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Naftaly Frenkel
Naftaly Frenkel

Naftaly Aronovich Frenkel (Russian: Нафталий Аронович Френкель; 1883-1960), Soviet citizen and Chekist (member of the Soviet secret police). Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Year 1883 ( MDCCCLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Cheka ( ЧК - чрезвычайная комиссия Chrezvychaynaya Komissiya,) was the first of a succession of Soviet State security Frenkel is best known for his role in the organization of work in the Gulag, starting from the forced labor camp of the Solovetsky Islands, which is recognized as one of the earliest sites of the Gulag. The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. A labor camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are engaged in Penal labor. The Solovetsky Islands (Солове́цкие острова́ Соловки́ are located in the Onega Bay of the White Sea, Russia.

Contents

Origins

Naftaly Frenkel's origins are uncertain. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn called him a "Turkish Jew born in Constantinople"[1]. Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn ( Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын) (December 11 1918 – August 3 2008 was a Russian Novelist Another described him as a "Hungarian manufacturer". [2] Yet another claimed that Frankel came from Odessa. ODESSA which stands for the German phrase O rganisation d er e hemaligen SS - A ngehörigen which in turn translates [3] Yet more said he was from Austria, or Palestine, or that he had worked in the Ford motor plant in the USA. His prisoner registration card states clearly that he was born in Haifa, then part of the Ottoman Empire. Haifa (חֵיפָה; حَيْفَا) is the largest City in Northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country with The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish From Haifa he made his way (perhaps via Odessa, perhaps via Austria-Hungary) to the Soviet Union where he described himself as a 'merchant'. Haifa (חֵיפָה; حَيْفَا) is the largest City in Northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country with ODESSA which stands for the German phrase O rganisation d er e hemaligen SS - A ngehörigen which in turn translates The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 [4][5]

Arrest

In 1923 he was arrested for "illegally crossing borders", a label which covered smuggling as well as being a merchant who was too successful for the Soviet Union to tolerate. Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [6] He was sentenced to 10 years' hard labour on Solovetsky. The Solovetsky Islands (Солове́цкие острова́ Соловки́ are located in the Onega Bay of the White Sea, Russia. [7] The Solovetsky Islands, in the White Sea, came to be known as the "first camp of the Gulag". The Solovetsky Islands (Солове́цкие острова́ Соловки́ are located in the Onega Bay of the White Sea, Russia. The White Sea (Бе́лое мо́ре Vienanmeri is an Inlet of the Barents Sea on the northwest coast of Russia. The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. [8] Together the islands were known as 'northern camps of special significance': Severnye lagerya osobogo naznacheniya or SLON. [9] In Russian slon means 'elephant'. "The name was to become a source of humour, of irony and of menace. "[10]

Prisoner

There he rose rapidly from prisoner to staff member on the strength of his proposal to the camp administration that they link inmates' food rations to their rate of production, the proposal known as nourishment scale (шкала питания). How exactly Frenkel transformed himself from prisoner to camp commander is also mysterious. [11] The story goes that when he arrived at the camp he found shocking disorganisation and waste of resources (both human and material): he promptly wrote a precise description of what exactly was wrong with every one of the camp's industries (including forestry, farming and brick-making). [12] He placed the letter in the prisoners' 'complaints box' whence it was sent, as a curiosity, to Genrikh Yagoda the secret police bureaucrat who eventually became leader of the Cheka; it is said that Yagoda immediately demanded to meet with the letter's author. Genrikh Grigor'evich Yagoda (Генрих Григорьевич Ягода born Yenokh (Enoch Gershonovich Ieguda ( Енох Гершонович Иегуда 1891 The Cheka ( ЧК - чрезвычайная комиссия Chrezvychaynaya Komissiya,) was the first of a succession of Soviet State security Genrikh Grigor'evich Yagoda (Генрих Григорьевич Ягода born Yenokh (Enoch Gershonovich Ieguda ( Енох Гершонович Иегуда 1891 [13] Frenkel himself claimed that he was whisked off to Moscow to discuss his ideas with Stalin and Kaganovich, one of Stalin's henchmen. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party [14]. [15] Again, the truth is unclear: records show that Frenkel met Stalin in the 1930s and was protected by Stalin during the Party purge years; however, no record extant has been found of any meeting in the 1920s. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party [16]

What is clear is that Frenkel was promoted from prisoner to guard in a surprisingly short period, even by the chaotic standards of SLON: by November 1924, having been resident at the camp for less than a year, Frenkel's early release was requested by the SLON administration; the request was finally granted in 1927. [17] Meanwhile, the camp administration submitted regular reports to the OGPU about Frenkel in glowing terms:

"in camp he conducted himself as such an exceptionally talented worker that he has won the confidence of the adminstration of SLON, and is treated with authority . The State Political Directorate was the Secret police of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR) and the Soviet Union from 1922 until . . he is one of the rare, responsible workers. "[18]

Commandant

Naftaly Frenkel
Naftaly Frenkel

Frenkel emerged as one of the most influential Solovetsky commanders. [19] His reputation is, however, controversial: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn claims that Frenkel personally invented the notorious you-eat-as-you-work system, also known as the nourishment scale, which destroyed weaker prisoners in weeks and would later cause uncounted casualties; on the other hand, a wide range of Russian and Western historians dismiss the many stories of Frenkel's omnipotence as legend. Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn ( Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын) (December 11 1918 – August 3 2008 was a Russian Novelist [20] Anne Applebaum states,

"Even if Frenkel did not invent every aspect of the system, he did find a way to turn a prison camp into an apparently profitable economic institution, and he did so at a time, in a place, and in a manner which may well have brought that idea to the attention of Stalin. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party "[21]

Frenkel presided over the development of the nourishment scale, or the "you-eat-as-you-work system", from a careless arrangement by which workers were sometimes 'paid' with food into a very precise method of food distribution and prisoner organisation: he divided the SLON prisoners into (1) those deemed capable of heavy work, (2) those capable of light work and (3) invalids; each group received a different set of tasks and quotas to meet and were fed accordingly, with drastic differences between the prisoners' rations and their fate. [22] Those deemed capapble of heavy work were alloted 800 grammes of bread and 80 grammes of meat; invalids received half those amounts. [23] In practice the system divided prisoners very rapidly into those who would survive and those who would perish. [24]

Under Frenkel the nature of the work undertaken by SLON prisoners changed from such trifles as fur farming and the cultivation of exotic Arctic plants to road building and tree felling: the change in the nature of the work changed the nature of the camp and the regimes which SLON developed beyond the Solovetsky archipelago[25] such as in the Arkhangelsk region of the Russian mainland, thousand of kilometres away from Solovetsky, to which Frenkel despatched prison labourers. [26]

Frenkel ensured that everything that did not contribute to the camp's economic productivity was discarded: all pretence of re-education was dropped; the camp's journals and newspapers were closed; the distinction between those with criminal convictions and those convicted of counter-revolutionary crimes was dropped as both groups were set to work alongside one another simply as labourers[27]; and the meetings of the camp's Solovetsky Society for Local Lore were stopped although, to impress visiting dignataries, the Solovetsky museum and theatre continued to exist. [28] At the same time random cruelty inflicted by the captors on the captives decreased: such behaviour was now considered inappropriate in an institution which valued trudosposobnost - 'the capacity to work' - above all. [29]

Some remembered him as a dandy who had a good head for figures and, according to Maxim Gorky (who visited and approved Solovetsky Islands in June 1929) and others, a perfect memory. Aleksey Maksimovich Peshkov ( In Алексе́й Макси́мович Пешко́в ( &ndash June 18, 1936) better known as Maxim Gorky (Максим The Solovetsky Islands (Солове́цкие острова́ Соловки́ are located in the Onega Bay of the White Sea, Russia. [30][31][32][33][34]

Others hated and feared him: in 1927 the year of his early release, in one of the first foreign publications about the Solovetsky Islands, it was written by the French anti-communist Raymond Duguet that,

"thanks to his horribly insensitive initiatives, millions of unhappy people are overwhelmed by terrible labour, by atrocious suffering. The Solovetsky Islands (Солове́цкие острова́ Соловки́ are located in the Onega Bay of the White Sea, Russia. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based "[35]

He was accused in 1928 by his comrades in the Solovetsky Islands Communist Party cell of organising a personal network of spies "so he knows everything about everybody earlier than everyone else. The Solovetsky Islands (Солове́цкие острова́ Соловки́ are located in the Onega Bay of the White Sea, Russia. A Political party described as a communist party includes those that advocate the application of the social principles of Communism through a communist form of "[36]

Kommersant

Before his early release was granted, Frenkel had organised and then managed the Ekonomicheskaya kommercheskaya chast, the Economic-Commercial Department of SLON, through which he tried to make the Solovetsky camps not merely self-supporting in accordance with the concentration camp decrees but profitable with the result that they began to take work away from other state undertakings: an element of competition remained in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and Frenkel took advantage of this. [37] With Frenkel running its Economic-Commercial Department, SLON had already outbid a civilian forestry undertaking and had won the right to fell 130,000 cubic metres of wood in Karelia. Karelia ( Karelian and Finnish Karjala, Карелия ( Kareliya) Karelen the land of the Karelian peoples, is an area in [38] SLON had also become a shareholder in the Karelian Communal Bank, and was tendering for the construction of a roa from Kem to the far northern city of Ukhta. Ukhta or Uchta (Ухта is an important industrial city in the Komi Republic of northwestern Russia. [39]

From the outset the Karelian local authorities had been unnerved by all of this activity, not least as they had initially opposed the creation of the camp altogether. [40] The authorities' complaints grew lounder as time went by: at a meeting to discuss SLON's expansion, local authorities complained about the unfair access which SLON had to cheap labour which would put ordinary forresters out of work; at a subsequent meeting of the Karelian Council of People's Commissars (being the government of the Karelian Republic) in February 1926 SLON was attacked for overcharging for the Kem to Ukhta road with the following summing up by an indignant Comrade Yuzhnev:

"It has become clear [that] SLON is a kommersant, a merchant with large, grabbing hands, and that its basic goal is to make profits. "[41]

The authorities also complained about SLON's special links with the OGPU which allowed SLON to disregard local laws and avoid paying money into the regional budget. The State Political Directorate was the Secret police of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR) and the Soviet Union from 1922 until [42] Within the camp itself, few doubted that Frenkel was the architect of this alleged success: he was firmly identified with the commercialisation of the camp and hated for it; at an acrimonious meeting of the Solovetsky Communist Party in 1928 - so acrimonious that part of the meeting's conclusions were deemed too secret to be kept in the archive - one camp commander Yashenko complained about the extent of the Economic-Commercial Department's influence and went on to attack Frenkel, admitting that he hated Frenkel so much that he had contemplated murdering him:

"a former prisoner who was freed after three years' work becasuse at that time there were not enough people [guards] to work at the camp [. . . ] when a rumour came round that he might leave, people were saying, 'We can't work without him. '"[43]

Others asked why Frenkel received priority service and cheap prices at SLON shops (one of which had been opened in Kem as if he were the owner; yet more queried why SLON had become so commercialised that it neglected its other tasks: all re-educational work in the camp had ceased; prisoners were being held to unfair work standards; and when prisoners mutilated themselves in protest at the work norms their cases were not investigated. [44]

Anne Applebaum wrote:

"The argument over the profitability, efficiency and fairness of prison labour was to continue for the next quarter-century [. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has . . ] in the mid 1920s the Karelian local authorities were not winning [the argument] [. . . and] although as late as 1929, the camp was in fact running a deficit of 1. 6 million roubles - quite possibly because OGPU stole from the till - Solovetsky's supposed supposed economic success was still trumpeted far and wide. "[45][46]

Frenkel (far right) at the White Sea-Baltic Canal works
Frenkel (far right) at the White Sea-Baltic Canal works

The perception that the Solovetsky camps under Frenkel were profitable was shared by Stalin: Stalin's preference for prison labour over ordinary labour can be found in Stalin's continuing interest throughout his life in the intimate details of camp administration. The White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal (Belomorsko-Baltiyskiy Kanal BBK) is a Ship canal that joins the White Sea and the Baltic Sea near The Solovetsky Islands (Солове́цкие острова́ Соловки́ are located in the Onega Bay of the White Sea, Russia. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party [47] High-level approval of Frenkel's methods quickly led to the duplication of his system around the country and then Frenkel was named chief of construction on the White Sea-Baltic Canal, the first major project of the Stalin-era Gulag and an extemely high post for a former prisoner. The White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal (Belomorsko-Baltiyskiy Kanal BBK) is a Ship canal that joins the White Sea and the Baltic Sea near Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party [48] Frenkel managed the daily work on the White Sea-Baltic Canal from November 1931 until its completion. The White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal (Belomorsko-Baltiyskiy Kanal BBK) is a Ship canal that joins the White Sea and the Baltic Sea near [49]

Later career

In his later career, Frenkel was protected from arrest and possible execution by intervention at the very highest level. [50] Stalin had control over who was and who was not arrested during the Great Terror and its aftermath: it is noteworthy that despite the deaths of nearly all of his former colleagues, Frenkel managed to remain alive. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Great Purge (Большая чистка transliterated Bolshaya chistka) was a series of campaigns of Political repression and Persecution [51] By 1937 Frenkel was head of BAMlag, the Baikal Amur Mainline railway camp, "one of the most chaotic and lethal camps in the [Soviet] far east", yet when 48 'Trotskyites' were arrested in BAMlag in 1938 he was not among them although the camp newspaper openly accused him of sabotage. The Baikal-Amur Mainline ( Russian Байкало-Амурская Магистраль Baikalo-Amurskaya Magistral’, BAM) is a Railway line [52] Frenkel's case was mysteriosly delayed in Moscow, seemingly by Stalin, leading the local BAMlag prosecutor to write to Soviet chief prosecutor Andrei Vyshinsky, "I don't understand why this investigation [into Frenkel] was placed under 'special decree', or from whom this 'special decree' has come. Andrey Januaryevich Vyshinskiy (Андре́й Януа́рьевич Выши́нский Andrej Januar'evič Vyšinskij) ( Odessa &ndash November 22, 1954 If we don't arrest Trotskyite-diversionist-spies, then whom should we be arresting?"[53]

During 1937-1945 Frenkel was the head of Chief Directorate of Railroad Construction (ГУЖДС).

He was awarded the Order of Lenin three times and the title Hero of Socialist Labor. Design of the decoration The first design of the Order of Lenin was made of silver with Hero of Socialist Labor ( Russian: Герой Социалистического Труда Geroy Sotsialisticheskovo Truda) was an honorary title in the

References

  1. ^ Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, New York, 1973, vol. Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn ( Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын) (December 11 1918 – August 3 2008 was a Russian Novelist The Gulag Archipelago ( Архипелаг ГУЛАГ) is a book by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn based on the Soviet forced labor and concentration camp system New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. II, p. 76
  2. ^ Malsagov, S. A. , Island Hell: A Soviet Prison in the Far North, trans. F. H. Lyon, London, 1926, pp. 61-73
  3. ^ Shiryaev, Boris, Neugasimaya lampada, Moscow, 1991, p. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of 137-8
  4. ^ ibid. , p. 137-48
  5. ^ Rozanov, Mikhail, Solovetskii kontslager v monastire, Moscow, 1979, pp. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of 174-91
  6. ^ Anne Applebaum, Gulag A History of the Soviet Camps, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " 52
  7. ^ Frenkel's prisoner registration card, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford, CA, St Petersburg Memorial Collection
  8. ^ Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, New York, 1973, vol. The Hoover Institution on War Revolution and Peace is a libertarian Public policy Think tank and Library founded in 1919 by U Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn ( Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын) (December 11 1918 – August 3 2008 was a Russian Novelist The Gulag Archipelago ( Архипелаг ГУЛАГ) is a book by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn based on the Soviet forced labor and concentration camp system New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. II, pp. 25-70
  9. ^ Anne Applebaum, Gulag A History of the Soviet Camps, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " 42
  10. ^ ibid.
  11. ^ ibid. p. 52
  12. ^ ibid.
  13. ^ ibid.
  14. ^ Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, New York, 1973, vol. Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn ( Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын) (December 11 1918 – August 3 2008 was a Russian Novelist The Gulag Archipelago ( Архипелаг ГУЛАГ) is a book by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn based on the Soviet forced labor and concentration camp system New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. II, p. 78
  15. ^ Chukhin, Ivan, Kanaloarmeestsi, Petrozavodsk, 1990, pp. 30-31
  16. ^ Anne Applebaum, Gulag A History of the Soviet Camps, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " 53
  17. ^ ibid.
  18. ^ Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford, CA, St Petersburg Memorial Collection
  19. ^ ibid. The Hoover Institution on War Revolution and Peace is a libertarian Public policy Think tank and Library founded in 1919 by U , p. 51
  20. ^ ibid. ; Jakobson, Michael, Origins of the Gulag: The Soviet Prisoner Camp System, 1917-1934, Lexington, KY, 1993, p. 121
  21. ^ Anne Applebaum, Gulag A History of the Soviet Camps, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " 51
  22. ^ ibid. , p. 55
  23. ^ Brodsky, Juri, Solovki: Le Isole del Martirio, Rome, 1998, p. 75
  24. ^ Anne Applebaum, Gulag A History of the Soviet Camps, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " 55
  25. ^ ibid. , p. 56
  26. ^ National Archives of the Republic of Karelia, 690/6/(1/3)
  27. ^ Brodsky, Juri, Solovki: Le Isole del Martirio, Rome, 1998, p. 115
  28. ^ ibid.
  29. ^ ibid.
  30. ^ Chukhin, Ivan, Kanaloarmeestsi, Petrozavodsk, 1990, pp. 30-31
  31. ^ Shiryaev, Boris, Neugasimaya lampada, Moscow, 1991, p. 138
  32. ^ Maxim Gorky, ed. , Belomor [Kanal imeni Stalina], New York, 1935, pp. 226-228
  33. ^ Anne Applebaum, Gulag A History of the Soviet Camps, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " 59
  34. ^ Chukhin, Ivan, Kanaloarmeestsi, Petrozavodsk, 1990, pp. 30-31
  35. ^ Raymond Duguet, Un bagne en Russie rouge, Paris, 1927, p. 75
  36. ^ State Archive of Social-Political Movements and the Formation of the Repubilc of Karelia (former Communist Party archives), Petrozavodsk, 1051/1/1
  37. ^ Anne Applebaum, Gulag A History of the Soviet Camps, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " 53
  38. ^ ibid.
  39. ^ National Archives of the Republic of Karelia, 690/6/(1/3)
  40. ^ Baron, Nick, Conflict and Complicity: The Expansion of the Karelian Gulag, 1923-1933, Cahiers du Monde russe, 42/2-4, April-December 2001, pp. The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. 615-48
  41. ^ National Archives of the Republic of Karelia, 690/3/(17/148)
  42. ^ Kulikov, K. I. , Delo SOFIN, Izhevsk, 1977, p. 99
  43. ^ Anne Applebaum, Gulag A History of the Soviet Camps, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " 54
  44. ^ State Archive of Social-Political Movements and the Formation of the Republic of Karelia (former Communist Party Archives), Petrozavodsk, 1033/1/35
  45. ^ ibid. , 1051/1/1; Khlevnyuk, Oleg, Prinuditelnyi trud v ekonomike SSSR: 1929-1941 gody, Svobadnaya Mysl, no 13, 1992, pp. 73-84
  46. ^ Anne Applebaum, Gulag A History of the Soviet Camps, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " 54
  47. ^ Anne Applebaum, Gulag A History of the Soviet Camps, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " 70
  48. ^ Jakobson, Michael, Origins of the Gulag: The Soviet Prison Camp System, 1917-1934, Lexington, KY, 1993
  49. ^ Okhotin, N. G. , and Roginsky, A. B. , eds. , Sistema ispravitelno-trudovykh lagerei v SSSR, 1923-1960: spravochnik, Moscow, 1998
  50. ^ Anne Applebaum, Gulag A History of the Soviet Camps, Penguin Books, London, 2004, p. Anne Elizabeth Applebaum (born 25 July 1964 is a journalist and Pulitzer Prize -winning Author who has Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " 70
  51. ^ ibid. , p. 107
  52. ^ ibid.
  53. ^ State Archive of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 8131/37/99

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