Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology, sometimes shortened to nanotech, refers to a field of Applied science whose theme is the control of matter on an Atomic and Molecular Although Nanotechnology is a relatively recent development in scientific research the development of its central concepts happened over a longer period of time The implications of Nanotechnology run the gamut of human affairs from the medical, Ethical, Mental, legal and environmental to fields With nanotechnology a large set of materials and improved products rely on a change in the physical properties when the feature sizes are shrunk This is a list of organizations involved in Nanotechnology. Government EU Seventh Framework Programme and Action Plan for Nanosciences Nanotechnology and its use in fiction has attracted scholarly attention For a gentler introduction to nanotechnology see List of basic nanotechnology topics This is a hierarchical list of (all topics related to Nanotechnology Nanomaterials are application with morphological features smaller than a one tenth of a micrometre in at least one dimension "C60" and "C-60" redirect here For other uses see C60 (disambiguation. See also Graphene, Buckypaper Carbon nanotubes (CNTs are Allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure that can have a length-to-diameter In Nanotechnology, a particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit in terms of its transport and properties Nanotoxicology is the study of the Toxicity of nanomaterials. Nanosensors are any biological chemical or sugery sensory points used to convey information about Nanoparticles to the Macroscopic world Molecular self-assembly is the process by which Molecules adopt a defined arrangement without guidance or management from an outside source Self assembled monolayers ( SAM s are surfaces consisting of a single layer of Molecules on a substrate. A supramolecular assembly or "supermolecule" is a well defined complex of molecules held together by noncovalent bonds. DNA nanotechnology is a subfield of Nanotechnology which seeks to use the unique Molecular recognition properties of DNA and other Nucleic acids Nanoelectronics refer to the use of Nanotechnology on electronic components especially Transistors. For quantum mechanical study of the Electron distribution in a molecule see Stereoelectronics. Nanocircuits are electrical circuits on the scale of nanometers Nanolithography — or Photolithography at the Nanometer scale — refers to the fabrication of nanometer-scale structures, meaning patterns with at Scanning probe microscopy (SPM is a branch of Microscopy that forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scans the specimen The atomic force microscope (AFM or scanning force microscope (SFM is a very high-resolution type of scanning probe microscope, with demonstrated resolution of fractions Scanning tunneling microscope (STM is a powerful technique for viewing surfaces at the atomic level Molecular nanotechnology (MNT is the concept of engineering functional mechanical systems at the molecular scale A molecular assembler as defined by K Eric Drexler is a "proposed device able to guide chemical reactions by positioning reactive molecules with atomic precision Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or Robots at or close to the microscopic scale of a Nanometres (10-9 Metres. Mechanosynthesis in Chemistry is any Chemical synthesis that takes place by mechanical forces alone Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Nanotechnology, sometimes shortened to nanotech, refers to a field of Applied science whose theme is the control of matter on an Atomic and Molecular ^[1] The approaches to nanomedicine range from the medical use of nanomaterials, to nanoelectronic biosensors, and even possible future applications of molecular nanotechnology. Nanomaterials are application with morphological features smaller than a one tenth of a micrometre in at least one dimension Nanoelectronics refer to the use of Nanotechnology on electronic components especially Transistors. Molecular nanotechnology (MNT is the concept of engineering functional mechanical systems at the molecular scale Current problems for nanomedicine involve understanding the issues related to toxicity and environmental impact of nanoscale materials. Nanotoxicology is the study of the Toxicity of nanomaterials. The implications of Nanotechnology run the gamut of human affairs from the medical, Ethical, Mental, legal and environmental to fields Nanomaterials are application with morphological features smaller than a one tenth of a micrometre in at least one dimension

Nanomedicine research is directly funded, with the US National Institutes of Health in 2005 funding a five-year plan to set up four nanomedicine centers. "NIH" redirects here For other meanings of NIH see NIH (disambiguation. In April 2006, the journal Nature Materials estimated that 130 nanotech-based drugs and delivery systems were being developed worldwide. Nature Materials is a monthly multi-disciplinary journal aimed at bringing together cutting-edge research across the entire spectrum of materials science. ^[2]

Overview

Nanomedicine seeks to deliver a valuable set of research tools and clinically helpful devices in the near future. ^[3][4] The National Nanotechnology Initiative expects new commercial applications in the pharmaceutical industry that may include advanced drug delivery systems, new therapies, and in vivo imaging. The National Nanotechnology Initiative is an United States federal nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology Research and In vivo ( Latin: within the living means that which takes place inside an organism. ^[5] Neuro-electronic interfaces and other nanoelectronics-based sensors are another active goal of research. Nanoelectronics refer to the use of Nanotechnology on electronic components especially Transistors. Further down the line, the speculative field of molecular nanotechnology believes that cell repair machines could revolutionize medicine and the medical field. Futures Studies, Foresight, or Futurology is the science art and practice of postulating possible probable and preferable futures and the worldviews Molecular nanotechnology (MNT is the concept of engineering functional mechanical systems at the molecular scale Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or Robots at or close to the microscopic scale of a Nanometres (10-9 Metres.

Nanomedicine is a large industry, with nanomedicine sales reaching 6. 8 billion dollars in 2004, and with over 200 companies and 38 products worldwide, a minimum of 3. 8 billion dollars in nanotechnology R&D is being invested every year. ^[6] As the nanomedicine industry continues to grow, it is expected to have a significant impact on the economy.

Medical use of nanomaterials

Drug delivery

Nanomedical approaches to drug delivery center on developing nanoscale particles or molecules to improve the bioavailability of a drug. Drug delivery is the method or process of administering a In Nanotechnology, a particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit in terms of its transport and properties In Pharmacology, bioavailability is used to describe the fraction of an administered Dose of unchanged drug that reaches the Systemic circulation, one of Bioavailability refers to the presence of drug molecules where they are needed in the body and where they will do the most good. Drug delivery focuses on maximizing bioavailability both at specific places in the body and over a period of time. This will be achieved by molecular targeting by nanoengineered devices. ^[7][8] It is all about targeting the molecules and delivering drugs with cell precision. More than $65 billion are wasted each year due to poor bioavailability. In vivo imaging is another area where tools and devices are being developed. Using nanoparticle contrast agents, images such as ultrasound and MRI have a favorable distribution and improved contrast. In Nanotechnology, a particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit in terms of its transport and properties Contrast medium Radiocontrast agents (also simply contrast agents or contrast materials) are compounds used to improve the visibility of internal bodily structures The new methods of nanoengineered materials that are being developed might be effective in treating illnesses and diseases such as cancer. What nanoscientists will be able to achieve in future is beyond current imagination. This will be accomplished by self assemblied biocompatible nanodevices that will detect, evaluate, treat and report to the clinical doctor automatically.

Drug delivery systems, lipid- or polymer-based nanoparticles, can be designed to improve the pharmacological and therapeutic properties of drugs. Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs ^[9] The strength of drug delivery systems is their ability to alter the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of the drug. Pharmacokinetics (in Greek: “pharmacon” meaning drug and “kinetikos” meaning putting in motion the study of time dependency sometimes abbreviated as “PK” is a Biodistribution is a method of tracking where compounds of interest travel in an experimental animal or human subject Nanoparticles have unusual properties that can be used to improve drug delivery. Where larger particles would have been cleared from the body, cells take up these nanoparticles because of their size. Complex drug delivery mechanisms are being developed, including the ability to get drugs through cell membranes and into cell cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is the contents of a cell that is enclosed within the Plasma membrane. Efficiency is important because many diseases depend upon processes within the cell and can only be impeded by drugs that make their way into the cell. Triggered response is one way for drug molecules to be used more efficiently. Drugs are placed in the body and only activate on encountering a particular signal. For example, a drug with poor solubility will be replaced by a drug delivery system where both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments exist, improving the solubility. Also, a drug may cause tissue damage, but with drug delivery, regulated drug release can eliminate the problem. If a drug is cleared too quickly from the body, this could force a patient to use high doses, but with drug delivery systems clearance can be reduced by altering the pharmacokinetics of the drug. Poor biodistribution is a problem that can affect normal tissues through widespread distribution, but the particulates from drug delivery systems lower the volume of distribution and reduce the effect on non-target tissue. Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas Potential nanodrugs will work by very specific and well-understood mechanisms, one of the major impacts of nanotechnology and nanoscience will be in leading development of completely new drugs with more useful behavior and less side effects.

Cancer

A schematic illustration showing how nanoparticles or other cancer drugs might be used to treat cancer.

John Kanzius has invented a radio machine which uses a combination of radio waves and carbon or gold nanoparticles to destroy cancer cells. This article is about the inventor John Kanzius For the 15th century theologian see John Cantius. Non-invasive RF cancer treatment is an experimental method of cancer treatment that employs a combination of either gold or carbon Nanoparticles and radio waves to heat and destroy

Nanoparticles of cadmium selenide (quantum dots) glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. In Nanotechnology, a particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit in terms of its transport and properties Cadmium selenide ( Cd[[Selenium Se]] is a solid binary compound of cadmium and selenium A quantum dot is a Semiconductor whose Excitons are confined in all three Spatial dimensions. When injected, they seep into cancer tumors. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled See also Cancer A tumor or tumour is the name for a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (termed neoplastic The surgeon can see the glowing tumor, and use it as a guide for more accurate tumor removal.

Sensor test chips containing thousands of nanowires, able to detect proteins and other biomarkers left behind by cancer cells, could enable the detection and diagnosis of cancer in the early stages from a few drops of a patient's blood. ^[10]

Researchers at Rice University under Prof. William Marsh Rice University (commonly called Rice University and opened in 1912 as The William Marsh Rice Institute for the Advancement of Letters Science and Art Jennifer West, have demonstrated the use of 120 nm diameter nanoshells coated with gold to kill cancer tumors in mice. A nanoshell is composed of a spherical core of a particular compound surrounded by a shell of a few Nanometer in thickness The nanoshells can be targeted to bond to cancerous cells by conjugating antibodies or peptides to the nanoshell surface. Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are Gamma globulin Proteins that are found in Blood or other Bodily Peptides (from the Greek πεπτίδια, "small digestibles" are short Polymers formed from the linking in a defined order of α- Amino By irradiating the area of the tumor with an infrared laser, which passes through flesh without heating it, the gold is heated sufficiently to cause death to the cancer cells. ^[11]

One scientist, University of Michigan’s James Baker, believes he has discovered a highly efficient and successful way of delivering cancer-treatment drugs that is less harmful to the surrounding body. Baker has developed a nanotechnology that can locate and then eliminate cancerous cells. He looks at a molecule called a dendrimer. This molecule has over one hundred hooks on it that allow it to attach to cells in the body for a variety of purposes. Baker then attaches folic-acid to a few of the hooks (folic-acid, being a vitamin, is received by cells in the body). Cancer cells have more vitamin receptors than normal cells, so Baker's vitamin-laden dendrimer will be absorbed by the cancer cell. To the rest of the hooks on the dendrimer, Baker places anti-cancer drugs that will be absorbed with the dendrimer into the cancer cell, thereby delivering the cancer drug to the cancer cell and nowhere else (Bullis 2006). ^[12]

In photodynamic therapy, a particle is placed within the body and is illuminated with light from the outside. Photodynamic therapy (PDT matured as a feasible medical technology in the 1980s at several institutions throughout the world is a third-level treatment for Cancer involving The light gets absorbed by the particle and if the particle is metal, energy from the light will heat the particle and surrounding tissue. Light may also be used to produce high energy oxygen molecules which will chemically react with and destroy most organic molecules that are next to them (like tumors). This therapy is appealing for many reasons. It does not leave a “toxic trail” of reactive molecules throughout the body (chemotherapy) because it is directed where only the light is shined and the particles exist. Photodynamic therapy has potential for a noninvasive procedure for dealing with diseases, growths, and tumors.

Surgery

At Rice University, a flesh welder is used to fuse two pieces of chicken meat into a single piece. The two pieces of chicken are placed together touching. A greenish liquid containing gold-coated nanoshells is dribbled along the seam. An infrared laser is traced along the seam, causing the two sides to weld together. This could solve the difficulties and blood leaks caused when the surgeon tries to restitch the arteries he/she has cut during a kidney or heart transplant. The flesh welder could meld the artery into a perfect seal.

Visualization

Tracking movement can help determine how well drugs are being distributed or how substances are metabolized. It is difficult to track a small group of cells throughout the body so scientists used to dye the cells. These dyes needed to be excited by light of a certain wavelength in order for them to light up. While different color dyes absorb different frequencies of light, there was a need for as many light sources as cells. A way around this problem is with luminescent tags. These tags are quantum dots attached to proteins that penetrate cell walls. A quantum dot is a Semiconductor whose Excitons are confined in all three Spatial dimensions. The dots can be random in size, can be made of bio-inert material, and they demonstrate the nanoscale property that color is size-dependent. As a result, sizes are selected so that the frequency of light used to make a group of quantum dots fluoresce is an even multiple of the frequency required to make another group incandesce. Then both groups can be lit with a single light source.

Nanoparticle targeting

It is greatly observed that nanoparticles are promising tools for the advancement of drug delivery, medical imaging, and as diagnostic sensors. However, the biodistribution of these nanoparticles is mostly unknown due to the difficulty in targeting specific organs in the body. Current research in the excretory systems of mice, however, shows the ability of gold composites to selectively target certain organs based on their size and charge. These composites are encapsulated by a dendrimer and assigned a specific charge and size. Positively-charged gold nanoparticles were found to enter the kidneys while negatively-charged gold nanoparticles remained in the liver and spleen. It is suggested that the positive surface charge of the nanoparticle decreases the rate of osponization of nanoparticles in the liver, thus affecting the excretory pathway. Even at a relatively small size of 5nm , though, these particles can become compartmentalized in the peripheral tissues, and will therefore accumulate in the body over time. While advancement of research proves that targeting and distribution can be augmented by nanoparticles, the dangers of nanotoxicity become an important next step in further understanding of their medical uses. ^[13]

Neuro-electronic interfaces

Neuro-electronic interfaces are a visionary goal dealing with the construction of nanodevices that will permit computers to be joined and linked to the nervous system. This idea requires the building of a molecular structure that will permit control and detection of nerve impulses by an external computer. The computers will be able to interpret, register, and respond to signals the body gives off when it feels sensations. The demand for such structures is huge because many diseases involve the decay of the nervous system (ALS and multiple sclerosis). Also, many injuries and accidents may impair the nervous system resulting in dysfunctional systems and paraplegia. If computers could control the nervous system through neuro-electronic interface, problems that impair the system could be controlled so that effects of diseases and injuries could be overcome. Two considerations must be made when selecting the power source for such applications. They are refuelable and nonrefuelable strategies. A refuelable strategy implies energy is refilled continuously or periodically with external sonic, chemical, tethered, or electrical sources. A nonrefuelable strategy implies that all power is drawn from internal energy storage which would stop when all energy is drained.

One limitation to this innovation is the fact that electrical interference is a possibility. Electric fields, electromagnetic pulses (EMP), and stray fields from other in vivo electrical devices can all cause interference. The term electromagnetic pulse ( EMP) has the following meanings Electromagnetic radiation from an Explosion (especially a Nuclear Also, thick insulators are required to prevent electron leakage, and if high conductivity of the in vivo medium occurs there is a risk of sudden power loss and “shorting out. ” Finally, thick wires are also needed to conduct substantial power levels without overheating. Little practical progress has been made even though research is happening. The wiring of the structure is extremely difficult because they must be positioned precisely in the nervous system so that it is able to monitor and respond to nervous signals. The structures that will provide the interface must also be compatible with the body’s immune system so that they will remain unaffected in the body for a long time. ^[14] In addition, the structures must also sense ionic currents and be able to cause currents to flow backward. While the potential for these structures is amazing, there is no timetable for when they will be available.

Medical applications of molecular nanotechnology

Molecular nanotechnology is a speculative subfield of nanotechnology regarding the possibility of engineering molecular assemblers, machines which could re-order matter at a molecular or atomic scale. Molecular nanotechnology (MNT is the concept of engineering functional mechanical systems at the molecular scale Futures Studies, Foresight, or Futurology is the science art and practice of postulating possible probable and preferable futures and the worldviews A molecular assembler as defined by K Eric Drexler is a "proposed device able to guide chemical reactions by positioning reactive molecules with atomic precision Molecular nanotechnology is highly theoretical, seeking to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield and to propose an agenda for future inquiry. The proposed elements of molecular nanotechnology, such as molecular assemblers and nanorobots are far beyond current capabilities. Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or Robots at or close to the microscopic scale of a Nanometres (10-9 Metres.

Nanorobots

The somewhat speculative claims about the possibility of using nanorobots^[15] in medicine, advocates say, would totally change the world of medicine once it is realized. Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or Robots at or close to the microscopic scale of a Nanometres (10-9 Metres. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Nanomedicine^[1][14] would make use of these nanorobots (e. g. , Computational Genes), introduced into the body, to repair or detect damages and infections. According to Robert Freitas of the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing, a typical blood borne medical nanorobot would be between 0. Robert A Freitas Jr is a Senior Research Fellow one of four researchers at the nonprofit foundation Institute for Molecular Manufacturing (IMM in Palo Alto, Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells ��such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products 5-3 micrometres in size, because that is the maximum size possible due to capillary passage requirement. Capillaries are the smallest of a body's Blood vessels measuring 5-10 μm in diameter which connect Arterioles and Venules and enable the interchange Carbon would be the primary element used to build these nanorobots due to the inherent strength and other characteristics of some forms of carbon (diamond/fullerene composites), and nanorobots would be fabricated in desktop nanofactories [1] specialized for this purpose. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in "C60" and "C-60" redirect here For other uses see C60 (disambiguation.

Nanodevices could be observed at work inside the body using MRI, especially if their components were manufactured using mostly ¹³C atoms rather than the natural ¹²C isotope of carbon, since ¹³C has a nonzero nuclear magnetic moment. Medical nanodevices would first be injected into a human body, and would then go to work in a specific organ or tissue mass. The doctor will monitor the progress, and make certain that the nanodevices have gotten to the correct target treatment region. The doctor wants to be able to scan a section of the body, and actually see the nanodevices congregated neatly around their target (a tumor mass, etc. ) so that he or she can be sure that the procedure was successful.

Cell repair machines

Using drugs and surgery, doctors can only encourage tissues to repair themselves. With molecular machines, there will be more direct repairs. ^[16] Cell repair will utilize the same tasks that living systems already prove possible. Access to cells is possible because biologists can stick needles into cells without killing them. Thus, molecular machines are capable of entering the cell. Also, all specific biochemical interactions show that molecular systems can recognize other molecules by touch, build or rebuild every molecule in a cell, and can disassemble damaged molecules. Finally, cells that replicate prove that molecular systems can assemble every system found in a cell. Therefore, since nature has demonstrated the basic operations needed to perform molecular-level cell repair, in the future, nanomachine based systems will be built that are able to enter cells, sense differences from healthy ones and make modifications to the structure.

The possibilities of these cell repair machines are impressive. Comparable to the size of viruses or bacteria, their compact parts will allow them to be more complex. The early machines will be specialized. As they open and close cell membranes or travel through tissue and enter cells and viruses, machines will only be able to correct a single molecular disorder like DNA damage or enzyme deficiency. Later, cell repair machines will be programmed with more abilities with the help of advanced AI systems.

Nanocomputers will be needed to guide these machines. These computers will direct machines to examine, take apart, and rebuild damaged molecular structures. Repair machines will be able to repair whole cells by working structure by structure. Then by working cell by cell and tissue by tissue, whole organs can be repaired. Finally, by working organ by organ, health is restored to the body. Cells damaged to the point of inactivity can be repaired because of the ability of molecular machines to build cells from scratch. Therefore, cell repair machines will free medicine from reliance on self repair.

A new wave of technology and medicine is being created and its impact on the world is going to be monumental. From the possible applications such as drug delivery and in vivo imaging to the potential machines of the future, advancements in nanomedicine are being made every day. It will not be long for the 10 billion dollar industry to explode into a 100 billion or 1 trillion dollar industry, and drug delivery, in vivo imaging and therapy is just the beginning.

Nanonephrology

Nanonephrology is a branch of nanomedicine and nanotechnology that deals with 1) the study of kidney protein structures at the atomic level; 2) nano-imaging approaches to study cellular processes in kidney cells; and 3) nano medical treatments that utilize nanoparticles and to treat various kidney diseases. Nanonephrology is a branch of Nanomedicine and Nanotechnology that deals with the study of Kidney Protein structures at the The creation and use of materials and devices at the molecular and atomic levels that can be used for the diagnosis and therapy of renal diseases is also a part of Nanonephrology that will play a role in the management of patients with kidney disease in the future. Advances in Nanonephrology will be based on discoveries in the above areas that can provide nano-scale information on the cellular molecular machinery involved in normal kidney processes and in pathological states. By understanding the physical and chemical properties of proteins and other macromolecules at the atomic level in various cells in the kidney, novel therapeutic approaches can be designed to combat major renal diseases. The nano-scale artificial kidney is a goal that many physicians dream of. Nano-scale engineering advances will permit programmable and controllable nano-scale robots to execute curative and reconstructive procedures in the human kidney at the cellular and molecular levels. Designing nanostructures compatible with the kidney cells and that can safely operate in vivo is also a future goal. The ability to direct events in a controlled fashion at the cellular nano-level has the potential of significantly improving the lives of patients with kidney diseases.

References

• Reviews in the journal Nanomedicine

External links

• Nanomedicine
• Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine - Elsevier Journal
• The International Journal of Nanomedicine
• Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology
• Nanomedicine website
• Nanomedicine Laboratory, University of London, UK
• Foresight Institute
• Nanomedicine Art Gallery
• General review of medical nanorobotics (non-technical)
• General review of nanomedicine (technical)
• Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine
• Forward Look Report on Nanomedicine published by the European Science Foundation
• Impact of Nanotechnology on Biomedical Sciences
• Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences
• Companies and institutions involved in Nanomedicine
• Institute for NanoBioTechnology at Johns Hopkins University
• Nanobiomagnetics
• μFluids@Home (Distributed Computing Project)
• Biomicrofluidics, an open-source peer-reviewed journal published by the American Institute of Physics
• MicroSystems and BioMEMS Lab at University of Cincinnati,USA
• The Whitesides Research Group, Harvard University
• Lab-on-a-Chip Diagnostics, University of Texas at Austin
• Mathies Research Group, University of California, Berkeley
• Prof. Luke Lee's BioPOETS Group, University of California, Berkeley
• The Craighead Research Group at Cornell University
• The Penn State BioNEMS Group
• Birck Nanotechnology Centre at Purdue University, Indiana, USA
• The Roukes Research Group at Caltech
• The Quake Research Group, Stanford University
• UCLA Microsystems Laboratories
• The Nano Engineering Lab at UC Berkeley
• The Nanotechnology drug delivery group at University of Strathclyde
• Nanomedicine Center

See also

• Nanobiotechnology
• Nanotechnology in fiction
• Top-down and bottom-up design
• Nanosensor
• Photodynamic therapy
• Impalefection