Mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης (mykes, mukos) "fungus") is a toxin produced by an organism of the fungus kingdom, which includes mushrooms, molds and yeasts. Toxicology (from the Greek words toxicos and logos) is the study of the adverse effects of Chemicals on living organisms Forensic toxicology is the use of Toxicology and other disciplines such as Analytical chemistry, Pharmacology and Clinical chemistry to aid medicolegal Toxinology is the specialized area of Toxicology that deals specifically with animal plant and microbial toxins but is also considered a science in its own right The history of Poison stretches from before 4500 BC to the Present day. S00-T14 - Injury (S00-S09 Head ( Superficial Injury of head ( Superficial injury of 17 Injury and poisoning (800-999 fracture of skull (800-804 ( Fracture of Vault of skull ( Fracture of Base of skull In the context of Biology, poisons are substances that can cause damage, Illness, or Death to Organisms usually by This article is about the class of Biotoxins For other uses see Venom (disambiguation and Venomous (disambiguation. A toxicant is a chemical compound that has an effect on organisms An antidote or counterdose is a substance which can counteract a form of Poisoning. Acceptable daily intake or ADI is a measure of the amount of a specific substance (usually a Food additive, or a residue of a veterinary drug or pesticide in Acute toxicity describes the adverse effects of a substance which result either from a single exposure or from multiple exposures in a short space of time (usually less than 24 hours Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at ftudruinsubstance is lost Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification, or biological magnification is the increase in concentration of a substance such as the Pesticide Fixed Dose Procedure (FDP proposed in 1984 is a method to assess a substance's acute oral Toxicity. In Toxicology, the median lethal dose, LD50 (abbreviation for “Lethal Dose 50%” or LCt50 (Lethal Concentration & Time of a A lethal dose (LD is an indication of the Lethality of a given substance or type of Radiation. Toxic capacity can mean the Toxicity of a substance possibly in relation to a specific Organism and toxic capacity can mean the capacity of an organism Toxicity Class refers to a classification system for Pesticides created by a national or international government-related or -sponsored organization A toxin ( Greek:, toxikon, lit (poison for use on arrows is a Poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low This article is about the class of Biotoxins For other uses see Venom (disambiguation and Venomous (disambiguation. A neurotoxin is a Toxin that acts specifically on nerve cells ( Neurons, usually by interacting with Membrane proteins such as Ion channels Necrosis (in Greek Νεκρός = "dead" is the name given to unnatural Death of cells and living tissue. Hemotoxins, haemotoxins or hematotoxins are Toxins that destroy Red blood cells (that is cause Hemolysis) disrupt Blood Aflatoxins are naturally occurring Mycotoxins that are produced by many species of Aspergillus, a Fungus, most notably Aspergillus Phototoxins are Toxins that can cause allergic reactions in particularly susceptible individuals and which can cause dangerous Photosensitivity in a much broader range This is a list of toxins poisons and chemical weapons from works of fiction (usually in Fantasy and Science fiction) The Bradford sweets poisoning was the accidental Arsenic poisoning of more than 200 people in Bradford, England in 1858 an estimated 20 people died when sometimes referred to as, is a neurological syndrome caused by severe Mercury poisoning. is a Neurological syndrome caused by severe Mercury poisoning. Alexander Litvinenko was a former officer of Russian Federal Security Service, who escaped prosecution in Russia and received a Political asylum in The Bhopal disaster was an Industrial disaster that occurred in the city of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India, resulting in the immediate deaths The 2007 pet food recalls comprise the contamination and wide recall of many brands of cat and dog foods beginning in March 2007 and the ensuing developments This is a list of Poisonings in chronological order of victim Toxic metals are Metals that form Poisonous soluble compounds and have no biological role i Lead poisoning (also known as saturnism, plumbism, or painter's colic) is a medical condition caused by increased levels of the metal Lead in Mercury poisoning (also known as mercurialism, hydrargyria, Hunter-Russell syndrome, or acrodynia when affecting children is a Disease Cadmium has no constructive purpose in the Human body It and its compounds are extremely Toxic even in low concentrations and will Bioaccumulate in Antimony (IPA (Received Pronunciation, /ˈæntɪmoʊni/ (US is a Chemical element with the symbol Sb (stibium meaning "mark" and Arsenic Poisoning kills by Allosteric inhibition of essential metabolic Enzymes, leading to death from multi-system Beryllium (bəˈrɪliəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Be and Atomic number 4 Iron poisoning is caused by a large excess of Iron intake It has been primarily been associated with young children who consumed large quantities of iron supplement pills Thallium (ˈθæliəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Tl and Atomic number 81 In high concentrations soluble Fluoride Salts are somewhat Toxic. Oxygen toxicity or oxygen toxicity syndrome (also known as the " Paul Bert effect" or the "Lorrain Smith effect" describes harmful effects caused There are four syndromes called shellfish poisoning, which share some common features and are primarily associated with bivalve molluscs (such as Mussels Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP is one of the four recognized syndromes of Shellfish poisoning (the others being Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP is one of the four recognised symptom types of Shellfish poisoning, the others being Paralytic shellfish poisoning, Neurotoxic Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP is a human illness caused by consumption of the marine biotoxin called Domoic acid. Ciguatera is a Foodborne illness poisoning in humans caused by eating Marine species whose flesh is contaminated with a toxin known as Ciguatoxin, Scombroid food poisoning is a foodborne Illness that results from eating spoiled (decayed Fish. Tetrodotoxin (anhydrotetrodotoxin 4-epitetrodotoxin tetrodonic acid TTX is a potent Neurotoxin with no known antidote which blocks Action potentials in Nerves Pesticide Poisonings occur when chemicals intended to control a pest affect non-target organisms such as Humans Wildlife, or Bees Since Many Organophosphates are potent Neurotoxins functioning by inhibiting the action of Acetylcholinesterase (AChE in nerve cells. Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease) is any Illness resulting from the consumption of food Historically most cases of nicotine poisoning have been the result of its use as an Insecticide; however such use is less frequent now than previously Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs after the inhalation of Carbon monoxide gas Vitamin poisoning, or hypervitaminosis, refers to a condition of high storage levels of Vitamins which can lead to Toxic Symptoms The medical The term drug overdose (or simply overdose or OD) describes the Ingestion or application of a Drug or other substance in quantities See also List of deadly fungi Mushroom poisoning, also known as mycetism, refers to deleterious effects from ingestion of Toxic substances present This is a list of Plants containing Poisonous parts that pose a serious risk of illness, injury or Death to Humans or Animals. Hazard symbols are easily recognizable symbols designed to warn about hazardous materials or locations The term carcinogen refers to any substance Radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of Cancer or in the fatation of its propagation In Biology, a mutagen ( Latin, literally origin of change) is a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic information (usually DNA) This is a list of Extremely Hazardous Substances as defined by Section 302 of the U Biological warfare (BW — known as a germ warfare, biological weapons and bioweaponry — is the use of any Pathogen ( Bacterium The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c A toxin ( Greek:, toxikon, lit (poison for use on arrows is a Poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ A mushroom is the fleshy Spore -bearing Fruiting body of a Fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source WikipediaManual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English --> Molds (or Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Most fungi are aerobic (use oxygen). Fungi are found almost everywhere in extremely small quantities because of their spores, and are most commonly microscopically small. In Biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions Microscopic is a term used to describe objects smaller than those that can easily be seen by the naked Eye and which require a lens or Microscope to see They consume organic matter, wherever humidity and temperature are sufficient. Organic matter (or organic material) is Matter that has come from a once-living Organism; is capable of Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air In daily language the term "humidity" is normally taken to mean Relative humidity. Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature
Where conditions are right, fungi proliferate into colonies and mycotoxin levels become high. In Biology, a colony (from Latin colonia) refers to several individual Organisms of the same Species living closely together usually Toxins vary greatly in their severity. Some fungi produce severe toxins only at specific levels of moisture, temperature or oxygen in the air. Some toxins are lethal, some cause identifiable diseases or health problems, some weaken the immune system without producing symptoms specific to that toxin, some act as allergens or irritants, and some have no known effect on humans. Some mycotoxins generally have more negative impacts on farm animal populations than on humans. Some mycotoxins are harmful to other micro-organisms such as other fungi or even bacteria; penicillin is one example. Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections
Mycotoxins can appear in the food chain as a result of fungal infection of crops, either by being eaten directly by humans, or by being used as livestock feed. Mycosis (plural mycoses) is a condition in which Fungi pass the resistance barriers of the human or animal body and establish Infections Classification Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Mycotoxins greatly resist decomposition or being broken down in digestion, so they remain in the food chain in meat and dairy products. Even temperature treatments, such as cooking and freezing, do not destroy mycotoxins.
Buildings are another source of mycotoxins. Public concern over mycotoxins increased following multi-million dollar toxic mold settlements in the 1990s. Molds are ubiquitous in nature and mold Spores are a common component of household and workplace dust The negative health effects of mycotoxins are a function of the concentration, the duration of exposure and the subject's sensitivities. In Chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance The concentrations experienced in a normal home, office or school are often too low to trigger a health response in occupants.
Food-based mycotoxins were studied extensively worldwide throughout the 20th century. In Europe, statutory levels of a range of mycotoxins permitted in food and animal feed are set by a range of European directives and Commission regulations. A statute is a formal written enactment of a Legislative authority that governs a Country, State, City, or County. A directive is a legislative act of the European Union which requires member states to achieve a particular result without dictating the means of achieving The European Commission (formally the Commission of the European Communities) is the executive branch of the European Union.
Various wild mushrooms also contain an assortment of mycotoxins that can cause noteworthy health problems for humans who eat wild mushrooms without first properly identifying the specimens as safe edibles, in such cases sometimes causing mild to catastrophic mushroom poisoning. See also List of deadly fungi Mushroom poisoning, also known as mycetism, refers to deleterious effects from ingestion of Toxic substances present The bulk of this article, however, is about mycotoxins that are found in fungi other than mushrooms.
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Major groups of food toxins
Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus species, and are largely associated with commodities produced in the tropics and subtropics, such as groundnuts, other edible nuts, figs, spices and maize. Aflatoxins are naturally occurring Mycotoxins that are produced by many species of Aspergillus, a Fungus, most notably Aspergillus Aspergillus is a Genus of around 200 Molds found throughout much of nature worldwide A commodity is anything for which there is demand but which is supplied without qualitative differentiation across a market The Tropics are centered on the Equator and limited in Latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately 23°26' (23 The subtropics are the zones of the Earth immediately north and south of the tropic zone which is bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of The peanut, or Groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea) is a species in the Legume family Fabaceae native to South America, Mexico In general terms eating (formally ingestion) is the process of consuming Food to provide for the Nutritional needs of an Animal, particularly Nut is a general term for the large dry oily Seeds or Fruit of some Plants. Ficus is a Genus of about 850 Species of woody Trees Shrubs Vines Epiphytes and hemi-epiphytes in the family A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Aflatoxin B1, the most toxic, is a potent carcinogen and has been associated with liver cancer. Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism The term carcinogen refers to any substance Radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of Cancer or in the fatation of its propagation Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC also called hepatoma) is a primary malignancy (cancer of the Liver.
Ochratoxin A is produced by Penicillium verrucosum, which is generally associated with temperate climates, and Aspergillus species which grow in warm humid conditions. Ochratoxin A B and C are Mycotoxins produced by some Aspergillus species and Penicillium species like Aspergillus ochraceus Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air In daily language the term "humidity" is normally taken to mean Relative humidity. Aspergillus ochraceus is found as a contaminant of a wide range of commodities including cereals and their products, fruit and a wide range of beverages and spices. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in A drink, or beverage, is a Liquid specifically prepared for Human consumption A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive Aspergillus carbonarius is the other main species associated in warm humid conditions found mainly on vine fruit and dried vine products particularly in the Mediterranean basin. Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air In daily language the term "humidity" is normally taken to mean Relative humidity. A vine is any plant of Genus Vitis (the Grape plants or by extension any similar climbing or trailing plant It causes kidney damage in humans and is a potential carcinogen. The kidneys are complicated organs that have numerous biological roles The term carcinogen refers to any substance Radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of Cancer or in the fatation of its propagation
Patulin is associated with a range of fungal species and is found in moldy fruits, vegetables, cereals and other foods. Patulin is a Mycotoxin produced by a variety of molds particularly Aspergillus and Penicillium. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however It is destroyed by alcoholic fermentation and so is not found in alcoholic drinks. Fermentation in Food processing typically refers to the conversion of Sugar to Alcohol using Yeast under Anaerobic conditions It may be carcinogenic and is reported to damage the immune system and nervous systems in animals. An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself
Fusarium toxins are produced by several species of the genus Fusarium which infect the grain of developing cereals such as wheat and maize. Fusarium is a large genus of filamentous Fungi widely distributed in soil and in association with plants Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica They include a range of mycotoxins including the fumonisins, which affect the nervous systems of horses and cause cancer in rodents; and the trichothecenes, including deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone, the last two of which are very stable and can survive cooking. The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. Rodentia is an order of Mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously-growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium Myrothecium Trichoderma Trichothecium Cephalosporium Verticimonosporium Vomitoxin, also known as deoxynivalenol ( DON) is a type B Trichothecene, an Epoxy - sesquiterpeneoid. Zearalenone (ZEA also known as RAL and F-2 Mycotoxin, is a potent Estrogenic Metabolite produced by some Fusarium species Cooking is the process of preparing Food by applying Heat, selecting measuring and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure for producing safe and edible The trichothecenes are acutely toxic to humans, causing sickness and diarrhea and potentially death. In Medicine, an acute disease is a disease with either or both of a rapid onset a short course (as opposed to a chronic course
Mycotoxin binding agents and deactivators
In the feed and food industry it had become common practice to add mycotoxin binding agents such as Montmorillonite or bentonite clay. Stachybotrys is a Genus of Molds or asexually-reproducing filamentous fungi. Penicillium (from Latin penicillus: paintbrush) is a Genus of Ascomyceteous Fungi that includes Montmorillonite is a very soft phyllosilicate mineral that typically forms in microscopic Crystals forming a clay. Bentonite is an absorbent Aluminium phyllosilicate generally impure Clay consisting mostly of Montmorillonite. To reverse the adverse effects of mycotoxins, the following criteria are used to evaluate the functionality of any binding additive:
- Efficacy of active component verified by scientific data
- A low effective inclusion rate
- Stability over a wide pH range
- High capacity to adsorb high concentrations of mycotoxins
- High affinity to adsorb low concentrations of mycotoxins interactions between toxins
- Affirmation of chemical interaction between mycotoxin and adsorbent
- Proven in-vivo data with all major mycotoxins
- Non-toxic, environmentally friendly component
Since not all mycotoxins can be bound to such agents, the latest approach to mycotoxin control is mycotoxin deactivation. By means of enzymes (esterase, epoxidase), yeast (Trichosporon mycotoxinvorans) or bacterial strains (Eubacterium BBSH 797), mycotoxins are detoxified to non-toxic metabolites. An esterase is a Hydrolase Enzyme that splits Esters into an Acid and an Alcohol in a Chemical reaction with water Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Trichosporon is a genus of Fungus. Trichosporon beigelii is associated with White piedra. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have
Mycotoxins killing humans
In 2004 in Kenya 125 people died and nearly 200 others were treated after eating aflatoxin contaminated maize. Aflatoxins are naturally occurring Mycotoxins that are produced by many species of Aspergillus, a Fungus, most notably Aspergillus [1] The deaths were mainly associated with homegrown maize that had not been treated with fungicides or properly dried before storage. Due to food shortages at the time, farmers may have been harvesting maize earlier than normal to prevent thefts from their fields, so that the grain had not fully matured and was more susceptible to infection.
Mycotoxins in pet food
There have been outbreaks of pet food containing mycotoxins in North America. [2]
Mycotoxins in fiction
A fictional application of a mycotoxin occurs in William Gibson's seminal novel Neuromancer, in which Case, the anti-hero, is punished by some of his business partners for stealing from them by being administered a "Russian war-time mycotoxin", which alters his nervous tissue and renders him unable to access cyberspace. William Ford Gibson (born March 17 1948 is an American - Canadian writer who has been called the "noir prophet" of the Cyberpunk subgenre Neuromancer is a 1984 novel by William Gibson, notable for being the most famous early Cyberpunk novel and winner of the science-fiction "triple
References
- ^ Lewis, Lauren & et al (2005), “Aflatoxin Contamination of Commercial Maize Products during an Outbreak of Acute Aflatoxicosis in Eastern and Central Kenya”, Environmental Health Perspectives 113, <http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2005/7998/abstract.html>
- ^ Susan S. Lang (2006-01-06). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1066 - Harold Godwinson is crowned King of England. 1205 - Philip of Swabia becomes King Dogs keep dying: Too many owners remain unaware of toxic dog food. Cornell University Chronicle.
See also
External links
- Detailed information about mycotoxins
- Information on mycotoxins for cereal farmers on mycotoxins contaminating fields, as well as information and news pertaining to plant producers, livestock farmers, feed millers, scientists, veterinarians and consumers
- Mycotoxins- how they are produced, impact on animals, issues with feed sampling and possible strategies to maintain animal health and performance
- Microbiology of Animal Feeds
- Information on mycotoxins in wild mushrooms
Dictionary
mycotoxin
-noun
- (biochemistry) any substance, produced by a mold or fungus, that is injurious to vertebrates upon ingestion, inhalation or skin contact
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