Guadalcanal (local name Isatabu) is a 2510- Square mile (6500- km²) Island in the Pacific Ocean and a province of the Solomon The Marines used fire as both a casualty weapon as well as a psychological weapon. They found that Japanese soldiers would abandon positions in which they fought to the death against other weapons. Prisoners of war confirmed that they feared napalm more than any other weapon utilised against them.

Pilots returning from the war zone often remarked they would rather have a couple of droppable gasoline tanks full of napalm than any other weapon, bombs, rockets or guns. The U. S. Air Force and Navy used napalm with great effect against all manner of targets to include troops, tanks, buildings and even railroad tunnels. The demoralizing effect napalm had on the enemy became apparent when scores of North Korean troops began to surrender to aircraft flying overhead. North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, Pilots noted that they saw surviving enemy troops waving white flags on subsequent passes after dropping napalm. The pilots radioed to ground troops and the North Koreans were captured. ^[4]

Napalm has been used recently in wartime by or against: Morocco (1976), Iran (1980–88), Israel (1967, 1982), Nigeria (1969), India & Pakistan (1965 & 1971), Brazil (1972), Egypt (1973), Cyprus (1964, 1974), Argentina (1982), Iraq (1980–88, 1991, 2003 - present), Serbia (1994),1993 Angola, France during the First Indochina War (1946-1954) and the Algerian War (1954-1962 ^[5]), and the United States. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The First Indochina War (also known as the French Indochina War, the The Anti-French War, the Franco-Vietnamese War, the Franco-Vietminh War, The Algerian War ( French: Guerre d'Algérie; 1954-1962 also known as Algerian War of Independence, led to Algeria 's independence from The United States of America —commonly referred to as the

Napalm can kill or wound by immolation and by asphyxiation. Immolation produces rapid loss of blood pressure, unconsciousness and death in a short time. 3rd degree burns are typically not painful at the time, because only the skin nerves respond to heat and 3rd degree burns kill the nerves. A burn is a type of Injury that may be caused by Heat, cold, Electricity, Chemicals, Light, Radiation, or Burn victims do not experience 1st degree burns due to the adhesive properties of napalm that stick to the skin. Glue or adhesive is a compound that adheres or bonds two items together Severe 2nd degree burns, likely to be suffered by someone hit with a small splash of napalm are severely painful and produce hideous scars called keloids, which can also bring about motor disturbances. A keloid is a type of Hypertrophic scar with mainly type I and some type III collagen which results in an overgrowth of tissue at the site of a healed skin injury ^[1]

"Napalm is the most terrible pain you can imagine," said Kim Phúc, a napalm bombing survivor known from a famous Vietnam War photograph. Phan Thị Kim Phúc (born 1963 is a Vietnamese Canadian who is the subject of a famous photo from the Vietnam War. "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. Napalm generates extremely high temperatures upon oxidation on the skin^[6]

Phúc sustained third-degree burns to half her body and was not expected to live after the attack by South Vietnamese aircraft. But thanks to assistance from South Vietnamese photographer Nick Ut and American doctors, and after surviving a 14-month hospital stay and 17 operations, she became an outspoken peace activist. Huỳnh Công Út, also known as Nick Ut (born March 29, 1951) is a Photographer for the Associated Press (AP who works out of A peace activist is a Political activist who advocates for a peaceful resolution of political disputes

International law does not necessarily prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets,^[6] but use against civilian populations was banned by the United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, (often referred to as the CCW) in 1980. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons ( CWC or CCWC) concluded at Geneva on October 10, 1980 and Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) Protocol III of the CCW restricts the use of incendiary weapons (not only napalm), but a number of states have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. A Treaty is an agreement under International law entered into by actors in international law namely States and International organizations. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), states are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, if they ratify at least two of the five protocols. The United States, for example, is a party to the CCW but did not sign protocol III. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[7]

Reports by the Sydney Morning Herald suggested the usage of napalm in the Iraq War by US forces. The Sydney Morning Herald ( SMH) is a daily Broadsheet Newspaper published by Fairfax Media in Sydney, Australia The Iraq War, also known as the Second Gulf War, the Occupation of Iraq, or the War in Iraq, is an ongoing Military campaign ^[8] This was denied by the U.S. Department of Defense. The United States Department of Defense ( DOD or DoD) is the federal department charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government In August 2003, the San Diego Union Tribune alleged that U. S. Marine pilots and their commanders confirmed the use of Mark 77 firebombs on Iraqi Republican Guards during the initial stages of combat. The Mark 77 bomb (MK-77 is a US 750-lb (340 kg air-dropped Incendiary bomb carrying of a fuel gel mix which is the direct successor to Napalm. The Iraqi Republican Guard ( Arabic: الحرس العراقي الجمهوري/al-Haris Al-Jamhuri was a branch of the Iraqi military. Official denials of the use of 'napalm' were, however, disingenuous, as the Mk 77 bomb that is currently in service at this time, the Mk 77 Mod 5, does not use actual napalm (for example, napalm-B). The last U. S. bomb to use actual napalm was the Mark 77 Mod 4, the last of which were destroyed in March 2001. ^[9] The substance used now is a different incendiary mixture, but sufficiently analogous in its effects that it is still a controversial incendiary, and can still be referred to colloquially as 'napalm. '

"We napalmed both those (bridge) approaches," said Col. Randolph Alles in a recent interview. "Unfortunately, there were people there because you could see them in the (cockpit) video. " (. . . ) "They were Iraqi soldiers there. It's no great way to die," he added. (. . . ) The generals love napalm. . . . It has a big psychological effect. The US Department of Defense defines psychological warfare ( PSYWAR) as" The planned use of Propaganda and other Psychological actions " - San Diego Union-Tribune, August 2003^[10]

These bombs did not actually contain napalm. The San Diego Union-Tribune is a daily Newspaper published in San Diego California, by the Copley Press. The napalm-B (super napalm) used in Vietnam was gasoline based. The Mk-77 firebombs used in the Gulf were kerosene based. Kerosene, sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage is a Combustible Hydrocarbon liquid It is, however, a napalm-like liquid in its effect. ^[1]

Composition

Napalm bombs explode after being dropped from a Republic of Korea Air Force F-4E Phantom II aircraft during a live-fire exercise. The Republic of Korea Air Force ( ROK Air Force, ROKAF, Hanglul: 대한민국 공군 Hanja: 大韓民國 空軍 is the Air force

Napalm is usually a mixture of gasoline with suitable thickening agents. Thickening agents, or thickeners, are substances which when added to an aqueous mixture increase its Viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties The earliest thickeners were soaps, aluminium, and magnesium palmitates and stearates. SOAP (see below for name and origins is a protocol for exchanging XML -based messages over Computer networks normally using Palmitic acid,CH3(CH214COOH or hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature, is one of the most common saturated Fatty acids found in animals Stearic acid (first syllable rhymes with either bear or gear) ( IUPAC Systematic name: octadecanoic acid) is a saturated Depending on the amount of added thickener, the resulting viscosity may range between syrupy liquid and thick rubbery gel. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a Fluid which is being deformed by either Shear stress or Extensional stress. The content of long hydrocarbon chains makes the material highly hydrophobic (resistant to wetting with water), making it more difficult to extinguish. In Chemistry, hydrophobicity (from the combining form of water in Attic Greek hydro- and for fear phobos) refers to the physical property of Thickened fuel also rebounds better from surfaces, making it more useful for operations in urban terrain.

There are two types of napalm: oil-based with aluminium soap thickener, and oil-based with polymeric thickener ("napalm-B").

The United States military uses three kinds of thickeners: M1, M2, and M4.

• The M1 Thickener (MIL-T-589A), chemically a mixture of 25% wt. aluminium naphthenate, 25% aluminium oleate, and 50% aluminium laurate, (or, according to other sources, aluminium stearate soap) is a highly hygroscopic coarse tan-colored powder. Naphthenates are the salts of Naphthenic acids which are an acidic fraction from Petroleum processing and which are composed of a mixture of organic acids Oleic acid is a Monounsaturated omega-9 Fatty acid found in various animal and vegetable sources Lauric acid (systematically dodecanoic acid a saturated Fatty acid, is a white powdery solid with a faint odor of bay oil or soap Stearic acid (first syllable rhymes with either bear or gear) ( IUPAC Systematic name: octadecanoic acid) is a saturated Hygroscopy is the ability of a substance to attract Water Molecules from the surrounding environment through either absorption or Adsorption As the water content impairs the quality of napalm, thickener from partially used open containers should not be used later. It is not maintained in the US Army inventory any more as it was replaced with M4.
• The M2 Thickener (MIL-T-0903025B) is a whitish powder similar to M1, with added devolatilized silica and anticaking agent. The Chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica or silox (from the Latin " Silex " is an Oxide Anticaking agents are used in such things as table Salt to keep the product from forming lumps making it better for packaging transport and for the consumer
• The M4 flame fuel thickening compound (MIL-T-50009A), hydroxyl aluminium bis(2-ethylhexanoate) with anti-caking agent, is a fine white powder. Hydroxyl aluminium bis(2-ethylhexanoate is a Chemical substance derived from 2-ethylhexanoic acid and aluminium(III It is less hygroscopic than M1 and opened containers can be resealed and used within one day. About half the amount of M4 is needed for the same effect as of M1.

A later variant, napalm-B, also called "super napalm", is a mixture of low-octane gasoline with benzene and polystyrene. The octane rating is a measure of the resistance of Gasoline and other Fuels to Detonation ( Engine knocking) in spark-ignition Benzene, or benzol, is an organic Chemical compound and a known Carcinogen with the molecular formula C 6 H 6 Polystyrene ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn ( IUPAC Polyphenylethene is an aromatic Polymer made from the aromatic Monomer Styrene It was used in the Vietnam War. Unlike conventional napalm, which burns for only 15–30 seconds, napalm B burns for up to 10 minutes with fewer fireballs, sticks better to surfaces, and offers improved destruction effects. It is not as easy to ignite, which reduces the number of accidents caused by soldiers smoking. When it burns, it develops a characteristic smell.

Starting in the early 1990s, various websites including The Anarchist Cookbook advertised recipes for homemade napalm. The Anarchist Cookbook, first published in 1971, is a book that contains recipes and instructions for the manufacture of explosives, rudimentary Telecommunications These recipes were predominantly equal parts gasoline and styrofoam. Styrofoam is a trademark for polystyrene Thermal insulation, a material manufactured by Dow Chemical Company. This mixture closely resembles that of napalm-B, but lacks a percentage of benzene.

Napalm reaches burning temperatures of approximately 1,200 °C (2,200 °F). The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 Other additives can be added, eg. powdered aluminium or magnesium, or white phosphorus. WikipediaNaming Magnesium (mægˈniːziəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Mg, Atomic number 12 Atomic weight 24 This article is about the military applications of white phosphorus.

In the early 1950s, Norway developed its own napalm, based on fatty acids in whale oil. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional Whale oil is the oil obtained from the Blubber of various species of Whales particularly the three species of Right Whale ( Eubalaena japonica The reason for this development was that the American-produced thickening agent performed rather poorly in the cold Norwegian climate. The product was known as Northick II. ^[11]

Some weapons utilize a pyrophoric variant, known as TPA (thickened pyrophoric agent). A pyrophoric substance will ignite spontaneously that is its Autoignition temperature is below Room temperature. Triethylaluminium or TEA is a volatile Organometallic compound which is used in various chemical processing and as an ignitor for jet and rocket Chemically it is a triethylaluminium thickened with polyisobutylene. Triethylaluminium or TEA is a volatile Organometallic compound which is used in various chemical processing and as an ignitor for jet and rocket Butyl rubber &mdashalso known as polyisobutylene and PIB (C4H8n is a Synthetic rubber, a Homopolymer of

In popular culture

Napalm itself became well-known by the American public after its use in the Vietnam war. Since then, it has been mentioned in the media and arts on numerous occasions. In the film Apocalypse Now, Airmobile Infantry Colonel Kilgore declared "I love the smell of napalm in the morning. . . It smells like. . . victory" following a nearby napalm strike. In An Officer and a Gentleman, Sgt. Foley led a quick-step march with a cadence call that had the chorus, "Cause napalm sticks to kids!", representing a cadence call common in the U. An Officer and a Gentleman is a 1982 film which tells the story of a United States Navy aviation Officer Candidate who comes into conflict Louis Cameron Gossett Jr (born May 27 1936) is an American Emmy, Golden Globe, and Academy Award winning Actor In the armed services, a military cadence or cadence call is a traditional call-and-response Work song sung by military personnel while running or " Napalm Sticks to Kids " is a song or a call & response running cadence once used in the U S. military at the time.

See also

• Flame Fougasse
• Phan Thị Kim Phúc
• Mark 77 bomb

Notes

External links

• Tracking Wildfire