See also: List of deadly fungi

Mushroom poisoning Classification and external resources
These emerging mushrooms are too immature to safely identify as edible or toxic. Footnotes
ICD-10	T62.0
ICD-9	988.1
MeSH	D009145

Mushroom poisoning, also known as mycetism, refers to deleterious effects from ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom. The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision ( ICD -10) is a coding of diseases and signs symptoms abnormal findings S00-T14 - Injury (S00-S09 Head ( Superficial Injury of head ( Superficial injury of The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases The following is a list of codes for International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. Medical Subject Headings ( MeSH) is a huge Controlled vocabulary (or metadata system for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism A mushroom is the fleshy Spore -bearing Fruiting body of a Fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source These symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death. Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific The toxins present are secondary metabolites produced in specific biochemical pathways in the fungal cells. A toxin ( Greek:, toxikon, lit (poison for use on arrows is a Poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low Secondary metabolites are Organic compounds that are not directly involved in the normal growth, development or Reproduction of Organisms In Biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Mushroom poisoning is usually the result of ingestion of wild mushrooms after misidentification of a toxic mushroom as an edible species. The most common reason for this misidentification is close resemblance in terms of colour and general morphology of the toxic mushrooms species with edible species. The term morphology in Biology refers to the outward appearance ( Shape, Structure, Colour, Pattern) of an Organism Even very experienced wild mushroom gatherers are sometimes poisoned by eating toxic species, despite being well aware of the risks.

To prevent mushroom poisoning, mushroom gatherers need to be very intimately familiar with the mushrooms they intend to collect, including knowledge of the toxic species that look similar to these edible species. Other considerations regard methods of preparation and toxicity of some fungal species that appears to vary with geographic location, raising the potential of mushroom poisoning due to local toxicity of a correctly identified species.

Folk traditions

There are many folk traditions concerning the defining features of poisonous mushrooms^[1][2]. Unfortunately there are no general identifiers for poisonous mushrooms, and so such traditions are unreliable guides. For example, while some highly coloured mushrooms such as fly agaric are indeed poisonous, other strongly coloured mushrooms are harmless. Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita is a poisonous and Psychoactive Basidiomycete Fungus, Other highly toxic mushrooms, such as the appropriately named destroying angel, are of unremarkable white colour. The name destroying angel applies to several similar closely related species of deadly all-white Mushrooms in the genus Amanita. Lack of snail or insect infestation is also an unreliable identifier, since fungi that are harmless to invertebrates can still be toxic to humans; the death cap, for instance, is often infested by insect larvae. Amanita phalloides (generally æməˈnaɪtə fəˈlɔɪdiːz commonly known as the death cap, is a poisonous Basidiomycete Fungus, one In Roman mythology, the larvae or lemures (singular lemur) were the spectres or spirits of the dead they were the malignant version of the Likewise, poisonous mushrooms neither blacken silverware during cooking, nor necessarily smell or taste unpleasant. Importantly, many fungal toxins are not particularly sensitive to heat and so are not broken down during cooking. Mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης (mykes mukos "fungus" is a Toxin produced by an organism of the Fungus kingdom which includes Mushrooms Thermostability is the quality of a substance to resist irreversible change in its chemical or physical structure at a high relative temperature

Guidelines

Persons who gather wild mushrooms should follow some practical guidelines (see mushroom hunting). Mushroom hunting, mushrooming, mushroom picking and similar terms describe the activity of gathering Mushrooms in the wild typically for eating In particular, they should not eat any mushroom they cannot positively identify; not allow small children to gather mushrooms for consumption; or mix known edibles with questionable species while gathering, since mushroom parts could break off and be confused with edible species.

Cooking mushrooms before eating is a safer practice, as only very few species can be eaten raw. Alcohol consumption should be limited when eating wild mushrooms positively identified as edible, but not consumed before. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Some species, most notably certain ink caps (Coprinopsis atramentaria) can cause an adverse reaction when eaten with alcohol. The Common Inkcap ( Coprinopsis atramentaria) or Inky Cap, previously known as Coprinus atramentarius, is the second best known Ink cap Portions of species that a person has not eaten before should be kept small (no more than 150 grams per person at one meal).

In some regions in Europe, mushrooms are not eaten at all; in other regions, such as Finland, Scandinavia and Russia, which traditionally have suffered from food shortage in winters, strong local knowledge on edible mushrooms exists and mushrooms form a remarkable part of cuisine. Yet many mushroom enthusiasts limit their pickings to only easily recognizable mushrooms, such as chanterelles and boletes, and leave agarics unpicked. False morel (Gyromitra esculenta) is often called the "fugu of the Finnish cuisine", since it is deadly poisonous when raw, but rarely causes poisoning if properly prepared (although its edibility is still a matter of dispute). The name False Morel is given to a number of Ascomycete mushrooms which bear a resemblance to the highly regarded true Morels of the genus Morchella. is the Japanese word for Pufferfish and is also a Japanese dish prepared from the meat of Pufferfish (normally species of Takifugu, Lagocephalus

Specimens that look similar to edibles at one geographic location may be deadly in another region and should not be collected without good knowledge of the local biota. For instance, Cantharellus is often picked in Scandinavia where no risk of confusing this mushroom with toxic species exists. Cantharellus is a genus with many popular Edible mushrooms It is a Mycorrhizal edible Fungus, meaning it forms Symbiotic associations Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well However, in North America, this ground-dwelling mushroom has been known to be mistaken for the wood-decaying Jack O'Lantern mushroom (Omphalotus olearius), which may grow from the ground if there is buried wood present. The jack o'lantern mushroom ( Omphalotus olearius) is an orange to yellow gill Mushroom that to an untrained eye appears similar to some Chanterelles and Note also recent reports of confusion between Volvariella speciosa, a popular edible species in Asia, and Amanita phalloides, a deadly poisonous species in North America and Europe. Volvariella speciosa is an edible agaric mushroom similar in appearance to Amanita verna (The Destroying Angel Amanita phalloides (generally æməˈnaɪtə fəˈlɔɪdiːz commonly known as the death cap, is a poisonous Basidiomycete Fungus, one

Very young fruiting bodies of destroying angel (Amanita virosa) mushrooms resemble the well-known champignon, or button mushroom, a mushroom widely sold in markets. The sporocarp of a Basidiomycete is known as a Basidiocarp, while the fruiting body of an Ascomycete is known as an Ascocarp. The name destroying angel applies to several similar closely related species of deadly all-white Mushrooms in the genus Amanita. Agaricus bisporus, known as table mushroom, cultivated mushroom or button mushroom, is an edible Basidiomycete Fungus which Agaricus bisporus, known as table mushroom, cultivated mushroom or button mushroom, is an edible Basidiomycete Fungus which Similarities between these two species lead to a few deaths every decade in Scandinavia alone. Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well

Cases of fatal mushroom poisoning are relatively common in Europe, but less so in North America ; this may be related to the use of folklore rather than detailed knowledge in Europe, whereas North American mushroom collectors tend to refer often to authoritative reference works.

Symptoms

Poisonous mushrooms contain a variety of different toxins that can differ markedly in toxicity (see list below). So symptoms of mushroom poisoning may vary from gastric upset to life-threatening organ failure resulting in death. Serious symptoms do not always occur immediately after eating; often not until the toxin attacks the kidney or liver, from minutes to hours later, or, as is the case for α-amanitin poisoning, not until days after consumption. Alpha-amanitin or α-amanitin is a cyclic Nonribosomal peptide of eight Amino acids It is possibly the most deadly of all the Amatoxins Symptoms may not appear for days and thus delay lifesaving treatment.

Symptoms of mushroom poisoning vary depending on the toxins involved and typically include:

• Fatigue
• Headache
• Dizziness
• Cold sweat
• Hallucinations
• Vomiting
• Sharp abdominal pains
• Jaundice
• Severe diarrhea
• Blurred vision

Some mushrooms contain less toxic compounds and, therefore, are not severely poisonous. A headache ( cephalalgia in medical terminology is a condition of pain in the Head; sometimes Neck or upper back pain may also be interpreted Many different terms are often used to describe what is collectively known as dizziness. A hallucination, in the broadest sense is a Perception in the absence of a stimulus. Vomiting (also called throwing up, emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's Stomach through the Mouth and sometimes the Abdominal pain can be one of the Symptoms associated with transient disorders or serious disease Jaundice, also known as icterus (attributive adjective "icteric" is yellowish discoloration of the Skin, sclerae (whites of the eyes In Medicine, diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences) is frequent loose or liquid Bowel movements Acute diarrhea Poisonings by these mushrooms may respond well to treatment. However, certain types of mushrooms, such as the Amanitas, contain very potent toxins and are very poisonous; so even if symptoms are treated promptly mortality is high. With some toxins, death can occur in a week or a few days. Although a liver or kidney transplant may save some patients with complete organ failure, in many cases there are no organs available. Patients who are hospitalized and given aggressive support therapy almost immediately after ingestion of amanitin-containing mushrooms have a mortality rate of only 10%, whereas those admitted 60 or more hours after ingestion have a 50-90% mortality rate (http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/table2.html) and (http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/Chap40.html)

More detail on the exact symptoms associated with different toxins can be found below.

Toxins

See also: Category:Mycotoxins.

• alpha-amanitin (deadly) – principal toxin in genus Amanita
• bolesatine (found in Boletus satanas)
• coprine (only poisonous with alcohol)
• orellanine (deadly) – principal toxin in genus Cortinarius
• gyromitrin (deadly)
• muscarine (sometimes deadly)
• arabitol (causes gastrointestinal irritation in some people)

Poisonous species

See also: List of deadly fungi

Three of the most lethal mushrooms belong to the genus Amanita: the death cap (A. Alpha-amanitin or α-amanitin is a cyclic Nonribosomal peptide of eight Amino acids It is possibly the most deadly of all the Amatoxins Boletus satanas, commonly known as the Devil's bolete or Satan's mushroom, is a Basidiomycete Fungus of the bolete family Orellanine or Orellanin is a Pyridine N-oxide and a Crystalline Alkaloid that is found naturally in some lifeforms specifically certain Gyromitrin is a Toxic and possibly Carcinogenic chemical present in most members of the Mushroom Genus Gyromitra, most Muscarine, L-(+-muscarine, or muscarin is a natural product found in certain Mushrooms particularly in Inocybe Arabitol or arabinitol is a Sugar alcohol. It can be formed by the reduction of either Arabinose or Lyxose. Footnotes The Genus Amanita contains about 600 Species of Agarics including some of the most Toxic known mushrooms found worldwide Amanita phalloides (generally æməˈnaɪtə fəˈlɔɪdiːz commonly known as the death cap, is a poisonous Basidiomycete Fungus, one phalloides) and destroying angels (A. The name destroying angel applies to several similar closely related species of deadly all-white Mushrooms in the genus Amanita. virosa, and A. bisporiga); and two are from the genus Cortinarius: the deadly webcap (C. Cortinarius is a Genus of Mushrooms It is suspected to be the largest genus of Agarics, containing over 2000 different species and found worldwide The Lethal webcaps, two species in the genus Cortinarius, are two of the world's most poisonous mushrooms. rubellus), and the fool's webcap (C. The Lethal webcaps, two species in the genus Cortinarius, are two of the world's most poisonous mushrooms. orellanus). These species cause the greatest number of fatalities. Poisoning by Amanita phalloides is characterized by a delay of between 6 and 24 hours from the time of ingestion to the onset of symptoms. During this time, the cells of the kidneys and liver are attacked. The kidneys are complicated organs that have numerous biological roles The liver is a vital organ in the human body and is present in Vertebrates and some other animals There is no antidote for poisoning and mortality is between 10 and 15 percent. ^[3] There have been some recorded studies suggesting that Silybum marianum or blessed milk thistle protect the liver from aminita toxins and promote regrowth of damaged cells, including a study in which 60 patients exposed to death cap poison were given 20 mg/kg of milk thistle seeds per day within 48 hours of consuming the deadly mushrooms. Blessed Milk Thistle ( Silybum marianum) is a Milk thistle, a plant of the Asteraceae family None of the patients died. ^[4]

Many species of Galerina, Lepiota, and Conocybe contain also lethal amounts of amatoxins. Galerina is a genus of small brown-spored Saprotrophic Agarics with over 300 species found throughout the world from the far north to remote Lepiota is a Genus of gilled Mushrooms in the order Agaricales. The genus Conocybe is a genus of Mushrooms consisting of Conocybe tenera and at least 243 other species with at least 50 species in North Amatoxins are a subgroup of at least eight toxic compounds found in several genera of poisonous mushrooms most notably Amanita phalloides and several other

The following species may cause great discomfort, but are less often lethal.

• Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) – poisonings rare, possibly because its unique and obvious appearance make it easily identifiable; it is known for its use as an entheogen, and it is now known that the toxins convert to psychoactives upon drying. Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita is a poisonous and Psychoactive Basidiomycete Fungus, An entheogen, in the strictest sense is a Psychoactive substance used in a religious or shamanic (or entheogenic) context
• Amanita pantherina (panther mushroom) – contains similar toxins as A. The panther cap ( Amanita pantherina) also known as the false blusher due to its similarity to the true Blusher ( Amanita rubescens), is muscaria, but in higher quantities.
• Amanita muscaria var. regalis – symptoms generally mild. Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita is a poisonous and Psychoactive Basidiomycete Fungus,
• Chlorophyllum molybdites (greengills) – causes intense gastrointestinal upset. Chlorophyllum molybdites, which goes by the Common names of false parasol or green-spored parasol is a widespread mushroom
• Entoloma (pinkgills) – highly poisonous, such as livid entoloma (Entoloma sinuatum), Entoloma rhodopolium, and Entoloma nidorosum. Entoloma (or pinkgills) is a genus of terrestrial pink-gilled mushrooms with angular spores Entoloma sinuatum is a poisonous mushroom found across Europe and North America. Entoloma rhodopolium, known as the wood pinkgill, is a poisonous mushroom found in Europe and Asia. First symptoms appear after 20 minutes to 4 hours.
• Galerina – some species contain alpha-amanitin. Galerina is a genus of small brown-spored Saprotrophic Agarics with over 300 species found throughout the world from the far north to remote Alpha-amanitin or α-amanitin is a cyclic Nonribosomal peptide of eight Amino acids It is possibly the most deadly of all the Amatoxins
• Many Inocybe species such as Inocybe fastigiata and Inocybe geophylla contain muscarine, while Inocybe erubescens is the only one known to have caused death. Inocybe is a large complex genus of mushrooms Members of Inocybe are Mycorrhizal, and some evidence shows that the high degree of speciation in the genus Muscarine, L-(+-muscarine, or muscarin is a natural product found in certain Mushrooms particularly in Inocybe Inocybe erubescens, also known as I patouillardii, commonly known as the deadly fibrecap, brick-red tear mushroom or red-staining
• Some white Clitocybe, including C. rivulosa and C. dealbata – first symptoms after 15 to 20 minutes
• Tiger Tricholoma (Tricholoma tigrinum) – no lasting effect after 2 to 6 hours of great pain. Hundreds of species of mushrooms compose the genus Clitocybe. Clitocybe rivulosa, commonly known as the false champignon or fool's funnel, is a poisonous Basidiomycete Fungus of the large genus The ivory funnel ( Clitocybe dealbata) is a small white Funnel -shaped Toadstool widely found in lawns meadows and other grassy areas in
• Man-on-horseback Tricholoma equestre – until recently thought edible and good, can lead to rhabdomyolysis after repeated consumption. Tricholoma equestre or Tricholoma flavovirens, also known as Man on horseback or Yellow knight is a formerly widely eaten but hazardous Rhabdomyolysis is the rapid breakdown ( Lysis) of Skeletal muscle tissue ( rhabdomyo) due to injury to muscle tissue
• Sulfur tuft (Hypholoma fasciculare) – poisoning may be serious
• Omphalotus olearius – severe
• False morel (Gyromitra esculenta) – deadly poisonous when raw; usually OK cooked, and delicious if correctly prepared. Hypholoma fasciculare, commonly known as the Sulphur Tuft, Sulfur Tuft or Clustered Woodlover, is a common woodland mushroom often in evidence The jack o'lantern mushroom ( Omphalotus olearius) is an orange to yellow gill Mushroom that to an untrained eye appears similar to some Chanterelles and Gyromitra esculenta is an ascomycete fungus from the genus Gyromitra, widely distributed across Europe and North America and one of several species
• Brown roll-rim (Paxillus involutus) – once thought edible, but now found to destroy red blood cells with regular or long-term consumption. Paxillus involutus, commonly known as the common- or brown roll-rim, or poison pax, is a Poisonous Basidiomycete Fungus Red blood cells are the most common type of Blood cell and the Vertebrate body's principal means of delivering Oxygen to the body tissues via the Blood
• Devil's bolete (Boletus satanas)
• Purple bolete (B. Boletus satanas, commonly known as the Devil's bolete or Satan's mushroom, is a Basidiomycete Fungus of the bolete family rhodoxanthus)
• Conocybe filaris – contains amatoxins, sometimes mistaken for Psilocybe. Conocybe filaris is a common lawn mushroom which is widely distributed and especially common in the pacific northwest Amatoxins are a subgroup of at least eight toxic compounds found in several genera of poisonous mushrooms most notably Amanita phalloides and several other Psilocybe is a Genus of small Mushrooms growing worldwide This genus is best known for its species with hallucinogenic properties widely
• Some species of Agrocybe contain a deadly amount of toxins. Agrocybe is a genus of Mushrooms some which are poisonous. The edible mushrooms of the species are not easy to identify and it is safer to avoid the entire
• Hebeloma crustuliniforme (known as Poison pie or Fairy cakes) – can cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea and vomiting. Hebeloma crustuliniforme, commonly known as poison pie or fairy cakes, is a gilled mushroom of the genus Hebeloma found

Other causes of poisoning

Mushrooms may be rendered poisonous by insecticides or herbicides sprayed on lawns or reserves. At least one author recommends never picking them in non-natural landscapes for this reason.

Also, mushrooms are sometimes contaminated by concentrating pollutants, such as heavy metals or radioactive material (see Chernobyl disaster effects). The Chernobyl disaster triggered the release of substantial amounts of radiation into the atmosphere in the form of both particle and gaseous radioisotopes and

Famous poisonings

• Roman Emperor Claudius is said to have been murdered by being fed the death cap mushroom. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Amanita phalloides (generally æməˈnaɪtə fəˈlɔɪdiːz commonly known as the death cap, is a poisonous Basidiomycete Fungus, one However this story appears some two centuries after the events, and it is even debatable whether Claudius was murdered at all. ^[5]
• Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, Pope Clement VII, and Tsaritsa Natalia Naryshkina are believed to have died from eating the death cap mushroom. Charles VI (German Karl VI) ( October 1, 1685 &ndash October 20, 1740) was Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia For the Antipope (1378&ndash1394 see Antipope Clement VII. Pope Clement VII ( May 26, 1478 &ndash September Natalia Kirillovna Naryshkina ( Russian: Наталья Кирилловна Нарышкина September 1, 1651 &ndash February 4, 1694 Amanita phalloides (generally æməˈnaɪtə fəˈlɔɪdiːz commonly known as the death cap, is a poisonous Basidiomycete Fungus, one

References

External links

• Poisonous American Mushrooms - AmericanMushrooms.com
• Mushroom toxins from the Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition
• Poisonous mushrooms: microscopic identification in cooked specimens from medical mycologist R. C. Summerbell
• Mushroom poisoning Syndromes from the North American Mycological Association
• Mushroom poisoning Case Registry (North America) from the North American Mycological Association