The name "Muhammad" in traditional Thuluth calligraphy by the hand of Hattat Aziz Efendi. Thuluth ( Arabic: ثلث "one-third" Turkish: Sülüs) is a script variety of Islamic calligraphy, which made its first appearance Hattat Aziz Efendi (1871-1934 was an Ottoman calligrapher. ^[1]

Abu l-Qasim Muhammad ibn ‘Abd Allāh al-Hashimi al-Qurashi (Arabic: أبو القاسم محمّد; Transliteration: Abu l-Qāsim Muḥammad^[2]; pronunciation: /mʊ. See also Muhammad Family tree Note that direct lineage is marked in bold. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born and lived in Mecca for the first 52 years of his life (570&ndash622 The period of Prophet Muhammad (SAW in Medina started with the Migration to Medina in 622 and ended with the Conquest of Mecca in 630 The period of Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca started with the Conquest of Mecca in 630 and ended with his death in 632 The The Farewell Sermon ( خطبة الوداع, Khuṭbatu l-Wadā') also known as the Prophet's final sermon or The Last Sermon is a famous For the book by Wilferd Madelung, see The Succession to Muhammad. Muhammad (c 570 – 632) is documented as having engaged as a diplomat during his propagation of Islam and leadership over the See also Muhammad's wives Ahl al-Bayt ( Arabic:ar أهل البيت is an Arabic phrase literally meaning People of the House, or family Muhammad's wives were the eleven or thirteen women married to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Muhammad as a general refers to one of the roles played by the Islamic prophet Muhammad as the leader of the Ummah at Medina There are numerous written accounts of Muhammad having had contact with many Jews from tribes living in and around Medina. This article discusses the Islamic prophet Muhammad 's attitude towards Christianity as well as his interactions with Christians Views of Muhammad in some aspects vary widely between the Sects of Islam. A Na`at (نعت is a Poetry that specifically praises the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Mawlid ( Eid Milad an Nabi ( Turkish:Mevlid ( Qur'anic مَوْلِدُ آلنَبِيِّ mawlidu n-nabiyyi, “Birth of the Prophet” For the contemporary view of Muhammad see Non-Muslim view of Muhammad. The historicity of Muhammad concerns the reconstruction of the life of the historical Muhammad. Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century when Muhammad was attacked by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching Monotheism, The permissibility of depictions of Muhammad, the founder of Islam, has long been a concern in Islam's history For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Aqidah (sometimes spelled Aqeeda, Aqidah or Aqida) (عقيدة is an Islamic term meaning Creed. Allah ( Arabic: الله, ʔalˤːɑːh) is the standard Arabic word for ' In Islam, God is believed to be the only real supreme being all-powerful and all knowing Creator Sustainer Ordainer and Judge of the universe Islam puts a heavy emphasis Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic أركان الإسلام is the term given to the five duties incumbent on every Muslim. The Shahada ( Arabic: ar الشهادة, from the verb ar شهد "to testify" is the Islamic Creed. Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and Sawm ( Arabic: صوم is an Arabic word for Fasting regulated by Islamic jurisprudence. This is a sub-article of Islamic economical jurisprudence. Zakaat ( زكاة zækæːh zakaat or zakāh, has the implied The Hajj (حج is a pilgrimage to Mecca (Makkah It is the largest annual pilgrimage in the world Muslim history began in Arabia with the Muhammad 's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century Caliph Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam There is much more to Muslim history than its military and political aspects this particular chronology is almost entirely of military and political nature See also Muhammad's wives Ahl al-Bayt ( Arabic:ar أهل البيت is an Arabic phrase literally meaning People of the House, or family In Islam, the Ṣaḥābah (الصحابة "Companions" were the companions of the Islamic prophet Muḥammad. The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( ar الخلفاء الراشدون) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first Imāmah (إمامة is the Shī‘ah doctrine of religious spiritual and political leadership of the Ummah. Qur'an Text Surahs ** Ayah Commentary/Exegesis Tafsir Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Muslim Culture is a term primarily used in Secular Academia to describe all cultural practices common to historically Islamic peoples The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings This is a sub-article to Religious education, Academic discipline, and Islam. This article is about Animals in Islamic thought The Qur'an assigns an inferior status to animals in comparison with humans and has a tendency towards Islamic art encompasses the arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ The topic of Islam and children includes the rights of children in Islam children's duties towards their parents and parent's rights over their children both males and females Listing of Muslims by country Important note Population counts by religious affiliation like most demographic characteristics of a Population Muslim holidays are mostly based around the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, especially the events surrounding the first hearing of the Qur'an. A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings See also Modern Islamic philosophy, Islamism, Islamic terrorism Political aspects of Islam are derived from the Quran, the Sunna Over the centuries of Islamic history, Muslim rulers Islamic scholars, and ordinary Muslims have held many different attitudes towards other religions The historical interaction between Christianity and Islam, in the field of Comparative religion, connects fundamental ideas in Christianity with similar ones in Islam Hinduism and Islam, from the of arrival of the Arabs as far back as the eighth century AD has had a checkered history Islam and Jainism came in close contact with each other following the Islamic conquest from Central Asia and Persia in the seventh The historical interaction of Judaism and Islam started in the 7th century CE with the origin and spread of Islam in the Arabian peninsula. In Islam, Muhammad is the last and final Prophet of God Islam views Jews Christians and Muslims as " People of the Book Arguments critical to religion in general or specific to monotheism such as the Existence of God, are not dealt with here Islamophobia is a Neologism that refers to Prejudice or Discrimination against Islam or Muslims The term itself dates back to the The following list consists of Concepts that are derived from both Islamic and Arab tradition which are expressed as words in the Arabic language. A patronym, is a component of a Personal name based on the name of one's father Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muṭṭalib (‎ (545-570 was the father of Muhammad, a prophet of Islam. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Different approaches and methods for the Romanization of Arabic exist The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA is a system of phonetic notation based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic ħæm. mæd̪/; Mohammed, Muhammed, Mahomet)^[3][4][5] (ca. 570 Mecca – June 8, 632 Medina),^[6] is the central human figure of the world religion of Islam and is regarded by Muslims as the messenger and prophet of God (Arabic: الله‎ Allāh), the last and the greatest in a series of prophets of Islam. Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable Events By Place Europe Khan Kubrat starts to rule in Great Bulgaria. Medina mɛˈdiːnə (المدينة المنورة ælmæˈdiːnæl muˈnɑwːɑrɑ or المدينة ælmæˈdiːnæ also transliterated into English as The world's principal Religions and spiritual traditions may be classified into a small number of major groups or world religions'. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion In Islam, a rasul ( Arabic: رسول, "messenger" plural rusul) is a Prophet sent by God with a In Religion, a prophet (or prophetess) is a person who has encountered the Supernatural or the divine and serves as an intermediary In Islam, God is believed to be the only real supreme being all-powerful and all knowing Creator Sustainer Ordainer and Judge of the universe Islam puts a heavy emphasis Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Allah ( Arabic: الله, ʔalˤːɑːh) is the standard Arabic word for ' Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets Muslims consider him the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith (islām) of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Noah and others. For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in Sin - Lam - Mim (Hebrew שלם Š-L-M, Arabic س ل م S-L-M, Maltese S-L-M) is the Triconsonantal See also Adam (Bible Adam ( Arabic آدم) also spelt Adham or Aadam, is the first Prophet of Islam[http //www See also Moses Moses ( Arabic موسى Musa) ( circa 1436/1228 BC – 1316/1108 BC is considered a prophet Nuh is a prophet in the Qur'an. References to نوح Nūḥ, the Arabic form of Noah, are scattered throughout the Qur'an and there Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets ^[7][8][9] He was also active as a diplomat, merchant, philosopher, orator, legislator, general, reformer, and, according to Muslim belief, an agent of divine action. Muhammad (c 570 – 632) is documented as having engaged as a diplomat during his propagation of Islam and leadership over the This is a sub-article of Islamic economic jurisprudence and Muslim world. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Muhammad as a general refers to one of the roles played by the Islamic prophet Muhammad as the leader of the Ummah at Medina Many Reforms took place under Islam between 610 and 661, including the period of Muhammad 's mission and the rule of ^[10]

Born in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca,^[11] he was orphaned at a young age and was brought up by his uncle. Events By Place Europe Spoleto becomes the capital of an independent duchy under the Lombard chieftain The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored He later worked mostly as a merchant, and was married by age 26. Discontented with life in Mecca, he retreated to a cave in the surrounding mountains for meditation and reflection. According to Islamic beliefs it was here, at age 40, in the month of Ramadan, where he received his first revelation from God. Ramadan or Ramazan ( Arabic: رمضان Ramaḍān) is a Muslim religious observance that takes place during the ninth month of the Islamic Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit. islām) is the only way (dīn)^[12] acceptable to God, and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus, and other prophets. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Noah (or Noe, Noach;; Nūḥ; Arabic: نوح; "Rest") was according to the Bible, the tenth and last of Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ David, Arabic: داوود or داود dawud, "beloved" was the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel according to the Hebrew Bible Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets ^[13][14][9]

Muhammad gained few followers early on, and was largely met with hostility from the tribes of Mecca; he was treated harshly and so were his followers. To escape persecution Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina (then known as Yathrib) in the year 622. Medina mɛˈdiːnə (المدينة المنورة ælmæˈdiːnæl muˈnɑwːɑrɑ or المدينة ælmæˈdiːnæ also transliterated into English as This historic event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The Hijra (هِجْرَة or withdrawal is the migration of Muhammad and his followers to the city of Medina in 622 ( Common Era) The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ In Medina Muhammad managed to unite the conflicting tribes, and after eight years of fighting with the Meccan tribes, his followers, who by then had grown to ten thousand, conquered Mecca. Mecca was conquered by the Muslims in January 630 AD (10th day of Ramadan[[ AH]] In 632 a few months after returning to Medina from his Farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and died. This is a sub-article to Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca and the Succession to Muhammad. By the time of his death most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) ^[15]

The revelations (or Ayats, lit. Ayah (ar آية, plural Ayat ar آيات) is the Arabic word for sign or Miracle, cognate with Hebrew ot, "Signs of God"), which Muhammad reported receiving until his death, form the verses of the Qur'an, regarded by Muslims as the “word of God”, around which his religion is based. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Besides the Qur'an, Muhammad’s life (sira) and traditions (sunnah) are also upheld by Muslims. Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” They discuss Muhammad and other prophets of Islam with reverence, adding the phrase peace be upon him whenever their names are mentioned. ^[16] While conceptions of Muhammad in medieval Christendom and premodern times were largely negative, appraisals in modern times have been far less so. Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon In a historical context Premodernity is the period in Western civilization that came after Ancient history and before Modernity, which is usually recognized to have The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also modern times) is the period of history that followed the Middle Ages between c ^[14][17] Besides this, his life and deeds have been debated by followers and opponents over the centuries. ^[18]

Names and appellations in the Qur'an

The name Muhammad literally means "Praiseworthy" and occurs four times in the Qur'an. Etymology The name "Muhammad" is the Transliteration of an Arabic name that comes from the Arabic passive Participle from the ^[19] The Qur'an addresses Muhammad in second person not by his name but by the appellations prophet (al-nabī), messenger (rasūl), servant of God (ʿabd), announcer (bashīr), warner (nadhīr), reminder (mudhakkir), witness (shāhid), bearer of good tidings (mubashshir), one who calls [unto God] (dāʿī) and the light-giving lamp (sirāj munīr). In Islam, a rasul ( Arabic: رسول, "messenger" plural rusul) is a Prophet sent by God with a Da‘wah usually denotes proselytizing of Islam. The Arabic دعوة da‘wah means literally "issuing a summons" Sometimes Muhammad is addressed by designations deriving from his state at the time of the address: thus he is referred to as the enwrapped (al-muzzammil) in Qur'an 73:1 and the shrouded (al-muddaththir) in Qur'an 74:1. ^[20] Although the Qur'an sometimes declines to make a distinction among prophets, in Surah 33:40 it singles out Muhammad as the "Seal of the Prophets". Seal of the Prophets ( ar خاتم اﻟﻨﺒﻴﻴﻦ Khatim-an-Nabiyyin) is a title given to Muhammad by a verse in the Qur'an. ^[21] The Qur'an also refers to Muhammad as "Ahmad" (Surah 61:6) (Arabic :أحمد), Arabic for "more praiseworthy".

Sources for Muhammad's life

Nakkaş Osman [c. Nakkaş Osman (sometimes called Osman the Miniaturist) was the chief miniaturist for the Ottoman Empire during the later half of the Sixteenth century 1595]. Prophet Muhammad at the Ka'ba, The Life of the Prophet Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul (Inv. The Siyer-i Nebi is a Turkish epic about the life of Muhammad, completed around 1388 written by Mustafa son of Yusuf of Erzurum, a Mevlevi The Topkapı Palace (Topkapı Sarayı or in Ottoman: طوبكابي بالاذيis a palace in Istanbul, Turkey, which was the official and Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey 1222/123b).

Main articles: Historiography of early Islam and Historicity of Muhammad

The most credible source providing information on events in Muhammad's life is the Qur'an. The Historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early origins of Islam based on a critical analysis evaluation and examination of authentic Primary The historicity of Muhammad concerns the reconstruction of the life of the historical Muhammad. ^[14] The Qur'an has some, though very few, casual allusions to Muhammad's life. ^[22] The Qur'an, however, responds "constantly and often candidly to Muhammad's changing historical circumstances and contains a wealth of hidden data. "^[14] The Qur'an in its actual form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants in Western academia has not yielded any differences of great significance. ^[23]

Next in importance are the historical works by writers of third and fourth century of the Muslim era. ^[24] These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him (the sira and hadith literature), which provide further information on Muhammad's life. Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic ^[25] The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaq's Life of God's Messenger written some 120 to 130 years after Muhammad's death. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Muhammad ibn Ishaq ibn Yasar (محمد بن إسحاق بن يسار or simply Ibn Although the original work is lost, portions of it survive in the recensions of Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu Muhammad 'Abd al-Malik bin Hisham (أبو محمد عبدالمالك بن هشام or Ibn Hisham Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري was one of the earliest most prominent and famous Persian Historians ^[26][22] Another early source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by al-Waqidi (death 207 of Muslim era), and the work of his secretary Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (death 230 of Muslim era). TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu `Abdullah Muhammad Ibn ‘Omar Ibn Waqid al-Aslami ( Arabic ar ' أبو TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Mani' al- Baghdadi or Ibn Sa'd ( ابن ^[24] Many, but not all, scholars accept the accuracy of the earliest biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable. ^[22] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. In the former sphere, traditions could have been subject to sheer invention while in the latter sphere, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been only subject to "tendential shaping". ^[27]

Lastly, the hadith collections, accounts of the verbal and physical traditions of Muhammad, date from several generations after the death of Muhammad. This is a sub-article of Hadith. According to Muslims tradition the collection of ahadith or sayings by or about the Prophet Muhammad was a meticulous and thorough ^[28] Hadith compilations are records of the traditions or sayings of the Muhammad. It might be defined as the biography of Muhammad perpetuated by the long memory of his community for their exemplification and obedience. ^[29] Western academics view the hadith collections with caution as accurate historical sources. ^[30] Some scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods but try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures. ^[31]

There are a few non-Muslim sources which, according to S. A. Nigosian, confirm the existence of Muhammad and are valuable for corroboration of the Qur'anic and Muslim tradition statements. ^[22]

Biography

Background

Main articles: Pre-Islamic Arabia and Jahiliyyah

Approximate locations of some of the important tribes of the Arabian Peninsula at the dawn of Islam (cities are indicated in white). The history of Pre- Islamic Arabia before the rise of Islam in the 630s is not known in great detail Jahiliyyah, al-Jahiliyah or jahalia ( Arabic: جاهلية) is an Islamic concept of "ignorance of divine guidance" or "the

The Arabian Peninsula was largely arid and volcanic, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Thus the Arabian landscape was dotted with towns and cities, two prominent of which were Mecca and Medina (then known as Yathrib). ^[32] Communal life was essential for survival in desert conditions, as people needed support against the harsh environment and lifestyle. The tribal grouping was thus encouraged by the need to act as a unit. This unity was based on the bond of kinship by blood. ^[33] People of Arabia were either nomadic or sedentary, the former constantly traveling from one place to another seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the latter settled and focused on trade and agriculture. The survival of nomads (or bedouins) was also partially dependent on raiding caravans or oases; thus they saw this as no crime. The Bedouin, (from the Arabic (ar بدوي pl badū) are a desert-dwelling Arab Nomadic pastoralist, or previously ^[34][35] Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many of the surrounding tribes. ^[32]

In pre-Islamic Arabia gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes and their spirits were associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. There was an important shrine in Mecca (now called the Kaaba) that housed statues of 360 idols of tribal patron deities and was the site of an annual pilgrimage. The Kaaba ( Arabic: ar الكعبة; 'kɑʕbɑ or 'kæʕbæ "Cube" is a Cuboidal building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the Aside from these tribal gods, Arabs shared a common belief in a supreme deity Allah (literally "the god") who was however remote from their everyday concerns and thus not the object of cult or ritual. Three goddesses were associated with Allah as his daughters: al-Lat, Manat and al-Uzza. Mentioned in the Qur'an ( Sura 53:19 al-‘Uzzá "the Mightiest One" or "the strong" (derived from the root ʕzz) was a pre- Some monotheistic communities did also exist in Arabia, including Christians and Jews. ^[36][37] According to the tradition, Muhammad himself was a descendant of Ishmael, son of Abraham. Ishmael ( Hebrew: יִשְׁמָעֵאל, Standard Yišmaʿel Tiberian Yišmāʿêl Arabic: إسماعيل Abraham ( Ashkenazi   Avrohom or Avruhom; ابراهيم, {{Unicode|Ibrāhīm}}; Ge'ez: ^[38]

Muhammad in Mecca

Main article: Muhammad in Mecca

Muhammad was born and lived in Mecca for the first 52 years of his life (570–622) which was divided into two phases, that is before and after declaring prophecy. In Islamic tradition the Isra and Mi'raj (الإسراء والمعراج) are the two parts of a journey that Muhammad took in one night around the year 620 The Hijra (هِجْرَة or withdrawal is the migration of Muhammad and his followers to the city of Medina in 622 ( Common Era) The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born and lived in Mecca for the first 52 years of his life (570&ndash622 Prophecy, generally describes the disclosing of Information that is not known to the Prophet by any ordinary means

Childhood and early life

See also: Year of the Elephant, Mawlid, and Family tree of Muhammad

Muhammad was born in the month of Rabi' al-awwal in 570. The Year of the Elephant (in Arabic, عام الفيل, `Âm al-Fîl is the name in Islamic history for the year approximately equating to 570 Mawlid ( Eid Milad an Nabi ( Turkish:Mevlid ( Qur'anic مَوْلِدُ آلنَبِيِّ mawlidu n-nabiyyi, “Birth of the Prophet” See also Muhammad Family tree Note that direct lineage is marked in bold. Rabi' al-awwal (ar ربيع الأول is the third month in the Islamic calendar. He belonged to the Banu Hashim, one of the prominent families of Mecca, although it seems not to have been prosperous during Muhammad's early lifetime. Banū Hāshim (Arabic بنو هاشم) was a clan in the Quraish tribe Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored <sup>[14][39]</sup> Tradition places the year of Muhammad's birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Aksumite king Abraha who had in his army a number of elephants. The Year of the Elephant (in Arabic, عام الفيل, `Âm al-Fîl is the name in Islamic history for the year approximately equating to 570 The Aksumite Empire or Axumite Empire (sometimes called the Kingdom of Aksum or Axum ( Ge'ez: አክሱም was an important trading Abraha (also spelled Abreha) (died after AD 553; r 525 &mdashat least 553) also known as ' Abraha al-Ashram (in Arabic Recent scholarship has suggested alternative dates for this event, such as 568 or 569. ^[40]

Muhammad's father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born. Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muṭṭalib (‎ (545-570 was the father of Muhammad, a prophet of Islam. ^[41] According to the tradition, soon after Muhammad's birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as the desert-life was considered healthier for infants. Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb was the foster-mother and Wetnurse of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Some western scholars of Islam have rejected the historicity of this tradition. ^[42] At the age of six Muhammad lost his mother Amina to illness and he became fully orphaned. Aminah bint Wahab ()(???-577 was the mother of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. ^[43] He was subsequently brought up for two years under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. Shaiba ibn Hashim (شيبة ابن هاشم (c 497 &ndash 578 better known as Abdul Muttalib or Abd al-Muttalib, since he was raised by his uncle Muttalib Banū Hāshim (Arabic بنو هاشم) was a clan in the Quraish tribe A clan is a group of People united by Kinship and descent, which is defined by perceived descent from a common ancestor Quraish is also the name of a Surah in the Qur'an. Quraysh or Quraish (Arabic ar قريش A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use When he was eight years of age his grandfather also died. Muhammad now came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of Banu Hashim. Abū Ṭālib ibn ‘Abd al-Muṭṭalib ( (549 – 619 was the head of the clan of Banu Hashim. ^[40] According to Watt, because of the general disregard of the guardians in taking care of the weak members of the tribes in Mecca in sixth century, "Muhammad's guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time. William Montgomery Watt ( 14 March 1909 – 24 October 2006) was an Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic The 6th century is the period from 501 to 600 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. "^[44]

While still in his teens, Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to Syria gaining some experience in commercial career; the only career open to Muhammad as an orphan. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية ^[44] According to the tradition, when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian Monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen the career of Muhammed as a prophet of God. According to Islamic tradition Bahira was an Assyrian Christian Monk who foretold to the adolescent Muhammad his future ^[45]

Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth, and from the fragmentary information that is available, it is hard to separate history from legend. ^[46] It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface "^[47] Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname "Al-Amin" (Arabic: الامين), meaning "faithful, trustworthy" and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator. ^[14][11][48] His reputation attracted a proposal from Khadijah, a forty-year-old widow in 595. Khadijah bint Khuwaylid or Khadijah al-Kubra The following is a NAMED REFERENCE Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one. ^[47]

Beginnings of the Qur'an

See also: Origin and development of the Qur'an and Wahy

The mountain of Hira where, according to Muslim beliefs, Muhammad received his first revelation. The study of the origins and development of the Qur’an can be said to fall into two major schools of thought the first being a Traditionalist Muslim view and Wahy (وحي) is the Arabic word for revelation. In Islamic context it refers to the revelations and inspirations of God (Arabic Allah) to

At some point Muhammad adopted the practice of meditating alone for several weeks every year in a cave on Mount Hira near Mecca. Hira (حراء) or the Cave of Hira (غار حراء) is a cave on the peak named Jabal an-Nūr in the Hejaz region of present ^[49][50] Islamic tradition holds that in one of his visits to the Mount Hira, the angel Gabriel began communicating with him here in the year 610 and commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses:^[51]

Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not. Gabriel ( Latin: Gabrielus; Greek:, Gabriēl; Arabic: جبريل Jibrīl or جبرائيل (Qur'an 96:1-5)

According to some traditions, upon receiving his first revelations Muhammad was deeply distressed and contemplated throwing himself off the top of a mountain but the spirit moved closer and told him that he has been chosen as a messenger of God. Muhammad returned home and was consoled and reassured by his wife, Khadijah and her Christian cousin, Waraqah ibn Nawfal. Waraqah ibn Nawfal, Waraqah ibn Nawfal ibn Assad ibn Abd al-Uzza ibn Qusayy Al-Qurashi ( Arabic ar ورقه بن نوفل بن أسد بن عبد العزّى Shia tradition maintains that Muhammad was neither surprised nor frightened at the appearance of Gabriel but rather welcomed him as if he had been expecting him. ^[52] The initial revelation was followed by a pause of three years during which Muhammad gave himself up further to prayers and spiritual practices. For the 16th-century work by Ignatius of Loyola see Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola. When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching: Your lord has not forsaken you nor does he hate [you] (Qur'an 93:1-11). ^[53][54]

According to Welch these revelations were accompanied by mysterious seizures, and the reports are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims. Alford T Welch is a Professor of Religious Studies at Michigan State University. ^[14] Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages. ^[55] According to the Qur'an, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Qur'an 38:70, Qur'an 6:19). Sometimes the Qur'an does not explicitly refer to the Judgment day but provides examples from the history of some extinct communities and warns Muhammad's contemporaries of similar calamities (Qur'an 41:13-16). ^[56] Muhammad is not only a warner to those who reject God's revelation, but also a bearer of good news for those who abandon evil, listen to the divine word and serve God. ^[57] Muhammad's mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Qur'an demands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols apart from God or associate other deities with God. ^[56]

The key themes of the early Qur'anic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of dead, God's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in hell and pleasures in Paradise; and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not to kill new-born girls. ^[14]

Opposition

See also: Persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and Migration to Abyssinia

According to the Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet. This is a sub-article to Muhammad before Medina and Persecution of Muslims In the early days of Islam at Mecca, the new Muslims were often This is a sub-article to Muhammad before Medina and Muhammad in Medina According to Islamic tradition twelve male and twelve female ^[58] She was soon followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid. ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a=علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب|t=ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib 13th Rajab, 24 BH – 21st Ramaḍān, 40 AH Early life Abu Bakr was born at Mecca some time in the year 573 CE, in the Banu Taym branch of the Quraysh tribe Zayd bin Harithah (زيد بن حارثة Zayd bin Muhammad or Zaid Mawla Muhammad) (c ^[58] Around 613, Muhammad began his public preaching (Qur'an 26:214). Events By Place Europe Clotaire II reunites the Frankish kingdoms by ordering the murder of Sigebert II. ^[59] Most Meccans ignored him and a few mocked him, while some others became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners. ^[60]

According to Ibn Sad, the opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the Meccan forefathers who engaged in polytheism. ^[61] The Qur'anic exegesis however maintains that it began as soon as Muhammad began preaching in public. ^[62] As the number of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life, which Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. Quraish is also the name of a Surah in the Qur'an. Quraysh or Quraish (Arabic ar قريش ^[60] The powerful merchants tried to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching by offering him admission into the inner circle of merchants, and establishing his position therein by an advantageous marriage. However, he refused. ^[60]

Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment of Muhammad and his followers. ^[14] Sumayyah bint Khabbab, a slave of Abu Jahl and a prominent Meccan leader, is famous as the first martyr of Islam, having been killed with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith. Sumayyah bint Khayyat ( سمية بنت خياطّ) was the mother of the well-known early Muslim Ammar ibn Yasir. Amr ibn Hishām (died March 17, 624) (عمرو بن هشام better known as Abu Jahl, was one of the Meccan leaders known for his hostility against Bilal, another Muslim slave, was tortured by Umayya ibn khalaf who placed a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion. Bilal ibn Rabah (بلال بن رباح or Bilal al-Habeshi was an Ethiopian born in Mecca in the late 6th century sometime between 578 and 582 ^[63][64] Apart from insults, Muhammad was protected from physical harm due to belonging to the clan of Banu Hashim. ^[65][66]

Location of Abyssinia (Aksumite Empire). The Aksumite Empire or Axumite Empire (sometimes called the Kingdom of Aksum or Axum ( Ge'ez: አክሱም was an important trading

In 615, some of Muhammad's followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Aksumite Empire and founded a small colony there under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar. This is a sub-article to Muhammad before Medina and Muhammad in Medina According to Islamic tradition twelve male and twelve female NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The Aksumite Empire or Axumite Empire (sometimes called the Kingdom of Aksum or Axum ( Ge'ez: አክሱም was an important trading According to Arabic sources Aṣḥama ibn Abjar was Emperor or al-Najashi ( Arabic النجاشي) of Aksum at the time of Muhammad ^[14] Some early traditions describe Muhammad's involvement at this time in an episode that has come to be known as the "Story of the Cranes" -- dubbed by some scholars as the "Satanic Verses. Satanic Verses is an expression coined by the historian Sir William Muir in reference to a few verses delivered by Muhammad as part of the Qur'an " The account holds that Muhammad pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah, praising them, and appealing for their intercession. According to these accounts, Muhammad later retracted the verses at the behest of Gabriel. ^[67] Islamic scholars vigorously objected to the historicity of the incident as early as the tenth century CE. ^[68] In any event, the relations between the Muslims and their pagan fellow-tribesmen rapidly deteriorated.

In 617 the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important clans of Quraysh, declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressurize it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. Banū Makhzūm (بنو مخزوم was one of the wealthy clans of Quraysh, the Arab tribe of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Banu Abd Shams (بنو عبد شمس refers to a clan within the Meccan Quraishi tribe This is a sub-article to Muhammad before Medina According to tradition in 617 the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important The boycott lasted for three years but eventually collapsed as it failed to achieve its objective. ^[69][70]

Last years in Mecca

Road to Ta'if in the foreground, mountains of Ta'if in the background (Saudi Arabia). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi

In 619, both Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died, and was thus known as the "year of sorrows. The Year of Sorrow (Aam-ul-Huzn is an Islamic term for a Hijri year that coincided with 619 or 623 CE " With the death of Abu Talib, the leadership of the clan of Banu Hashim was passed to Abu Lahab who was an inveterate enemy of Muhammad. Soon afterwards Abu Lahab withdrew the clan's protection from Muhammad. Abu Lahab ibn 'Abdul Muttalib (أبو لهب (c death 624 is among those named as Enemies of Islam condemned by name in the Surah Al-Masadd. This placed Muhammad in danger of death since the withdrawal of clan protection implied that the blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Muhammad then visited to Ta'if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector for himself there, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger. This is a sub-article to Muhammad before Medina Muhammad went to the city named Ta'if and invited them to Islam ^[70][14] Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut'im b. Adi (and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him safely to re-enter his native city. Banu Nawfal is a notable Arabic Sub-clan of the Quraish tribe ^[14][70]

Many people were visiting Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba. The Kaaba ( Arabic: ar الكعبة; 'kɑʕbɑ or 'kæʕbæ "Cube" is a Cuboidal building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina). Medina mɛˈdiːnə (المدينة المنورة ælmæˈdiːnæl muˈnɑwːɑrɑ or المدينة ælmæˈdiːnæ also transliterated into English as ^[14] The Arab population of Yathrib were somewhat familiar with monotheism because a Jewish community existed in that city. ^[14]Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes present in Medina, such that by June of the subsequent year there were seventy-five Muslims coming to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what was known as the "Second Pledge of al-`Aqaba", or the "Pledge of War" ^[71] Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to Yathrib. This is a sub-article to Muhammad before Medina. The Second pledged at al-Aqabah was an important event that preceded the Migration to Medina Medina mɛˈdiːnə (المدينة المنورة ælmæˈdiːnæl muˈnɑwːɑrɑ or المدينة ælmæˈdiːnæ also transliterated into English as As before, with the migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration. This is a sub-article to Muhammad before Medina and Muhammad in Medina According to Islamic tradition twelve male and twelve female However, almost all Muslims managed to leave. ^[72]

Isra and Mi'raj

Main article: Isra and Mi'raj

The Al-Aqsa Mosque congregation building, the site from which Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have ascended to heaven. In Islamic tradition the Isra and Mi'raj (الإسراء والمعراج) are the two parts of a journey that Muhammad took in one night around the year 620 Al-Aqsa Mosque ( Arabic:المسجد الاقصى /æl'mæsdʒɪd æl'ɑqsˁɑ/ {{Audio|ArAqsaMosque

Islamic tradition relates that some time in 620, Muhammad experienced the Isra and Mi'raj, a miraculous journey said to have been accomplished in one night along with the angel Gabriel. In Islamic tradition the Isra and Mi'raj (الإسراء والمعراج) are the two parts of a journey that Muhammad took in one night around the year 620 Gabriel ( Latin: Gabrielus; Greek:, Gabriēl; Arabic: جبريل Jibrīl or جبرائيل In the first part of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from Mecca to "the farthest mosque" (in Arabic: masjid al-aqsa), which Muslims usually identify with the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored Al-Aqsa Mosque ( Arabic:المسجد الاقصى /æl'mæsdʒɪd æl'ɑqsˁɑ/ {{Audio|ArAqsaMosque Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the In the second part, the Miraj, Muhammad is said to have toured heaven and hell, and spoken with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Heaven may refer to the physical heavens the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the Universe beyond Hell, according to many Religious beliefs, is a location in the Afterlife, which may be described as a place of suffering Abraham ( Ashkenazi   Avrohom or Avruhom; ابراهيم, {{Unicode|Ibrāhīm}}; Ge'ez: Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) ^[73]Ibn Ishaq, author of first biography of Muhammad, presents this event as a spiritual experience while later historians like Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir present it as a physical journey. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Muhammad ibn Ishaq ibn Yasar (محمد بن إسحاق بن يسار or simply Ibn Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري was one of the earliest most prominent and famous Persian Historians Ismail ibn Kathir (ابن كثير (1301&ndash1373 was an Islamic scholar and renowned commentator on the Qur'an. ^[73] Some western scholars of Islam hold that the oldest Muslim tradition identified the journey as one traveled through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial Kaʿba (heavenly prototype of the Kaʿba); but later tradition identified Muhammad's journey from Mecca to the abode of sanctuary (bayt al-maqdis) in Jerusalem. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the ^[74]

Muhammad in Medina

Hijra

Main articles: Hijra (Islam) and Muhammad in Medina

A delegation from Medina, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to Medina to serve as the chief arbitrator for the entire community. For the city in the Philippines see Tabuk City Kalinga. For the Iraqi rifle see Tabuk Sniper Rifle Tabuk (تبوك also spelled The Hajj (حج is a pilgrimage to Mecca (Makkah It is the largest annual pilgrimage in the world Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable The Hijra (هِجْرَة or withdrawal is the migration of Muhammad and his followers to the city of Medina in 622 ( Common Era) The period of Prophet Muhammad (SAW in Medina started with the Migration to Medina in 622 and ended with the Conquest of Mecca in 630 ^[75][76] There was fighting in Yathrib mainly involving its Arab and Jewish inhabitants for around a hundred years before 620. ^[75] The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the battle of Bu'ath in which all the clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal conceptions of blood-feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases. The Battle of Bu'ath was fought in 617 between Banu Aus and Banu Khazraj, the Arab tribes of Medina (then Yathrib in the south-eastern quarter The phrase " an eye for an eye " ( עין תחת עין) is a quotation from in which a person who has taken the eye of another in a fight is instructed to give ^[75] The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves. ^[14]

Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina until virtually all of his followers had left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure of Muslims, according to the tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, however, Muhammad fooled the Meccans who were watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr. ^[77] By 622, Muhammad had emigrated to Medina, then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis. Medina mɛˈdiːnə (المدينة المنورة ælmæˈdiːnæl muˈnɑwːɑrɑ or المدينة ælmæˈdiːnæ also transliterated into English as In Geography, an oasis (plural oases) or Cienega ( Southwestern United States) is an isolated area of vegetation in a Desert, typically Those who had migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as muhajirun (emigrants). Muhajirun ( Arabic: المهاجرون; The Emigrants) are the early Muslims who followed Muhammad on his Hijra (withdrawal ^[14]

Establishment of a new polity

Main article: Constitution of Medina

Among the first things Muhammad did in order to settle down the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was drafting a document known as the Constitution of Medina, "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca, which specified the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina (including that of the Muslim community to other communities specifically the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book"). The Constitution of Medina, also known as the Charter of Medina, was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 622 The Constitution of Medina, also known as the Charter of Medina, was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 622 PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ This article is about the theological concept in Islam. For the novel by Geraldine Brooks see People of the Book (novel. ^[75][76] The community defined in the Constitution of Medina, Ummah, had a religious outlook but was also shaped by the practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes. Ummah (أمة is an Arabic word meaning Community or Nation. It is commonly used to mean either the collective nation of states, or (in the ^[14] It effectively established the first Islamic state.

The first group of pagan converts to Islam in Medina were the clans who had not produced great leaders for themselves but had suffered from warlike leaders from other clans. This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, apart from some exception. This was according to Ibn Ishaq influenced by the conversion of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, one of the prominent leaders in Medina to Islam. Sa’d ibn Mu'adh was a chief of the Banu Aus tribe in Yathrib and later converted to Islam. ^[78] Those Medinans who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the ansar (helpers). ^[14] Then Muhammad instituted brotherhood between the emigrants and the helpers and he chose Ali as his own brother. After the Hijra when the Prophet instituted brotherhood between the emigrants ( Muhajerin) and the helpers ( Ansar) and he chose Ali as his own ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a=علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب|t=ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib 13th Rajab, 24 BH – 21st Ramaḍān, 40 AH ^[79]

With the early general conversion of Medinian pagans to Islam, the pagan opposition in Medina was never of prime importance in the affairs of Medina. Those remaining pagans in Medina were very bitter about the advance of Islam. In particular Asma bint Marwan and Abu 'Afak had composed verses taunting and insulting some of the Muslims. Asmā bint Marwān ( Arabic: عصماء بنت مروان namely "'Asmā the daughter of Marwān" was a female Poet who lived in Hijaz in medieval Abu 'Afak ( Arabic: ابو عفك c 7th century was a Jewish Poet who lived in the Hijaz region (today Saudi Arabia) These two were assassinated and Muhammad did not disapprove of it. No one dared to take vengeance on them, and some of the members of the clan of Asma bint Marwan who had previously converted to Islam in secret, now professed Islam openly. Asmā bint Marwān ( Arabic: عصماء بنت مروان namely "'Asmā the daughter of Marwān" was a female Poet who lived in Hijaz in medieval This marked an end to the overt opposition to Muhammad among the pagans in Medina. ^[80]

Beginnings of armed conflict

A map of the Badr campaign.

Main article: Battle of Badr

Following the emigration, the Meccans seized the properties of the Muslim emigrants in Mecca. The Battle of Badr (غزوة بدر fought March 17, 624 AD (17 Ramadan 2 AH in the Islamic calendar) in the Hejaz ^[81] Economically uprooted and with no available profession, the Muslim migrants turned to raiding Meccan caravans for their livelihood, thus initiating armed conflict between the Muslims and Mecca. ^[82][83] Muhammad delivered Qur'anic verses permitting the Muslims to fight the Meccans (see Qur'an 22:39–40). ^[84] These attacks pressured Mecca by interfering with trade, and allowed the Muslims to acquire wealth, power and prestige while working toward their ultimate goal of inducing Mecca's submission to the new faith. ^[85][86] In March of 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the Meccans at Badr. ^[87] Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded Muslims. Meanwhile, a force from Mecca was sent to protect the caravan, continuing forward to confront the Muslims upon hearing that the caravan was safe. The battle of Badr began in March of 624. The Battle of Badr (غزوة بدر fought March 17, 624 AD (17 Ramadan 2 AH in the Islamic calendar) in the Hejaz ^[88] Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with only fourteen Muslims dead. They had also succeeded in killing many of the Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl. Amr ibn Hishām (died March 17, 624) (عمرو بن هشام better known as Abu Jahl, was one of the Meccan leaders known for his hostility against ^[89] Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were soon ransomed in return for wealth or freed. ^[90][91][92] Muhammad and his followers saw in the victory a confirmation of their faith. ^[14] The Qur'anic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan ones, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils. ^[93]

Muhammad expelled from Medina the Banu Qaynuqa, one of the three main Jewish tribes. The Banu Qaynuqa (also spelled Banu Kainuka, Banu Kaynuka, Banu Qainuqa, بنو قينقاع) were one of the three main Jewish The Banu Qaynuqa (also spelled Banu Kainuka, Banu Kaynuka, Banu Qainuqa, بنو قينقاع) were one of the three main Jewish ^[14] Following the battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of Hijaz. ^[14]

Conflict with Mecca

Main article: Battle of Uhud

The attack at Badr committed Muhammad to total war with Meccans, who were now anxious to avenge their defeat. The Battle of Uhud (غزوة أحد) was fought on 23 March 625 (3 Shawwal 3 AH in the Islamic calendar) at Mount Uhud, in what Total war is a conflict of unlimited scope in which a Belligerent engages in a total mobilization of all available resources at his disposal To maintain their economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been lost at Badr. ^[94] In the ensuing months, Muhammad led expeditions on tribes allied with Mecca and sent out a raid on a Meccan caravan. ^[95] Abu Sufyan subsequently gathered an army of three thousand men and set out for an attack on Medina. For the son of Harith see Abu Sufyan ibn al-Harith. Sakhr ibn Harb (صخر بن حرب more commonly known as Abu Sufyan (560-650 ^[96]

Map of the Battle of Uhud, showing the Muslim and Meccan lines respectively. The Battle of Uhud (غزوة أحد) was fought on 23 March 625 (3 Shawwal 3 AH in the Islamic calendar) at Mount Uhud, in what

A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, there was dispute over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many of the senior figures suggested that it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of its heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying their crops, and that huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the wishes of the latter, and readied the Muslim force for battle. Thus, Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (where the Meccans had camped) and fought the Battle of Uhud on March 23. The Battle of Uhud (غزوة أحد) was fought on 23 March 625 (3 Shawwal 3 AH in the Islamic calendar) at Mount Uhud, in what Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. ^[97][98] Although the Muslim army had the best of the early encounters, indiscipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat, with 75 Muslims killed including Hamza, Muhammad's uncle and one of the best known martyrs in the Muslim tradition. Hamza ( Arabic: ar الهَمْزة ʼal-hamzah) (ar [[wiktء ء]] is a letter in the Arabic alphabet, representing the Glottal stop. Istishhad|Christian martyrs for disambiguation Shahid (شَهيد, plural ar شُهَداء) is an Arabic word meaning "witness" The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims further, but marched back to Mecca declaring victory. They were not entirely successful, however, as they had failed to achieve their aim of destroying the Muslims completely. ^[99][100] The Muslims buried the dead, and returned to Medina that evening. Questions accumulated as to the reasons for the loss, and Muhammad subsequently delivered Qur'anic verses ^{[Qur'an 3:152]} which indicated that their defeat was partly a punishment for disobedience and partly a test for steadfastness. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran ^[101]

Abu Sufyan now directed his efforts towards another attack on Medina. He attracted the support of nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina, using propaganda about Muhammad's weakness, promises of booty, memories of the prestige of Quraysh and use of bribes. ^[102] Muhammad's policy was now to prevent alliances against him as much as he could. Whenever alliances of tribesmen against Medina were formed, he sent out an expedition to break them up. ^[102] When Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, he reacted with severity. ^[103] One example is the assassination of Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf, a member of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir who had gone to Mecca and written poems that had helped rouse the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the battle of Badr. Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf (كعب بن الاشرف(d 624 was a chief of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir and a poet who was assassinated by an order of Muhammad The Banu Nadir ( بنو النظير) were a Jewish tribe who lived in northern Arabia until the 7th century, at the oasis of Yathrib (now known as Medina ^[104] Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Jewish Banu Nadir from Medina. The Banu Nadir ( بنو النظير) were a Jewish tribe who lived in northern Arabia until the 7th century, at the oasis of Yathrib (now known as Medina The Banu Nadir ( بنو النظير) were a Jewish tribe who lived in northern Arabia until the 7th century, at the oasis of Yathrib (now known as Medina ^[105] Muhammad's attempts to prevent formation of a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stop many potential tribes from joining his enemies. ^[106]

Siege of Medina

Main article: Battle of the Trench

Abu Sufyan, the military leader of Quraysh, with the help of Banu Nadir, the exiled Jewish tribe from Medina, had mustered a force of size 10,000 men. The Battle of the Trench (غزوة الخندق|Ghazwah al-Khandaq also known as Battle of the Confederates (غزوة الاحزاب|Ghazwah al-Ahzab was a fortnight-long The Banu Nadir ( بنو النظير) were a Jewish tribe who lived in northern Arabia until the 7th century, at the oasis of Yathrib (now known as Medina Muhammad was able to prepare a force of about 3000 men. He had however adopted a new form of defense, unknown in Arabia at that time: Muslims had dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman al-Farsi. TemplateInfobox Salaf --> Salman the Persian or Salman al Farisi ( سلمان فارسی Salman e Farsi The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627 and lasted for two weeks. Events 307 - After divorcing his wife Minervina, Constantine marries Fausta, the daughter of the retired Roman Emperor Events By Place Byzantine Empire December 12 — Battle of Nineveh: Emperor Heraclius defeats the Persians ending ^[107] Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications they were confronted with, and after an ineffectual siege lasting several weeks, the coalition decided to go home. ^[108] The Qur'an discusses this battle in verses Qur'an 33:9-33:27. ^[62]

Battle of Khandaq (Battle of the Trench)

During the battle, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, located at the south of Medina, had entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. The Banu Qurayza (بني قريظة بنو قريظة alternate spellings include Quraiza, Qurayzah, Quraytha, and the archaic Koreiza) Although they were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after the prolonged negotiations, in part due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's scouts. ^[109] After the retreat of the coalition, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered and all the men, apart from a few who converted to Islam, were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved. ^[110][111] In the siege of Medina, the Meccans had exerted their utmost strength towards the destruction of the Muslim community. Their failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria was gone. ^[112] Following the battle of trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north which ended without any fighting. ^[14] While returning from one of these two expeditions (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad's wife. Aisha bint Abu Bakr (died 678 (Arabic ar عائشة Transliteration ʿāʾisha, ʕaːʔɪʃæh "she who lives" also transcribed as A'ishah, Ayesha Aisha bint Abu Bakr (died 678 (Arabic ar عائشة Transliteration ʿāʾisha, ʕaːʔɪʃæh "she who lives" also transcribed as A'ishah, Ayesha Aisha was exonerated from the accusations when Muhammad announced that he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses. ^[113]

Truce of Hudaybiyya

Main article: Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

Although Muhammad had already delivered Qur'anic verses commanding the Hajj,^[114] the Muslims had not performed it due to the enmity of the Quraysh. The Treaty of Hudaybiyya ( Arabic: صلح الحديبية) is the treaty that took place between the state of Medina and the Quraishi The Hajj (حج is a pilgrimage to Mecca (Makkah It is the largest annual pilgrimage in the world In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to make preparations for a pilgrimage (umrah) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision where he was shaving his head after the completion of the Hajj. Shawwal (ar شوّال is the tenth month of the lunar Islamic calendar. The ʿUmrah or ( عمرة) is a pilgrimage to Mecca performed by Muslims that can be undertaken at any time of the year ^[115] Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh sent out a force of 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, thereby reaching al-Hudaybiyya, just outside of Mecca. ^[116] According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream but he was at the same time demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam does not threaten the prestige of their sanctuary, and that Islam was an Arabian religion. ^[116]

Negotiations commenced with emissaries going to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Uthman (a=عثمان|t=Othman Osman Usman Ozman is a male Arabic given name meaning "the chosen one amongst the tribe of brave and noble people" "honest" Muhammad responded by calling upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Good Pleasure" (Arabic: بيعة الرضوان , bay'at al-ridhwān) or the "Pledge under the Tree. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Pledge of the Tree' ( Arabic: بيعة الشجرة, transliterated bayʻat al-shajarah) or Pledge of Pleasure ( Arabic: بيعة " News of Uthman's safety, however, allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh. ^[116][117] The main points of treaty included the cessation of hostilities; the deferral of Muhammad's pilgrimage to the following year; and an agreement to send back any Meccan who had gone to Medina without the permission of his or her protector. ^[116]

A rendering of the seal attributed to Muhammad used in the letters sent to other heads of state.

Many Muslims were not satisfied with the terms of the treaty. However, the Qur'anic sura "Al-Fath" (The Victory) (Qur'an 48:1-29) assured the Muslims that the expedition from which they were now returning must be considered a victorious one. ^[118] It was only later that Muhammad's followers would realise the benefit behind this treaty. These benefits, according to Welch, included the inducing of the Meccans to recognise Muhammad as an equal; a cessation of military activity posing well for the future; and gaining the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the incorporation of the pilgrimage rituals. ^[14]

After signing the truce, Muhammad made an expedition against the Jewish oasis of Khaybar, known as the Battle of Khaybar. Khaybar ( Arabic,خيبر is the name of an Oasis some 95 miles to the north of Medina (ancient Yathrib) Saudi Arabia. The Battle of Khaybar was fought in the year 629 between Muhammad and his followers against the Jews living in the oasis of Khaybar, located 150 kilometers This was possibly due to it housing the Banu Nadir, who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain some prestige to deflect from what appeared to some Muslims as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya. ^[96][119] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers of the world, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date are given variously in the sources). Muhammad (c 570 – 632) is documented as having engaged as a diplomat during his propagation of Islam and leadership over the ^{[120][121][14]} Hence he sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others. Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya ^[120][121] In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad sent his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu'tah, in which the Muslims were defeated. The Emirate of Transjordan ( Arabic: ar إمارة شرق الأردن) was a former Ottoman territory incorporated into the British Mandate of Palestine The Battle of Mu'tah (معركة مؤتة, غزوة مؤتة was fought in 629 (5 Jumada al-awwal 8 AH in the Islamic calendar ^[122]

Final years

Conquest of Mecca

Main articles: Conquest of Mecca and Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca

The Kaaba in Mecca held a major economic and religious role for the area, it became the Muslim Qibla, or direction for Salah

The truce of Hudaybiyya had been enforced for two years. Mecca was conquered by the Muslims in January 630 AD (10th day of Ramadan[[ AH]] The period of Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca started with the Conquest of Mecca in 630 and ended with his death in 632 The Kaaba ( Arabic: ar الكعبة; 'kɑʕbɑ or 'kæʕbæ "Cube" is a Cuboidal building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and The Treaty of Hudaybiyya ( Arabic: صلح الحديبية) is the treaty that took place between the state of Medina and the Quraishi ^[123][124] The tribe of Khuz'aah had a friendly relationship with Muhammad, while on the other hand their enemies, the Banu Bakr, had an alliance with the Meccans. Banu Khuza'a is an Arabian Tribe. Origin Khuza'a known as Haritha Amr bin Muzaqiba Banu Bakr ibn Wa'il or Banu Bakr son of Wa'il (بنو بكر بن وائل) were an Arabian tribe belonging to the large Rabi'ah branch of ^[123][124] A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuz'aah, killing a few of them. ^[123][124] The Meccans helped their allies (i. e. , the Banu Bakr) with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting. The Banu Bakr ibn Abd Manat ( Arabic:بنو بكر were an Arabian tribe of the Hejaz region in western Arabia. ^[123] After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were that either the Meccans paid blood money for those slain among the Khuza'ah tribe; or, that they should disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr; or, that they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyya null. Blood money is Money paid as a fine to the next of kin of somebody who was killed intentionally ^[125]

Muhammad and his companions advancing on Mecca. The angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrail, are also in the painting

The Meccans replied that they would accept only the last condition. ^[125] However, soon they realized their mistake and sent Abu Safyan to renew the Hudaybiyya treaty, but now his request was declined by Muhammad. Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign. ^[126] In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than ten thousand men. With minimal casualties, Muhammad took control of Mecca. ^[127] He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who had mocked and made fun of him in songs and verses. Some of these were later pardoned. ^[128] Most Meccans converted to Islam, and Muhammad subsequently destroyed all of the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba, without any exception. The Kaaba ( Arabic: ar الكعبة; 'kɑʕbɑ or 'kæʕbæ "Cube" is a Cuboidal building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the ^[129][130] The Qur'an discusses the conquest of Mecca in verses Qur'an 110:1-110:3. ^[62]

Conquest of Arabia

Main articles: Battle of Hunayn and Battle of Tabouk

Soon after the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were collecting an army twice the size of Muhammad's. This is a sub-article to Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca. The Battle of Tabouk (also called the Battle of Tabuk) was a military expedition said to have been led by Muhammed in October AD 630. Hawzain were old enemies of Meccans. They were joined by the tribe of Thaqif inhabiting in the city of Ta’if who had adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans. Ta’if ( ar الطائف) is a city in the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia at an elevation of 1700 metres on the slopes of the Al-Sarawat ^[131] Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the battle of Hunayn. The Thaqif was one of the Tribes of Arabia during Muhammad's era. This is a sub-article to Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca. ^[14]

Muhammad prohibits intercalary months during the Farewell Pilgrimage. The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ This is a sub-article to Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca and the Succession to Muhammad. 17th century Ottoman copy of a 14th century (Ilkhanate) manuscript (Edinburgh codex). The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in Illustration of Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's al-Âthâr al-bâqiya. The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries ( کتاب الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية ar-Latn Kitāb al-āthār al-bāqiyyah `an al-qurūn al-khāliyyah

In the same year, Muhammad made the expedition of Tabuk against northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah as well as the reports of the hostile attitude adopted against Muslims. The Battle of Tabouk (also called the Battle of Tabuk) was a military expedition said to have been led by Muhammed in October AD 630. The Battle of Mu'tah (معركة مؤتة, غزوة مؤتة was fought in 629 (5 Jumada al-awwal 8 AH in the Islamic calendar Although Muhammad did not make contact with hostile forces at Tabuk, but he received the submission of some of the local chiefs of the region. ^[14][132] A year after the battle of Tabuk, the tribe of Thaqif inhabiting in the city of Ta’if sent emissaries to Medina to surrender to Muhammad and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad in order to be safe against his attacks and to benefit from the booties of the wars. ^[14] The bedouins however were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain their independence, their established code of virtue and their ancestral traditions. Muhammad, thus required of them a military and political agreement according to which they "acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the Zakat, the Muslim religious levy. This is a sub-article of Islamic economical jurisprudence. Zakaat ( زكاة zækæːh zakaat or zakāh, has the implied "^[133]

Farewell pilgrimage and death

Pilgrims circumambulating the Kaaba during the Hajj.

Main article: The Farewell Pilgrimage

At the end of the tenth year after the migration to Medina, Muhammad carried through his first truly Islamic pilgrimage thereby teaching his followers the regulations of the various ceremonies of the annual Great Pilgrimage (hajj). This is a sub-article to Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca and the Succession to Muhammad. The Hajj (حج is a pilgrimage to Mecca (Makkah It is the largest annual pilgrimage in the world ^[14]

After completing the pilgrimage rituals, Muhammad delivered a famous speech known as the Farewell Speech (Arabic: Khutbat al-Wadaa'). The The Farewell Sermon ( خطبة الوداع, Khuṭbatu l-Wadā') also known as the Prophet's final sermon or The Last Sermon is a famous In this sermon, Muhammad advised his follower not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs such as adding intercalary months to align the lunar calendar with the solar calendar. A lunisolar calendar is a Calendar in many Cultures whose date indicates both the Moon phase and the time of the solar Year. The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ A solar calendar is a Calendar whose dates indicate the position of the earth on its revolution around the Sun (or equivalently the apparent position of the sun moving Muhammad abolished all old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system and asked for all old pledges to be returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammed his male followers to “Be good to women; for they are powerless captives (awan) in your households. You took them in God’s trust, and legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and hear my words . An Islamic marriage contract is a formal binding contract drawn up by parties involved in marriage proceedings . . ”. He also told them that they were entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. Muhammad also addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased and also forbidding his followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year. ^{[134] [135]} ِِAccording to Sunni Tafsir the following Qur'anic verse was delivered in this incident: “Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Tafsir ( Arabic: تفسير, tafsīr, "interpretation" is the Arabic word for Exegesis ”(Qur'an 5:3)^[14] while according to Shia ones it refers to appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib as the successor of Muhammad in pond of Khumm which happened while Muslims returned from Mecca to Medina, few days later. ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a=علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب|t=ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib 13th Rajab, 24 BH – 21st Ramaḍān, 40 AH For the book by Wilferd Madelung, see The Succession to Muhammad. This is a sub-article to the Succession to Muhammad The Hadith of the pond of Khumm ( غدير خم) refers to the saying (i ^[136]

The Mosque of the Prophet (Al-Masjid al-Nabawi) is Islam's second most sacred site; the Green dome in the background stands above Muhammad's tomb. The Mosque of the Prophet (or Prophet's Mosque) ( Arabic: المسجد النبوي) /mæsʤıd ænːæbæwı in Medina, is the second holiest

A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with head pain and weakness. A headache ( cephalalgia in medical terminology is a condition of pain in the Head; sometimes Neck or upper back pain may also be interpreted He succumbed on Monday, June 8, 632, in the city of Medina. Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable Events By Place Europe Khan Kubrat starts to rule in Great Bulgaria. He is buried in his tomb (which previously was in his wife Aisha's house) which is now housed within Mosque of the Prophet in Medina. The Mosque of the Prophet (or Prophet's Mosque) ( Arabic: المسجد النبوي) /mæsʤıd ænːæbæwı in Medina, is the second holiest Medina mɛˈdiːnə (المدينة المنورة ælmæˈdiːnæl muˈnɑwːɑrɑ or المدينة ælmæˈdiːnæ also transliterated into English as ^{[137][14][138]} Next to Muhammad's tomb, there is another empty tomb that Muslims believe awaits Jesus. ^[138]

Aftermath

See also: Rashidun, Muslim conquest, and Succession to Muhammad

Conquests of Muhammad and the Rashidun. The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( ar الخلفاء الراشدون) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab For the book by Wilferd Madelung, see The Succession to Muhammad.

Muhammad united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. Arabs are a Semitic people descending from various Old North Arabian tribes With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. ^[139] Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's friend and collaborator. Umar (a=عمر بن الخطاب|t=`Umar ibn al-Khattāb c 581-83 CE &ndash 7 November, 644) also known as Umar the Great or Omar the Great Early life Abu Bakr was born at Mecca some time in the year 573 CE, in the Banu Taym branch of the Quraysh tribe Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to make an expedition against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode called by later Muslim historians as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy". The Ridda wars (Arabic حروب الردة also known as the Wars of Apostasy) were a set of military campaigns against the rebellion of several Arabic tribes against the ^[140]

The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The Roman-Persian Wars between the two had devastated the inhabitants, making the empires unpopular amongst the local tribes. Furthermore, most of the Christian Churches in the lands to be conquered by Muslims such as Nestorians, Monophysites, Jacobites and Copts were under pressure from the Christian Orthodoxy who deemed them as heretics. Nestorius Nestorius (c  386 &ndashc  451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern Monophysitism (from the Greek monos meaning 'one alone' and physis meaning 'nature' or Monophysiticism is the Christological position that The Syriac Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church based in the Middle East with members spread throughout the world A Copt ( Coptic: ouRemenkīmi enEkhristianos, literally Egyptian Christian) is a native Egyptian Christian. The term Orthodox Christianity may refer to The Eastern Orthodox Church: the Eastern Christian churches of Byzantine Within only a decade, Muslims conquered Mesopotamia and Persia, Roman Syria and Roman Egypt. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Greater Iran (in Irān-e Bozorg, or fa ایران‌زمین Irān-zamīn; the Encyclopedia Iranica uses the term The Muslim conquest of Syria occurred in the first half of the 7th century and refers to the region known as the Bilad al-Sham, the Levant, or Greater Syria At the commencement of the Muslim conquest of Egypt Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. ^[141] and established Rashidun empire.

Wives and children

Main article: Muhammad's wives

Main article: Ahl al-Bayt

Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two epochs: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca, a city in northern Arabia, from the year 570 to 622, and post-hijra in Medina, from 622 until his death in 632. Muhammad's wives were the eleven or thirteen women married to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. See also Muhammad's wives Ahl al-Bayt ( Arabic:ar أهل البيت is an Arabic phrase literally meaning People of the House, or family The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born and lived in Mecca for the first 52 years of his life (570&ndash622 The period of Prophet Muhammad (SAW in Medina started with the Migration to Medina in 622 and ended with the Conquest of Mecca in 630 Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives or concubines (there are differing accounts on the status of some of them as wife or concubine^[142])^[143] All but two of his marriages were contracted after the migration to Medina. The Hijra (هِجْرَة or withdrawal is the migration of Muhammad and his followers to the city of Medina in 622 ( Common Era)

At the age of 25, Muhammad married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Muhammad's wives were the eleven or thirteen women married to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Khadijah bint Khuwaylid or Khadijah al-Kubra The following is a NAMED REFERENCE Sawda bint Zama ibn Qayyis ibn Abd Shams ( Arabic: سودة بنت زمعة) was a wife of Muhammad, and therefore a Mother of the Believers Aisha bint Abu Bakr (died 678 (Arabic ar عائشة Transliteration ʿāʾisha, ʕaːʔɪʃæh "she who lives" also transcribed as A'ishah, Ayesha Ḥafsah bint ‘Umar ( Arabic: حفصة بنت عمر; literally Daughter of a Lion; born c Zaynab or Zainab ( زينب;) bint Khuzayma died November 624 was one of the wives of Muhammad, and therefore a Mother of the Believers Hind bint Abi Umayya (هند بنت أبي أمية (c 580 - 680 was a wife of Muhammad, and therefore a Mother of the Believers. Zaynab bint Jahsh ( Arabic: زينب بنت جحش born c 593 was a wife of Muhammad and therefore a Mother of the Believers Juwayriyya bint al-Harith ( Arabic: جويرية بنت الحارث juwayriyya bint al-ḥārith, born c Ramlah binte Abi-Sufyan, رملة بنت أبي سفيان aka Umm Habiba, أم حبيبة was the daughter of Abu Sufyan. Rayhana bint Amr ibn Khunafa (ريحانة بنت زيد بن عمرو was a Jewish woman from the Banu Qurayza tribe Safiyya bint Huyayy ( Arabic: صفية بنت حيي c 610 - c Maymuna bint al-Harith ( Arabic: ميمونه بنت الحارث, Ottoman Turkish: Meymune Binti Hâris) (c Maria al-Qibtiyya (مارية القبطية (alternatively " Maria Qupthiya " or Maria the Copt, (died 637 was a Coptic Christian slave who Khadijah bint Khuwaylid or Khadijah al-Kubra The following is a NAMED REFERENCE The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one. ^[144] Muhammad relied upon Khadija in many ways and did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage. ^[145][146] After the death of Khadija, it was suggested to Muhammad by Khawla bint Hakim, that he should marry Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, the young daughter of Abu Bakr whose previous betrothal had not been honored. Sawda bint Zama ibn Qayyis ibn Abd Shams ( Arabic: سودة بنت زمعة) was a wife of Muhammad, and therefore a Mother of the Believers Aisha bint Abu Bakr (died 678 (Arabic ar عائشة Transliteration ʿāʾisha, ʕaːʔɪʃæh "she who lives" also transcribed as A'ishah, Ayesha Muhammad is said to have asked her to arrange for him to marry both. ^[113] Later, Muhammad married additional wives nine of whom survived him. ^[143] Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favourite wife, survived him by many decades and was instrumental in helping to bring together the scattered sayings of Muhammad that would form the Hadith literature. ^[113] Muhammad did his own household chores, helped out with the housework, such preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. Muhammad is also said to had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him. ^[147][148]

Khadijah is said to have borne Muhammad four daughters (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad), though all except two of his daughters, Fatimah and Zainab died before him. Ruqayyah is viewed as the daughter of Muhammad and Khadijah bint Khuwaylid by Sunni Muslims Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad ( أم كلثوم بنت محمد) was the one of the daughters of Muhammad and his first wife Khadijah bint Khuwaylid according This is a Sahaba of Muhammad While Sunnis and some Shi'a view Zainab (also spelled as Zainub and Zaynab) as Fatimah (فاطمة c 605 –632 was a daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad from his first wife Khadija. Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ( عبدالله بن محمد) AKA Taher ibn Muhammad ( Taher = "clean/pure" or Tayib ibn Muhammad ( tayib Qasim ibn Muhammad ( قاسم بن محمد) was the son of Muhammad and Khadija. ^[149] Some Shia scholars however hold that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter. ^[150] Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, but the child died when he was two years old. Maria al-Qibtiyya (مارية القبطية (alternatively " Maria Qupthiya " or Maria the Copt, (died 637 was a Coptic Christian slave who Ibrahim ibn Muhammad (Arabic script إبرهيم بن محمد was the male child of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and Maria al-Qibtiyya. ^[149]

Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. Sharīf ( Arabic: شريف is a traditional Arab tribal Title given to those who serve as the protector of the tribe and all tribal For the Lost character please see Sayid Jarrah Sayyid ( ar سيد) (plural Saadah is an Honorific title These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'as place much more emphasis and value on their distinction. ^[151]

Legacy

9th century Qur'an, the main legacy of Muhammad

Reforms

Main article: Early reforms under Islam

According to William Montgomery Watt, for Muhammad, religion was not a private and individual matter but rather “the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Many Reforms took place under Islam between 610 and 661, including the period of Muhammad 's mission and the rule of William Montgomery Watt ( 14 March 1909 – 24 October 2006) was an Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic He was responding [not only]… to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject. "^[152] Bernard Lewis says that there are two important political traditions in Islam – one that views Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and another that views him as a rebel in Mecca. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American He sees Islam itself as a type of revolution that greatly changed the societies into which the new religion was brought. ^[153]

Historians generally agree that Islamic social reforms in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on what was present in existing Arab society. Social security primarily refers to a Social insurance program providing social protection or protection against socially recognized conditions including poverty old ^[153][154] For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents"^[153] Muhammad's message transformed the society and moral order of life in the Arabian Peninsula through reorientation of society as regards to identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values. Islamic ethics ( akhlāq) defined as "good character" historically took shape gradually from the 7th century and was finally established by the 11th A comprehensive world view (or worldview) is a term Calqued from the German word Weltanschauung ( Welt is the German ^[155] Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic Mecca. Jahiliyyah, al-Jahiliyah or jahalia ( Arabic: جاهلية) is an Islamic concept of "ignorance of divine guidance" or "the ^[156] The Qur'an requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit of the poor, and as Muhammad's position grew in power he demanded that those tribes who wanted to ally with him implement the zakat in particular. This is a sub-article of Islamic economical jurisprudence. Zakaat ( زكاة zækæːh zakaat or zakāh, has the implied ^[157][158]

Sunnah

The Sunnah represents the actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known as Hadith), and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God. Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic The Sunnah is considered as a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, “may peace be upon you” (Arabic: as-salamu `alaykum) is used by Muslims throughout the world. As-Salāmu `Alaykum ( ar السلام عليكم) is an Arabic Spoken greeting used by Muslims as well as non-Muslim Arabic speakers Much of the details of the major Islamic religious rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting, the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Qur'an. ^[159]

The Sunnah also played a major role in the development of the Islamic sciences. It contributed much to the development of the Islamic law particularly from the end of the first Islamic century onwards. ^[160] Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Qur'an and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect saint. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad. ^[161]

Traditional views

Muslim veneration

See also: Islamic views of Muhammad, Naat, Depictions of Muhammad, Islamic music, Qawwali, and Islamic view of miracles

Wazir Khan Mosque (16th century) Fresco painting with floral designs surrounding the words "Allah" and "Muhammad" in blue. Views of Muhammad in some aspects vary widely between the Sects of Islam. A Na`at (نعت is a Poetry that specifically praises the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The permissibility of depictions of Muhammad, the founder of Islam, has long been a concern in Islam's history Islamic music is Muslim religious Music, as sung or played in public services or private devotions Qawwali ( Urdu / Persian: قوٌالی; Punjabi / Multani: ਖ਼ਵ੍ਵਾਲੀ قوٌالی Brajbhasha / Hindi Miracle in the Qur'an can be defined as a supernatural intervention in the life of human beings The Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan, is famous for its extensive faience tile work Inscribed inside the names are Qur'anic verses; the one inside the word "Allah" is the Ayat-ul-Kursi and the one inscribed inside the word "Muhammad" asserts that Muhammad is the last prophet. The Throne Verse ( Arabic: آية الكرسى) is Ayah 255 of the second Sura, Al-Baqara Seal of the Prophets ( ar خاتم اﻟﻨﺒﻴﻴﻦ Khatim-an-Nabiyyin) is a title given to Muhammad by a verse in the Qur'an.

Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his miracles (particularly "Splitting of the moon") have permeated popular Muslim thought and poetry. The splitting of the moon ( Arabic: انشقاق القمر) is a miracle done by prophet Muhammad in Islamic tradition The Qur'an refers to Muhammad as "a mercy (rahmat) to the worlds" (Qur'an 21:107). ^[14] The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessing and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth (see for example the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif). ^[14] Muhammad's birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic world, excluding the Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged. Mawlid ( Eid Milad an Nabi ( Turkish:Mevlid ( Qur'anic مَوْلِدُ آلنَبِيِّ mawlidu n-nabiyyi, “Birth of the Prophet” The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings Wahhabism ( Arabic: Al-Wahhābīyya الوهابية or Wahabism is a conservative reformist call of Sunni Islam attributed to ^[162] Muslims experience Muhammad as a living reality, believing in his ongoing significance to human beings as well as animals and plants. ^[162]

Topkapı Palace gate with Shahadah and his seal. The Topkapı Palace (Topkapı Sarayı or in Ottoman: طوبكابي بالاذيis a palace in Istanbul, Turkey, which was the official and The Muslim Profession of faith, the Shahadah, illustrates the Muslim conception of the role of Muhammad – "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is His Messenger. For Profession of faith (public avowal of faith according to a traditional formula see Creed. The Shahada ( Arabic: ar الشهادة, from the verb ar شهد "to testify" is the Islamic Creed. "

According to historian Denis Gril, the Qur'an does not overtly describe Muhammad performing miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad is finally identified with the Qur’an itself. Muslims consider the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, as the word of God and a Miracle. ^[163] However, Muslim tradition credits Muhammad with several supernatural events. ^[164] For example, many Muslim commentators and some Western scholars have interpreted the Surah 54:1-2 as referring to Muhammad splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh when they had begun to persecute his followers. The splitting of the moon ( Arabic: انشقاق القمر) is a miracle done by prophet Muhammad in Islamic tradition ^[163][165]

Persian manuscript miniature depicting Muhammad, from Rashid al-Din's Jami al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315, illustrating the episode of the Black Stone. Rashid al-Din Tabib ( also Rashid ad-Din Fadhlullah Hamadani (1247–1318 ( was a Persian physician of Jewish origin Polymathic writer and historian The Jami al-tawarikh ( "Compendium of Chronicles") or Universal History is an Iranian work of literature and history written by The Black Stone (called الحجر الأسود al-Hajar-ul-Aswad in Arabic) is a Muslim object of reverence which according to Islamic ^[166]

When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad or any other prophet in Islam, they usually follow it with Peace be upon him (Arabic: sallAllahu `alayhi wa sallam). For the Jewish honorific see Honorifics for the dead in Judaism Peace be upon him. ^[167]

European and Western views

See also: Medieval Christian view of Muhammad

The biographical knowledge about Muhammad in the learned, Latin circles of the Middle Ages in Europe, was remarkably precise to some extent and a good amount of concrete data about his life was known. For the contemporary view of Muhammad see Non-Muslim view of Muhammad. Muhammad was viewed as a charlatan who being driven by ambition and eagerness for power, seduced the Saracens into his submission under a religious guise. ^[14] This knowledge about Muhammad's life in the Latin theological texts was not reflected in the popular literature of the Middle Ages where Muhammad was viewed as an idol or one of the heathen gods. ^[14] Some medieval Christians said he had died in 666, alluding to the number of the beast, instead of 632;^[168] others changed his name from Muhammad to Mahound, the "devil incarnate". The Number of the Beast is a concept from the Book of Revelation of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. Mahound or Mahoun is a variant form of the name Muhammad, often found in Medieval and later European literature ^[169] Bernard Lewis writes "The development of the concept of Mahound started with considering Muhammad as a kind of demon or false god worshipped with Apollyon and Termagant in an unholy trinity. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American Mahound or Mahoun is a variant form of the name Muhammad, often found in Medieval and later European literature In Medieval Europe Termagant was the name given to a god supposedly worshiped by Muslims. "^[170] A later medieval works, Livre dou Tresor represents Muhammad as a former monk and cardinal. ^[14] Dante's Divine Comedy (Canto XXVIII), puts Muhammad, together with Ali, in Hell "among the sowers of discord and the schismatics, being lacerated by devils again and again. The Divine Comedy 28 ( twenty-eight) is the Natural number following 27 and preceding 29. Hell, according to many Religious beliefs, is a location in the Afterlife, which may be described as a place of suffering "^[14]

After the reformation, Muhammad was no longer viewed as a god or idol, but as a cunning, ambitious, and self-seeking impostor. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time ^[170][14] Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad. Guillaume Postel ( March 25 1510 - September 6 1581) was a French linguist astronomer Cabbalist diplomat professor and religious universalist ^[14] Boulainvilliers described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker. ^[14] Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad because "he did not deviate from the natural religion". ^[14] Friedrich Bodenstedt (1851) described Muhammad as "an ominous destroyer and a prophet of murder. "^[14]

According to Watt and Richard Bell, recent writers have generally dismissed the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad “was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith”. William Montgomery Watt ( 14 March 1909 – 24 October 2006) was an Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic ^[171] Watt says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: In contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken for divine revelation his own unconscious. ^[172] Although Muhammad's image in the west is much less unfavorable than in the past, prejudicial folk beliefs remain. ^[173]

Watt and Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking imposter makes it impossible to understand the development of Islam. William Montgomery Watt ( 14 March 1909 – 24 October 2006) was an Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American ^[174][175] Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation. Alford T Welch is a Professor of Religious Studies at Michigan State University. ^[14] Muhammad’s readiness to endure hardship for his cause when there seemed to be no rational basis for hope shows his sincerity. ^[176]

Other religious traditions

• Bahá'ís venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "Manifestations of God", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh. The Bahá'í Faith is a Religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in nineteenth-century Persia, emphasizing the spiritual unity of all humankind The Manifestation of God is a concept in the Bahá'í Faith that refers to what are commonly called Prophets The Manifestations of God are a series of personages Bahá'u'lláh ( ba-haa-ol-laa "Glory of God" ( November 12, 1817 – May 29, 1892) born Mírzá Ḥusayn-`Alí Nuri
• Muhammad is regarded as one of the Saints of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica. The Gnostic Saints of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica are a series of historical and mythological figures revered in the religion of Thelema.
• The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints considers Muhammad, along with Confucius, the Reformers, as well as philosophers including Socrates, Plato, and others, to have received a portion of God´s light and that moral truths were given to them to enlighten nations and bring a higher level of understanding to individuals. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is the fourth largest Christian denomination in the United States and the largest and most well-known ^[177]
• Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, viewed Muhammad as an agent of the Hindu supreme being Brahman. Guru Nanak Dev (ਗੁਰੂ ਨਾਨਕ ਦੇਵ (गुरु नानक گرونانک Gurū Nānak ( 15 april 1469, Nankana Sahib Sikhism ( IPA: or; ਸਿੱਖੀ sikkhī, IPA:) founded on the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus in fifteenth century ^[178]

See also

Notes

References

Encyclopedias

Further reading

External links