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The Mughal Empire (Persian: سلطنت مغول , Solṭanat Moġuli Hend; Urdu: مغلیہ سلطنت, Muġalīh Sulṭanat; self-designation: گوركانى, Gurakâni), was a Turkic ruled Islamic imperial power which ruled most of the Asian subcontinent from the early 16th to the mid-19th centuries[1]. A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is The toman (تومان in Persian, pronounced) is a superunit of the official currency Rial. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar At the height of its power, around 1700, it controlled most of the subcontinent and parts of what is now Afghanistan. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 130 million, over a territory of over 4 million km² (1. 5 million mi²). [2] Following 1725 it declined rapidly. Year 1725 ( MDCCXXV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Its decline has been variously explained as caused by wars of succession, agrarian crises fueling local revolts, the growth of religious intolerance, and British colonialism. The last Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, whose rule was restricted to the city of Delhi, was imprisoned and exiled by the British after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar, also known as Bahadur Shah or Bahadur Shah II; 24 October 1775 7 November 1862 was the last of the Mughal Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut,
The classic period of the Empire starts with the accession of Jalaluddin Mohammad, better known as Akbar the Great, in 1556, and ends with the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, although the Empire continued for another 150 years. Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar Aurangzeb ( (full title Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I Padshah Ghazi) ( November 4, Year 1707 ( MDCCVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a During this period, the Empire was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting the different regions. All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period.
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Early history
The foundation for the Mughal empire was established around the early 1500s by the Timurid prince Babur, a descendant of Genghis Khan and Timur, when he took control of Doab and eastern regions of Khorasan controlling the fertile Sindh region and the lower valley of the Indus River. The Timurids, self-designated Gurkānī ( were a Persianate Central Asian Sunni Muslim dynasty Babur ( February 14 1483 - December 26 1530) was a Muslim conqueror from Central Asia who following a series of setbacks Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among A Doab ( Persian, Urdu: dō, "two" + āb, "water" or "river" is a term used in India and Greater Khorasan (خراسان بزرگ (also written Khorasaan, Khurasan and Khurasaan) is a modern term for eastern territories of ancient Persia Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd [3]
In 1526, Babur defeated the last of the Delhi Sultans, Ibrahim Shah Lodi, at the First Battle of Panipat. The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए Ibrahim Lodhi (died April 21, 1526) was the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. The first battle of Panipat took place in northern India, and marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire. Babur was invited to invade the Delhi Sultans by Rana Sanga, who thought after defeating Ibrahim Lodhi, Babur would go back and he would become Ruler of Delhi. The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए Maharana Sangram Singh (commonly known as Rana Sanga) ( April 12, 1484 – March 17, 1527) was the ruler of Mewar, a region [4] To secure his newly founded kingdom, Babur then had to face the Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga of Chittor, at the battle of Khanwa. Rajput constitute one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India Maharana Sangram Singh (commonly known as Rana Sanga) ( April 12, 1484 – March 17, 1527) was the ruler of Mewar, a region WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Chittorgarh (also Chittor, Chittaur, or Chittaurgarh) is an ancient town in The Battle of Khanua (1527 was the second of the series of three major battles victories in which gave Mughal warlord Zaheer-ud-din Babur overlordship over These early military successes of the Mughals, achieved by an army much smaller than its opponents, have been attributed to their cohesion, mobility, horse-mounted archers, and use of artillery. The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine [5]
Babur's son Humayun succeeded him in 1530 but suffered major reversals at the hands of the Pashtun Sher Shah Suri and effectively lost most of the fledgling empire before it could grow beyond a minor regional state. Background Babur's decision to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India but it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called Sher Shah Suri (1486 Sasaram &ndash May 22, 1545 Kalinjar) ( - Šīr Šāh Sūrī) also known as Farid Khan or From 1540 Humayun became a ruler in exile, reaching the Court of the Safavid ruler in 1542 while his forces still controlled some fortresses and small regions. The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz But when the Afghans fell into disarray with the death of Sher Shah Suri, Humayun returned with a mixed army, raised more troops and managed to reconquer Delhibum in 1555.
Humayun crossed the rough terrain of Makran with his wife, but left behind their infant son Jalaluddin to spare him the rigours of the journey. Makran ( Urdu / Persian: مکران) is a semi-desert coastal strip in the south of Balochistan, in Iran and Pakistan, along Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar Akbar, as Jalaluddin would be better known in his later years, was taken from the Rajput town of Umerkot in Sindh(Pakistan) where he was raised by his uncle Askari. Rajput constitute one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India Umarkot, also known as Omarkot, ( Urdu: عمرکوٹ) is town in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and There he became an excellent outdoorsman, horseman, and hunter, and learned the arts of war.
The resurgent Humayun then conquered the central plateau around Delhi, but months later died in an accident, leaving the realm unsettled and in war. Akbar succeeded his father on 14 February 1556, while in the midst of a war against Sikandar Shah Suri for the throne of Delhi. Events 842 - Charles the Bald and Louis the German swear the Oaths of Strasbourg in the French and German Sikandar Shah Suri was the sixth ruler of Sur dynasty. Sikandar Shah Suri's real name was Ahmad Khan He soon won his eighteenth victory at age 21 or 22. The rump remnant began to grow, then it grew considerably. He became called Akbar, as he was a wise ruler, set fair but steep taxes. He investigated the production in a certain area and taxed inhabitants 1/5 of their agricultural produce. He also set up an efficient bureaucracy and was tolerant of religious differences which softened the resistance by the conquered.
Jahangir, the son of Mughal Emperor Akbar ruled the empire from 1605–1627. Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Khushru-i-Giti Panah Abu'l-Fath Nur ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi ''( September 20 In October 1627, Shah Jahan, son of Mughal Emperor Jahangir succeeded to the throne, where he inherited a vast and rich empire in India. Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country At mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire in the world. Shah Jahan commissioned the famous Taj Mahal (1630–1653) in Agra as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died giving birth to their 14th child. The Taj Mahal (tɑdʒ Agra ( pronounced) (आगरा آگرا is a city on the banks of the Yamuna River in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, Mumtāz Mahal (April 1593 - 17 June 1631 ( Persian, Urdu: ممتاز محل; pronunciation /mumtɑːz mɛhɛl/ meaning "beloved ornament of the palace" By 1700 the empire reached its peak with major parts of present day India, except for the North eastern states, the Sikh lands in Punjab, the lands of the Marathas, areas in the south and most of Afganistan under its domain, under the leadership of Aurangzeb Alamgir. Sikhism ( IPA: or; ਸਿੱਖੀ sikkhī, IPA:) founded on the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus in fifteenth century The Maratha Empire ( Marathi: मराठा साम्राज्य Marāṭhā Sāmrājya; also transliterated Mahratta Aurangzeb ( (full title Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I Padshah Ghazi) ( November 4, Aurangzeb was the last of what are now referred to as the Great Mughal kings.
Religion
The official State religion of the Mughal Empire was Islam, with the preference to the jurisprudence of the Hanafi Madhab (Mazhab). For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Jurisprudence is the Theory and Philosophy of Law. Scholars of jurisprudence or legal philosophers hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature The Hanafi ( Arabic حنفي school is the oldest of the four schools of thought ( Madhhabs Madhhab or Mazhab ( Arabic مذهب mæðhæb pl مذاهب mæðæːhıb) is an Islamic school of thought, or However, throughout its history, subjects had complete freedom to practice any Religion of his or her choice, though the government tended to support Islamic institutions. During the reign of all the Emperors except Akbar , Non-Muslims were obliged to pay the Jizya tax, signifying their status as Dhimmis. Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (جزْية ʤɪzjæh Ottoman Turkish: cizye both derived from Pahlavi and ultimately from Aramaic A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish
After the invasion of Persia by the Mongol Empire, a regional Turko-Persio-Mongol dynasty formed. An invasion is a military offensive consisting of all or large parts of the Armed forces of one geopolitical entity aggressively entering territory The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire Just as eastern Mongol dynasties inter-married with locals and adopted the local religion of Buddhism and the Chinese culture, this group adopted the local religion of Islam and the Persian culture. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. To best understand Iran and its people one must first attempt to acquire an understanding of its ancient culture The first Mughal King, Babur, established the Mughal dynasty in regions spanning parts of present-day Pakistan and India. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Upon invading this region, the Mughals inter-married with local royalty once again, creating a dynasty of combined Turko-Persian, Mongolian and Rajput backgrounds. The composite Turko-Persian tradition was a variant of Islamic culture. Rajput constitute one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India King Babur and his descendants did this to create peace among the different religions in the region. In accordance to Islamic values, Babur focused on setting a good example for the Mughal Dynasty by emphasizing religious tolerance.
The language of the court was Persian. The language spoken was Urdūn, which today has advanced into Urdu. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised Urdūn originated from Persio-Arabic formation, and took on various characteristics of Persian, Chagatai, and Arabic. The Chagatai language ( جغتای - Jaĝatāy; Uyghur: چاغاتاي Chaghatay; Uzbek: ﭼﯩﻐﻪتاي Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Today, Urdu is the National Language of Pakistan and is spoken by Indian Muslims. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion
The dynasty remained unstable until the reign of Akbar, who was of liberal disposition and intimately acquainted, since birth, with the mores and traditions of Islam in the Indian sub-continent. Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar Under Akbar's rule, the court abolished the jizya (tax on non-Muslims comparable with zakat for Muslims) and abandoned use of the Muslim lunar calendar in favor of a solar calendar . Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (جزْية ʤɪzjæh Ottoman Turkish: cizye both derived from Pahlavi and ultimately from Aramaic This is a sub-article of Islamic economical jurisprudence. Zakaat ( زكاة zækæːh zakaat or zakāh, has the implied A lunar calendar is a Calendar that is based on cycles of the Moon phase. A solar calendar is a Calendar whose dates indicate the position of the earth on its revolution around the Sun (or equivalently the apparent position of the sun moving One of Akbar's most unusual ideas regarding religion was Din-i-Ilahi (Faith of God), which was an eclectic mix of Islam, Zoroastrianism, Jainism and Christianity. The Dīn-i Ilāhī (دین الهی "Divine Faith" was a syncretic religious doctrine propounded by the Mughal emperor Jalālu d-Dīn Muḥammad Akbar For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings It was proclaimed the state religion until his death. These actions however met with stiff opposition from the Muslim clergy, especially the Sufi Shaykh Alf Sani Ahmad Sirhindi. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفیگری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Imam-e-Rabbani Mujaddid Alf Sani Shaykh Ahmad al-Farooqi Sirhindi (~1564&ndash1624 commonly renowned as Mujaddid Alf Sani was an Indian Islamic scholar Akbar is remembered as tolerant, at least by the standards of the day: only one major massacre was recorded during his long reign (1556–1605), when he ordered most of the captured inhabitants of a fort be slain on February 24, 1568, after the battle for Chitor. Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the Akbar's acceptance of other religions and toleration of their public worship, his abolition of poll-tax on non-Muslims, and his interest in other faiths show an attitude of considerable religious tolerance, which, in the minds of his orthodox Muslim opponents, was tantamount to apostasy. He made the formal declaration of his own infallibility in all matters of religious doctrine, promulgated a new creed, and adopted Hindu and Zoroastrian festivals and practices.
The emperor Jahangir was also a religious moderate. His mother being Hindu and his father setting up an independent faith-of-the-court ('Din-i-Illahi') and the influence of his two Hindu queens (the Maharani Maanbai and Maharani Jagat) kept religious moderation as a center-piece of state policy which was extended under the emperor Shah Jahan.
Religious orthodoxy would only play an important role during the reign of Aurangzeb, a devout Muslim. Aurangzeb ( (full title Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I Padshah Ghazi) ( November 4, Aurhangzeb was comparatively less tolerant of other faiths than his predecessors had been, and his reign saw an increase in the number and importance of Islamic institutions and scholars. He led many military campaigns against the remaining non-Muslim powers of the Indian subcontinent, namely the Sikh states of the Punjab and the last independent Hindu rajputs. Under his reign the empire reached its greatest extent in terms of territorial gain and economic strength.
Economy
The Mughals used the "mansabdar" system to generate land revenue. The emperor would grant revenue rights to a mansabdar in exchange for promises of soldiers in wartime. The greater the size of the land the emperor granted, the greater the number of soldiers the mansabdar had to promise. The mansab was both revocable and non-hereditary; this gave the centre a fairly large degree of control over the mansabdars.
Establishment and reign of Babur
In the early 16th century, Muslim armies consisting of Mongol, Turkic, Persian, and Afghan warriors invaded the subcontinent under the leadership of the Timurid prince Zahir-ud-Din-Muhammad Babur. Babur ( February 14 1483 - December 26 1530) was a Muslim conqueror from Central Asia who following a series of setbacks The Demographics of Afghanistan are ethnically and linguistically mixed Babur was the great-grandson of Central Asian conqueror Timur-e Lang (Timur the Lame, from which the Western name Tamerlane is derived), who had invaded India in 1398 before retiring to Samarkand. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Timur himself claimed descent from the Mongol ruler, Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder Babur was driven from Samarkand by the Uzbeks and initially established his rule in Kabul in 1504. } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with Later, taking advantage of internal discontent in the Delhi sultanate under Ibrahim Lodi, and following an invitation from Daulat Khan Lodhi (governor of Punjab) and Alam Khan (uncle of the Sultan), Babur invaded the sultanate in 1526. The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए Ibrahim Lodhi (died April 21, 1526) was the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Daulat Khan Lodhi was the governor of Lahore during the reign of Ibrahim Lodhi, the last ruler of the Lodhi dynasty.
Babur, a seasoned military commander with his well-trained veteran army of 12,000 met the sultan's huge but unwieldy and disunited force of more than 100,000 men. Babur defeated the Lodhi sultan decisively at the First Battle of Panipat. The first battle of Panipat took place in northern India, and marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire. Employing firearms, gun carts, movable artillery, superior cavalry tactics, and the highly regarded Mughal composite bow, a weapon even more powerful than the English longbow of the same period, Babur achieved a resounding victory and the Sultan was killed. A firearm is a Tool that projects either single or multiple Projectiles at high velocity through a controlled explosion Field artillery is a category of mobile Artillery used to support armies in the field A year later (1527) he decisively defeated, at the Battle of Khanwa, a Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga of Chittor. The Battle of Khanua (1527 was the second of the series of three major battles victories in which gave Mughal warlord Zaheer-ud-din Babur overlordship over Maharana Sangram Singh (commonly known as Rana Sanga) ( April 12, 1484 – March 17, 1527) was the ruler of Mewar, a region A third major battle was fought in 1529 at Gogra, where Babur routed the joint forces of Afghans and the sultan of Bengal. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang Babur died in 1530 in Agra before he could consolidate his military gains. During his short five-year reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived. He left behind as his chief legacy a set of descendants who would fulfil his dream of establishing an Islamic empire in the Indian subcontinent.
Successors
| Mughal Emperors | ||||||||||||
| Emperor | Name | Reign start | Reign end | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Babur | Zahiruddin Mohammed | 1526 | 1530 | |||||||||
| Humayun | Nasiruddin Mohammed | 1530 | 1540 | |||||||||
| Interregnum * | - | 1540 | 1555 | |||||||||
| Humayun | Nasiruddin Mohammed | 1555 | 1556 | |||||||||
| Akbar | Jalaluddin Mohammed | 1556 | 1605 | |||||||||
| Jahangir | Nuruddin Mohammed | 1605 | 1627 | |||||||||
| Shah Jahan | Shihabuddin Mohammed | 1627 | 1658 | |||||||||
| Aurangzeb | Muhiuddin Mohammed | 1658 | 1707 | |||||||||
* Afghan Rule (Sher Shah Suri and his descendants)
Humayun
When Babur died, his son Humayun (1530–1556) inherited a difficult task. The term South Asia usually refers to the political entities of the Sub- Himalayan region - namely Republic of India, Pakistan, This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in the South Asia. Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: مﮩرگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BCE in and around the Punjab region which is located on the The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H culture also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition Mahajanapadas ( Sanskrit: महाजनपद Mahājanapadas) literally "Great Kingdoms" (from Maha, "great" and Janapada Magadha (मगध formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas ( Sanskrit, "great countries" or regions in ancient India. The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 2nd century BC since the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding The Sātavāhanas ( Marathi: सातवाहन Telugu:శాతవాహనులు were a Dynasty which ruled from Junnar ( The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C The Pala Empire was a dynasty in control of the northern and eastern Indian subcontinent, mainly the Bengal and Bihar regions from the 8th to The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ( Sanskrit: राष्ट्रकूट rāṣṭrakūṭa, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ was a royal The Western Chalukya Empire ( Kannada: ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) ruled most of the western Deccan, South The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian Dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083CE to 1323CE During the late Middle Ages, several Islamic Empires were established in South Asia. The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim -ruled late medieval kingdoms–- Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826 called Kingdom of Assam in medieval times was a medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam that maintained its The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South The Maratha Empire ( Marathi: मराठा साम्राज्य Marāṭhā Sāmrājya; also transliterated Mahratta The Sikh Confederacy was a nation that existed from 1716 to 1799 The Sikh Confederacy was a nation that existed from 1716 to 1799 The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, History of Bengal Bangladesh became one of the last major nation states following its secession in 1971 from the nation of Pakistan which achieved its independence from the British Bhutan 's early history is steeped in Mythology and remains obscure The History of the Republic of India began on August 15, 1947 when India became an independent Dominion within the British Commonwealth The Maldives is a nation consisting of 26 natural Atolls, comprising 1192 islands Historical setting Since very ancient times the Maldives were ruled The History of Nepal (नेपालको इतिहास is characterized by its isolated position in the Himalayas and its two dominant neighbors India The history of Pakistan as a modern nation began with independence from British India on 14 August 1947, although Traditionally the recorded History of Sri Lanka boasts of 25 chronicled centuries The history of Assam is the history of a confluence of peoples from the east west and the north the confluence of the Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic and The Baloch people are an Iranian ethnic group that are mainly settled in the Balochistan areas of Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan. See also History of Bangladesh The history of Bengal (including Bangladesh and West Bengal) dates back four millennia The history of Himachal Pradesh dates back to the time when the Indus valley civilisation flourished Orissa formed in 1926 was known as Kalinga in ancient times Kalinga was a prosperous nation whose merchants traded with the lands of Java and Sumatra The former subdivisions of Pakistan are states provinces and territories which mainly existed between 1947 and 1975 when the current provinces The first known use of the word Punjab is in the book Tarikh-e-Sher Shah Suri (1580 which mentions the construction of a fort by "Sher Khan of Punjab" The history of South India covers a span of over two thousand years during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires Tibetan history is characterized by a special dedication to the Buddhist religion both in the eyes of its own people as well as for the Mongol and Manchu Coinage of India, issued by Imperial dynasties and smaller Middle kingdoms of India began during the 1st millennium BCE, and consisted The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several Lists of incumbents. Economic history of India, in the sense of the meaning of the term economic in its current sense is at least 5000 years old Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies Originating over 5000 years ago the linguistic history of India describes the evolution and transformation of early human communications techniques - from pictures pictorial scripts Indian literature is generally acknowledged as one of the oldest in the world Indian maritime history begins during the 3rd millennium BCE when the inhabitants of the Indus Valley initiate trading with Mesopotamia. India has a long military history dating back several millennia This is a timeline of Indian history. It includes the history of South Asia ( Indian subcontinent) especially the history of the regions now known Babur ( February 14 1483 - December 26 1530) was a Muslim conqueror from Central Asia who following a series of setbacks Background Babur's decision to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India but it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of Background Babur's decision to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India but it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Khushru-i-Giti Panah Abu'l-Fath Nur ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi ''( September 20 Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi Aurangzeb ( (full title Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I Padshah Ghazi) ( November 4, Year 1707 ( MDCCVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Sher Shah Suri (1486 Sasaram &ndash May 22, 1545 Kalinjar) ( - Šīr Šāh Sūrī) also known as Farid Khan or Background Babur's decision to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India but it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of He was pressed from all sides by a reassertion of Afghan claims to the Delhi throne and by disputes over his own succession. Driven into Sindh by the armies of Sher Shah Suri, in 1540 he fled to the Rajput Kingdom of Umarkot then to Persia, where he spent nearly ten years as an embarrassed guest of the Safavid court of Shah Tahmasp. Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. Sher Shah Suri (1486 Sasaram &ndash May 22, 1545 Kalinjar) ( - Šīr Šāh Sūrī) also known as Farid Khan or Rajput constitute one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India Umarkot may refer to Hyderabad Airport Umerkot, Pakistan The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz Tahmasp I ( 3 March, 1514-1576 was an influential Shah of Persia of the Safavid Dynasty During Sher Shah's reign, an imperial unification and administrative framework were established; this would be further developed by Akbar later in the century. In addition, the tomb of Sher Shah Suri is an architectural masterpiece that was to have a profound impact on the evolution of Indo-Islamic funerary architecture. In 1545, Humayun gained a foothold in Kabul with Safavid assistance and reasserted his claims, a task facilitated by the weakening of Afghan power in the area after the death of Sher Shah Suri in May 1545. He took control of Delhi in 1555, but died within six months of his return, from a fall down the steps of his library. His tomb at Delhi represents an outstanding landmark in the development and refinement of the Mughal style. It was designed in 1564, eight years after his death, as a mark of devotion by his widow, Hamida Banu Begum.
Akbar
Humayun's untimely death in 1556 left the task of conquest and imperial consolidation to his thirteen-year-old son, Jalal-ud-Din Mohammad Akbar (r. Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar 1556–1605). Following a decisive military victory at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556, the regent Bairam Khan pursued a vigorous policy of expansion on Akbar's behalf. The Second Battle of Panipat was fought between the forces of Samrat Hem Chander Vikramaditya, popularly called Hemu, and the army of Mughal emperor Bairam Khan also Bayram Khan ( بيرام خان) (died 1561 was a powerful Turcoman noble and regent of eastern Anatolian and Azerbaijani As soon as Akbar came of age, he began to free himself from the influences of overbearing ministers, court factions, and harem intrigues, and demonstrated his own capacity for judgment and leadership. A workaholic who seldom slept more than three hours a night, he personally oversaw the implementation of his administrative policies, which were to form the backbone of the Mughal Empire for more than 200 years. With the aide of his legendary Navaratnas, he continued to conquer, annex, and consolidate a far-flung territory bounded by Kabul in the northwest, Kashmir in the north, Bengal in the east, and beyond the Narmada River in central India. See Navaratna for the talisman set of stones and gems and Hind Rattan for the award } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang The Narmada नर्मदा Gujarati નર્મદા or Nerbudda (Narbada is a river in central India and the fifth largest river in the Indian subcontinent
Starting in 1571, Akbar built a walled capital called Fatehpur Sikri (Fatehpur means "town of victory") near Agra. Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar See also Mughal architecture Fatehpur Sikri (फतेहपूर सिकरी فتحپور سیکری is a city and a Municipal board in Agra Palaces for each of Akbar's senior queens, a huge artificial lake, and sumptuous water-filled courtyards were built there. However, the city was soon abandoned and the capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. The reason may have been that the water supply in Fatehpur Sikri was insufficient or of poor quality. Or, as some historians believe, Akbar had to attend to the northwest areas of his empire and therefore moved his capital northwest. In 1599, Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra from where he reigned until his death.
Akbar adopted two distinct but effective approaches in administering a large territory and incorporating various ethnic groups into the service of his realm. Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar In 1580 he obtained local revenue statistics for the previous decade in order to understand details of productivity and price fluctuation of different crops. Aided by Todar Mal, a Hindu scholar, Akbar issued a revenue schedule that optimized the revenue needs of the state with the ability of the peasantry to pay. Raja Todar Mal was born in Laharpur, in Oudh, and rose to become the Finance Minister in Akbar 's Darbar. Revenue demands, fixed according to local conventions of cultivation and quality of soil, ranged from one-third to one-half of the crop and were paid in cash. Akbar relied heavily on land-holding zamindars to act as revenue-collectors. Zamindar ( Devanagari: ज़मींदार zamīndār, Urdu: زمیندار zamīndār, Eastern Nagari: জমিদার They used their considerable local knowledge and influence to collect revenue and to transfer it to the treasury, keeping a portion in return for services rendered. Within his administrative system, the warrior aristocracy (mansabdars) held ranks (mansabs) expressed in numbers of troops, and indicating pay, armed contingents, and obligations. Mansabdar was the generic term for the military -type grading of all imperial officials of the Mughal Empire. The warrior aristocracy was generally paid from revenues of non-hereditary and transferable jagirs (revenue villages). In Pakistan and India, a Jagir was a small territory granted by the ruler to an army chieftain in fairly short terms usually of three years but not extending beyond
An astute ruler who genuinely appreciated the challenges of administering so vast an empire, Akbar introduced a policy of reconciliation and assimilation of Hindus (including Jodhabai, later renamed Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum, the Hindu Rajput mother of his son and heir, Jahangir), who represented the majority of the population. Mariam uz-Zamani Begum Sahiba (often shortened to Mariam-uz-Zamani) née Rajkumari Hira Kunwari Sahiba alias Harkha Bai ( October 1, 1542 - 1622 was Mariam uz-Zamani Begum Sahiba (often shortened to Mariam-uz-Zamani) née Rajkumari Hira Kunwari Sahiba alias Harkha Bai ( October 1, 1542 - 1622 was Rajput constitute one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India He recruited and rewarded Hindu chiefs with the highest ranks in government; encouraged intermarriages between Mughal and Rajput aristocracy; allowed new temples to be built; personally participated in celebrating Hindu festivals such as Deepavali (or Diwali), the festival of lights; and abolished the jizya (poll tax) imposed on non-Muslims. Rajput constitute one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India Diwali, or Deepavali, (also called Tihar and Swanti in Nepal (Markiscarali is a major Indian and Nepalese festival and a significant Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (جزْية ʤɪzjæh Ottoman Turkish: cizye both derived from Pahlavi and ultimately from Aramaic Akbar came up with his own theory of "rulership as a divine illumination," enshrined in his new religion Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith), incorporating the principle of acceptance of all religions and sects. The Dīn-i Ilāhī (دین الهی "Divine Faith" was a syncretic religious doctrine propounded by the Mughal emperor Jalālu d-Dīn Muḥammad Akbar He encouraged widow re-marriage, discouraged child marriage, outlawed the practice of sati and persuaded Delhi merchants to set up special market days for women, who otherwise were secluded at home. Satī ( Devanagari: सती, the feminine of sat "true" (also suttee) is a Funeral practice among some
By the end of Akbar's reign, the Mughal Empire extended throughout north India and south of the Narmada river. Geography Northern India lies mainly on continental India and a very small part of it lies on the Indian peninsula The Narmada नर्मदा Gujarati નર્મદા or Nerbudda (Narbada is a river in central India and the fifth largest river in the Indian subcontinent Notable exceptions were Gondwana in central India, which paid tribute to the Mughals, Assam in the northeast, and large parts of the Deccan. Gondwana is a region of India. Named after the Gondi people who live there (though they can also be found in other parts of India the name of the ancient continent Assam) ( Assamese: অসম Ôxôm) is a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur, a suburb of the city The area south of the Godavari river remained entirely out of the ambit of the Mughals. This article is about the river Godavari in India. For other uses see Godavari (disambiguation The Godavari ( Marathi language:गोदावरी In 1600, Akbar's empire had a revenue of £17. 5 million. By comparison, in 1800, the entire treasury of Great Britain totalled £16 million. Year -of the Julian calendar. The Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar until Friday, but 12 days ahead since Saturday. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands
Akbar's empire supported vibrant intellectual and cultural life. The large imperial library included books in Hindi, Persian, Greek, Kashmiri, English, and Arabic, such as the Shahnameh, Bhagavata Purana and the Bible. Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Kashmiri (कॉशुर کٲشُر Koshur) is a Dardic language spoken primarily in the valley of Kashmir, a region situated in the Indian state English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc The Bhagavata Purana (also known as Śrīmad Bhāgavatam, or simply Bhāgavatam) is one of the Puranic texts of Hindu literature Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Akbar regularly sponsored debates and dialogues among religious and intellectual figures with differing views, and he welcomed Jesuit missionaries from Goa to his court. The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order Goa ( Konkani: गोंय /ɡɔ̃j/ is India 's smallest state in terms of area and the fourth smallest in terms of population. Akbar directed the creation of the Hamzanama, an artistic masterpiece that included 1400 large paintings. The Hamzanama or Dastan-e-Amir Hamza ( Adventures of Amir Hamza) is an important work which narrates the fantastic exploits of Amir Hamza, the uncle of the Architecture flourished during his reign. One of his first major building projects was the construction of a huge fort at Agra. The massive sandstone ramparts of the Red Fort are another impressive achievement. The most ambitious architectural exercise of Akbar, and one of the most glorious examples of Indo-Islamic architecture, was the creation of an entirely new capital city at Fatehpur Sikri.
Jahangir
After the death of Akbar in 1605, his son, Prince Salim, ascended the throne and assumed the title of Jahangir, "Seizer of the World". He was assisted in his artistic attempts by his wife, Nur Jahan. The Mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandra, outside Agra, represents a major turning point in Mughal history, as the sandstone compositions of Akbar were adapted by his successors into opulent marble masterpieces. The Tomb of Akbar the Great is the an important architectural masterpiece set in 48 Ha (119 acres of grounds in Sikandra a suburb of Agra, Uttar Pradesh, The Tomb of Akbar the Great is the an important architectural masterpiece set in 48 Ha (119 acres of grounds in Sikandra a suburb of Agra, Uttar Pradesh, Jahangir is the central figure in the development of the Mughal garden. The most famous of his gardens is the Shalimar Bagh on the banks of Dal Lake in Kashmir. The Dal Lake is a famous lake in Srinagar, the summer capital of the northern most indian administered state of Jammu & Kashmir. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir
Mughal rule under Jahangir (1605–27) and Shah Jahan (1628–58) was noted for political stability, brisk economic activity, beautiful paintings, and monumental buildings. Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi Jahangir's wife Nur Jahan (Light of the World), emerged as the most powerful individual in the court besides the emperor. Begam Nur Jahan ( Persian / Urdu: نور جهان) (alternative spelling Noor Jahan, Nur Jehan, Nor Jahan, etc As a result, Persian poets, artists, scholars, and officers — including her own family members — lured by the Mughal court's brilliance and luxury, found asylum in India. However, the number of unproductive officers mushroomed in the state bureaucracies, as did corruption, while the excessive Persian representation upset the delicate balance of impartiality at the court.
The reign of Jahangir was also known for religious persecution. Joint Hindu and Jain forces were rebelling against the government and disrupting society. Upon stopping the rebellion, he severely persecuted the Jains and destroyed Hindu temples. Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Guru Arjun, the fifth Guru of Sikhs, was tortured to death during his reign. Guru Arjan Dev Ji or Guru Arjun Dev Ji (ਗੁਰੂ ਅਰਜੁਨ ਦੇਵ (born in Amritsar, Punjab, India on 15 April, Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. Although his relations with the son of Guru Arjun, Guru Hargobind, remained very cordial and friendly. Guru Har Gobind (ਗੁਰੂ ਹਰਿ ਗੋਬਿੰਦ ਸਾਹਿਬ also Sacha Padshah (ਸੱਚਾ ਪਾਦਸ਼ਾਹ True King It is contended that Guru Arjun and the Jains suffered because of their disrespect of the Empire.
Nur Jahan's abortive efforts to secure the throne for the prince of her choice (Khurram - later Shah Jahan) led the first-born, Prince Khusrau (Maharani Maanbai's son) to rebel against Jahangir in 1622. Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi In that same year, the Persians took over Kandahar in southern Afghanistan, an event that struck a serious blow to Mughal prestige. For the 2001 film see Kandahar (film; for the Kandahar meteorite of 1959 see Meteorite falls; for the places in Azerbaijan see Cəndəhar and Jahangir also had the Tuzak-i-Jahangiri composed as a record of his reign.
Shah Jahan
The Taj Mahal is the most famous monument built by the Mughals. Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi The Taj Mahal (tɑdʒ It was built by Prince Khurram who ascended the throne in 1628 as Emperor Shah Jahan. Between 1636 and 1646, Shah Jahan sent Mughal armies to conquer the Deccan and the lands to the northwest of the empire, beyond the Khyber Pass. The Khyber Pass, (also spelled Khaiber or Khaybar (درہ خیبر (altitude m ft is the Mountain pass that links Pakistan and Even though they aptly demonstrated Mughal military strength, these campaigns drained the imperial treasury. As the state became a huge military machine, causing the nobles and their contingents to multiply almost fourfold, the demands for revenue from the peasantry were greatly increased. Political unification and maintenance of law and order over wide areas encouraged the emergence of large centers of commerce and crafts — such as Lahore, Delhi, Agra, and Ahmadabad — linked by roads and waterways to distant places and ports.
However, Shah Jahan's reign is remembered more for monumental architectural achievements than anything else. The single most important architectural change was the use of marble instead of sandstone. He demolished the austere sandstone structures of Akbar in the Red Fort and replaced them with marble buildings such as the Diwan-i-Am (hall of public audience), the Diwan-i-Khas (hall of private audience), and the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque). The tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, the grandfather of his queen, Mumtaz Mahal, was also constructed on the opposite bank of the Jamuna or Yamuna. Mirza Ghiyas Baig ( مرزا غياث بيگ) was an important official in the Mughal empire, and whose children served as wives mothers and generals of Mughal emperors Mumtāz Mahal (April 1593 - 17 June 1631 ( Persian, Urdu: ممتاز محل; pronunciation /mumtɑːz mɛhɛl/ meaning "beloved ornament of the palace" In 1638 he began to lay out the city of Shahjahanabad beside the Jamuna river further North in Delhi. The Red Fort at Delhi represents the pinnacle of centuries of experience in the construction of palace-forts. Outside the fort, he built the Jama Masjid, the largest mosque in the empire. However, it is for the Taj Mahal, which he built as a memorial to his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, that he is most often remembered.
Shah Jahan's extravagant architectural indulgence had a heavy price. The peasants had been impoverished by heavy taxes and by the time his son Aurangzeb ascended the throne, the empire was in a state of insolvency. As a result, opportunities for grand architectural projects were severely limited. This is most easily seen at the Bibi-ki-Maqbara, the tomb of Aurangzeb's wife, built in 1678. Though the design was inspired by the Taj Mahal, it is half its size, the proportions compressed and the detail clumsily executed.
The Taj Mahal thus symbolizes both Mughal artistic achievement and excessive financial expenditures at a time when resources were shrinking. The economic positions of peasants and artisans did not improve because the administration failed to produce any lasting change in the existing social structure. There was no incentive for the revenue officials, whose concerns were primarily personal or familial gain, to generate resources independent of what was received from the Hindu zamindars and village leaders, who, due to self-interest and local dominance, did not hand over the entirety of the tax revenues to the imperial treasury. In their ever-greater dependence on land revenue, the Mughals unwittingly nurtured forces that eventually led to the break-up of their empire.
The Reign of Aurangzeb and the decline of the empire
Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, and a succession struggle emerged among his four sons, Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb, and Murad Baksh. Aurangzeb ( (full title Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I Padshah Ghazi) ( November 4, The Lahore Fort, locally referred to as Shahi Qila ( Urdu: شاهی قلعہ) is Citadel of the city of Lahore, Punjab Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Dara Shikoh ( Persian: داراشكوه)(March 20 1615 - August 30 1659 was the eldest son of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and his wife Shāh Shujā ( June 23, 1616 &ndash 1660 was the second son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and empress Mumtaz Mahal. Aurangzeb ( (full title Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I Padshah Ghazi) ( November 4, Murad Baksh (died 1661 was the youngest son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and empress Mumtaz Mahal. In 1658 Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh's army near Agra, and Dara Shikoh fled north. Aurangzeb captured Agra, crowned himself emperor, and imprisoned Shah Jahan. Dara Shikoh and Murad Baksh were captured and later executed, while Shah Shuja fled into exile in 1660. Shah Jahan remained imprisoned in the citadel at Agra until his death in 1666.
Aurangzeb Alamgir was the last of the Great Mughals. During his fifty-year reign, the empire reached its greatest physical size (the Bijapur and Golconda Sultanates which had been reduced to vassaldom by Shah Jahan were formally annexed), but also showed unmistakable signs of decline. The Adil Shahi or Adilshahi dynasty ruled the Sultanate of Bijapur in the Western area of the Deccan region of Southern India from 1490 The bureaucracy had grown corrupt; the huge army used outdated weaponry and tactics. Aurangzeb restored Mughal military dominance and expanded power southward, at least for a while. Aurangzeb was involved in a series of protracted wars against the sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda in the Deccan, the Rajputs of Rajasthan, Malwa, and Bundelkhand, the Marathas in Maharashtra and the Ahoms in Assam. Rajput constitute one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India Rājasthān ( Devanāgarī: राजस्थान raːdʒəst̪ʰaːn is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area Geography Bundelkhand lies between the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the north and the Vindhya Range to the south The Marāthās ( Marathi: mr मराठा also Mahrattas) form an Indo Aryan group of Hindu Warriors hailing mostly from the present-day Maharashtra ( Marathi: mahārāṣṭra, IPA) is a state located on the western coast of India. The Ahoms established the Ahom kingdom (1228-1826 in parts of present-day Assam and ruled it for nearly 600 years Peasant uprisings and revolts by local leaders became all too common, as did the conniving of the nobles to preserve their own status at the expense of a steadily weakening empire. From the early 1700s the campaigns of the Sikhs of Punjab under leaders such as Banda Bahadur, inspired by the martial teachings of their last Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, also posed a considerable threat to Mughal rule in Northern India. Baba Banda Singh Bahadur (1670-1716 (Lachhman Dev was a Sikh warrior known for his struggle against the Mughal Empire in the Guru Gobind Singh (ਗੁਰੂ ਗੋਬਿੰਦ ਸਿੰਘ gʊɾu gobɪn̪d̪ sɪ́ŋg ( December 22, 1666 &ndash 7 October, 1708) was
But most decisively the series of wars against the Pashtuns in Afghanistan weakened the very foundation upon which Moghul military rested. Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called The Pashtuns formed the backbone of the Muhgal army and were some of the most hardened troops. The antagonism showed towards the erstwhile Mughal General Khushal Khan Khattak, for one, seriously undermined the Mughal military apparatus. Khushal Khan Khattak (1613 - 1689 (Pashto خوشحال خان خټک was a Pashtun warrior Poet and tribal chief of the Khattak tribe
Aurangzeb made his religion an important part of his reign. However, that brought about resentment. For instance, the much resented jiziya tax which non-Muslims had to pay was re-introduced. In this climate, contenders for the Mughal throne were many, and the reigns of Aurangzeb's successors were short-lived and filled with strife. The Mughal Empire experienced dramatic reverses as regional nawabs or governors broke away and founded independent kingdoms such as the Marathas to the southwest and the Sikhs in the northwest. A Nawab or Nawaab ( Urdu: نواب Hindi: नवाब was originally the Subedar (provincial governor or viceroy of a In the war of 27 years from 1681 to 1707, the Mughals suffered several heavy defeats at the hands of the Marathas. War of 27 years was a series of battles fought between Marathas and Mughals from 1681 to 1707 in the Indian subcontinent. Year 1707 ( MDCCVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a In the early 1700s the Sikhs became increasingly militant in an attempt to establish their own country where only they would control and govern. They had to make peace with the Maratha armies. Nader Shah defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal in February, 1739. Nāder Shāh Afshār ( also known as Nāder Qoli Beg - نادر قلی بیگ or Tahmāsp Qoli Khān - تهماسپ قلی خان) (November The Battle of Karnal ( February 24, 1739) was a decisive victory for Nader Shah the emperor of Persia during his invasion of India Year 1739 ( MDCCXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne. The Peacock Throne, called Takht-e-Tâvus (تخت طاووس in Persian, is the name originally of a Mughal Throne of India later used to describe [6] In 1761, Delhi was raided by Ahmed Shah Abdali after the Third battle of Panipat. Ahmad Shāh Durrānī (c1723-1773 ( also known as Ahmad Shāh Abdālī ( احمد شاه ابدالي) and born as Ahmad Khān Abdālī, The Third Battle of Panipat took place on January 14, 1761 at Panipat (Haryana State India) situated at about 80 miles (130 km north
The decline of the Mughal Empire has been ascribed to several reasons. Some historians such as Irfan Habib have described the decline of the Mughal Empire in terms of class struggle. Irfan Habib (born 1931 is an Indian Historian, a former Chairman of the Indian Council of Historical Research and a Padma Bhushan awardee [7] Habib proposed that excessive taxation and repression of peasants created a discontented class that either rebelled itself or supported rebellions by other classes and states. Athar Ali proposed a theory of a "jagirdari crisis. " According to this theory, the influx of a large number of new Deccan nobles into the Mughal nobility during the reign of Aurangzeb created a shortage of agricultural crown land meant to be allotted, and destroyed the crown lands altogether. [8] The most obvious concept is that of increasing European hegemony and spheres of influence in the region. The powers of Europe were challenging themselves to the game of who could conquer these foreign lands and exploit their riches and wealth for their own personal gain. Other theories put weight on the devious role played by the Saeed brothers in destabilizing the Mughal throne and auctioning the agricultural crown lands to the Dutch or the British for revenue extraction. The Saiyid Brothers were members of a noble family in Mughal India who played a significant role in the consolidating of the Mughal Empire in Akbar's time and after the reign
The lesser Mughals
- Bahadur Shah I (Shah Alam I), b. Muazzam Bahadur Shah ( Persian: fa بهادر شاه Bahādur Shāh; his name Bahādur means "brave" October 14 October 14, 1643 at Burhanpur, ruler 1707–12, d. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Year 1707 ( MDCCVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Year 1712 ( MDCCXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap February 1712 in Lahore.
- Jahandar Shah, b. Jahandar Shah (1661-1713 was a Mughal Emperor who ruled Hindustan for a brief period in 1712-1713 CE 1664, ruler 1712–13, d. Year 1713 ( MDCCXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a February 11, 1713 in Delhi. Events 660 BC - Traditional founding date of Japan by Emperor Jimmu.
- Furrukhsiyar, b. Abu'l Muzaffar Muin ud-din Muhammad Shah Farrukh-siyar Alim Akbar Sani Wala Shan Padshah-i-bahr-u-bar ' (or Farrukhsiyar', August 20 1685 - April 19 1719 was the 1683, r. 1713–19, d. Year 1719 ( MDCCXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a 1719 at Delhi.
- Rafi Ul-Darjat, ruler 1719, d. Rafi-ul Darjat, youngest son of Rafi-us-shaan (brother of Azim ush Shan) was the 10th Mughal Emperor. 1719 in Delhi.
- Rafi Ud-Daulat (Shah Jahan II), ruler 1719, d. Rafi ud Daulat ( رفي الدولت) also known as Shah Jahan II ( شاهجهان ۲) (b 1719 in Delhi.
- Nikusiyar, ruler 1719, d. Nikusiyar Mohammed was the 12th Mughal Emperor He took the throne in 1719 at the age of 40 plus 1719 in Delhi.
- Mohammed Ibrahim, ruler 1720, d. Mohammed Ibrahim ( محمد ابراهيم) was the 13th Mughal emperor. Year 1720 ( MDCCXX) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting 1720 in Delhi.
- Muhammad Shah, b. Muhammad Shah ( محمد شاه) (1748 &ndash 1702 also known as Roshan Akhtar was a Mughal emperor of India between 1719 and 1748 1702, ruler 1719–48, d. Year 1702 ( MDCCII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Year 1748 ( MDCCXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a April 26, 1748 in Delhi. Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy.
- Ahmad Shah Bahadur, b. Ahmed Shah Bahadur (1725-1775 was born in 1725 to Mohammed Shah. 1725, ruler 1748–54, d. Year 1725 ( MDCCXXV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Year 1754 ( MDCCLIV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or January 1775 in Delhi. Year 1775 ( MDCCLXXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a
- Alamgir II, b. Aziz-ud-din Alamgir II ( عالمگير ۲) (1759 - 1699 was the Mughal Emperor of India from June 3 1754 to December 11 1759 1699, ruler 1754–59, d. Year 1759 ( MDCCLIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year 1759.
- Shah Jahan III, ruler 1760
- Shah Alam II, b. Shah Jahan III ( شاهجهان ۳) also known as Muhi-ul-millat was Mughal Emperor briefly Year 1760 ( MDCCLX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap Shah Alam II (1728&ndash1806 also known as Ali Gauhar was a Mughal emperor of India. 1728, ruler 1759–1806, d. Year 1728 ( MDCCXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Year 1806 ( MDCCCVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common 1806.
- Akbar Shah II, b. Akbar Shah II (1760 - 1837 also known as Mirza Akbar, was the second-to-last of the Mughal emperors of India. 1760, ruler 1806–37, d. Year 1837 ( MDCCCXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common 1837.
- Bahadur Shah II aka Bahadur Shah Zafar, b. Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar, also known as Bahadur Shah or Bahadur Shah II; 24 October 1775 7 November 1862 was the last of the Mughal 1775 in Delhi, ruler from 1837–57, d. Year 1775 ( MDCCLXXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Click here for Indian Rebellion of 1857 Year 1857 ( MDCCCLVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1862 in exile in Rangoon, Burma. Year 1862 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting on Monday
Present-day descendants
A few descendants of Bahadur Shah Zafar are known to be living in Pakistan, Delhi, Kolkata (previously called Calcutta), Hyderabad, and Burma. Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar, also known as Bahadur Shah or Bahadur Shah II; 24 October 1775 7 November 1862 was the last of the Mughal Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population Some of the direct descendants still identify themselves with the clan name Timur and with one of its four major branches: Shokohane-Timur (Shokoh), Shahane-Timur (Shah), Bakshane-Timur (Baksh) and Salatine-Timur (Sultan). Some direct descendants of the Timur carry the surname of Mirza, Baig and Jangda are found predominantly in Pakistan, especially in major cities like Multan and Lahore. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and ( Urdu:, Punjabi ملتان، ਮੁਲਤਾਨ is a city in the Punjab Province of Pakistan and capital of Multan District ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. A number of 'imposter' Mughals, ie people who do not have authentic right to descent are to be found in India. Descendants in Pakistan are now known of the surname of "Malik". However, good genealogical records exist for most families in the subcontinent and are often consulted for establishing the authenticity of their claims. Some descendants of the Mughal empire have even settled in the western places like America and Europe. Some Burmese decedents of Bahadur Shah Zafar live in Rangoon, France and Canada. The Pashtun tribe Babar living in Baluchistan regard themselves as direct descendants of Babar however this claim has not been proven authentically. Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called However, there are real descendants of Mughal kings living in all over Pakistan as one of the family is in Lahore Pakistan. The surname "Sheikh" is also commonly known to be descendent's of the Mughul Empire and the these type of families do have their family tree written prove with them also known as (shajra e nasab) which can be traced back to zaher ud din babar and some times to Amir Taimor Lang Jogzai. Some descendants are also called "Chughtai" so it can be also used by them. Chughtai is a family name in portions of Asia, Middle East and the associated diaspora that claims descent from Chagatai Khan (the second son of Although not the descendants of the many heirs to the Mughal empire's throne, the descendants of Bahadur Shah II's brother Mirza Nali (the crown prince of the empire, as decided by his father Akbar Shah II) live in Rajshahi and Dhaka (Bangladesh). The present day heir to the throne is Colonel HH Prince Azam II, the son of Nali's great grand daughter (Gul Bodon Begum). Gul Bodon became the head of the family as she was born well before her siblings. Mirza Nali's descendants are very well off, owning lots of land around North Bengal. Nali fled to Bangladesh, in fear of the British. It has been found that the direct descendant of Bahadur Shah II is an old low-middle class lady with 8 grandsons.
Mughal influence on the subcontinent
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A major Mughal contribution to south Asia was their unique architecture. The Badshahi Mosque ( Urdu: بادشاھی مسجد) or the 'Emperor's Mosque ' was built in 1673 by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation Many monuments were built during the Mughal era including the Taj Mahal. The Muslim mughal dynasty bulit splendid palaces, tombs and forts that stand today in Delhi, Agra, Jaipur,Lahore and many other cities of Northern India. Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population Agra ( pronounced) (आगरा آگرا is a city on the banks of the Yamuna River in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, Jaipur ( Hindi: जयपुर also popularly known as the Pink City, is the capital of Rajasthan state, India. ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. Geography Northern India lies mainly on continental India and a very small part of it lies on the Indian peninsula [9] The first Mughal emperor Babur wrote in the Bāburnāma:
| “ | Hindustan is a place of little charm. Bāburnāma ( Chagatai / literally "Book of Babur" or "Letters of Babur") are the memoirs of Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur Hindustan (हिन्दुस्तान, ہندوستان,) is one of the popular Names of India. There is no beauty in its people, no graceful social intercourse, no poetic talent or understanding, no etiquette, nobility or manliness. The arts and crafts have no harmony or symmetry. There are no good horses, meat, grapes, melons or other fruit. There is no ice, cold water, good food or bread in the markets. There are no baths and no madrasas. There are no candles, torches or candlesticks"[10]. | ” |
Fortunately his successors, with fewer memories of the Central Asian homeland he pined for, took a less jaundiced view of cultures of the subcontinent, and became more or less naturalised, absorbing many subcontinental traits and customs along the way. The Mughal period would see a more fruitful blending of Indian, Iranian and Central Asian artistic, intellectual and literary traditions than any other in the subcontinents' history. The Mughals had a taste for the fine things in life — for beautifully designed artifacts and the enjoyment and appreciation of cultural activities. The Mughals borrowed as much as they gave; both the Hindu and Muslim traditions of the subcontinent were huge influences on their interpretation of culture and court style. Nevertheless, they introduced many notable changes to societies of the subcontinent and culture, including:
- Centralised government which brought together many smaller kingdoms
- Persian art and culture amalgamated with native Indian art and culture
- Started new trade routes to Arab and Turk lands, Islam was at its very highest
- Mughlai cuisine
- Urdu language was formed by amalgamation of Persian, Arabic, Turkish with many North Indian languages. Mughlai cuisine developed from the imperial kitchens of the Mughal Empire. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised Spoken Hindi branched off from Urdu at a much later date (late 19th Cent. Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is ) retaining a more distinct Sanskrit flavour.
- A new style of architecture
- Landscape gardening
The remarkable flowering of art and architecture under the Mughals is due to several factors. The empire itself provided a secure framework within which artistic genius could flourish, and it commanded wealth and resources unparalleled in the history of the subcontinent. The Mughal rulers themselves were extraordinary patrons of art, whose intellectual caliber and cultural outlook was expressed in the most refined taste.
Alternate meanings
- The alternate spelling of the empire, Mogul, is the source of the modern word mogul. In popular news jargon, this word denotes a successful business magnate who has built for himself a vast (and often monopolistic) empire in one or more specific industries. For Wikipedia jargon see WikipediaGlossary. For hacker slang see Jargon File. Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient The usage is a reference to the expansive and wealthy empire built by the Mughal kings. Rupert Murdoch, for example, is a called a news mogul. is gay Bold text' Keith Rupert Murdoch', AC, KCSG (born Melbourne, March 11 1931 usually known as Rupert Murdoch, is an Australian-American A media proprietor is a person who controls either through personal ownership or a dominant position in a Public company, a significant part of the Mass media.
- In Hindi,the word still found used is Mogulshahi,meaning dictatorship as most of the Mughal empires were dictators and famous for their unjust behaviour towards the common public.
See also
- List of Mughal emperors
- Mughal era (part of the History of South Asia series)
- Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
- List of wars in the Muslim world
- Turco-Persian/Turco-Mongol
- List of the Muslim Empires
- Islamic architecture
- Mughal painting
- Timurid dynasty
- The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period (Book)
- Charlemagne to the Mughals
- Mughal (tribe)
References
- ^ "The Mughal Empire"
- ^ John F Richards, The Mughal Empire, Vol I. The Mughal Empire was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent between the mid-16th century and the end of the 17th century The Mughal era is the historic period of the Mughal Empire in India it ran from the early sixteenth century to a point in the early eighteenth century when the Mughal The term South Asia usually refers to the political entities of the Sub- Himalayan region - namely Republic of India, Pakistan, The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place from the 11th to the 17th centuries though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into the region beginning Part of the List of wars series Battles of the Rashidun Caliphate Ridda wars Battle of Yamama 632 The Turco-Persians were a heterogeneous confederation of certain Turkic, Iranic and Mongol peoples that eventually conquered much of Central Asia Altaic peoples are peoples who speak the Altaic languages. Their looks differ from east to west Scholars debate what exactly constitutes an Empire. Generally they may define an empire as a State that extends Dominion over areas and populations distinct Islamic architecture has encompassed a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day influencing the design and construction Mughal painting is a particular style of Indian painting, generally confined to miniatures either as book illustrations or as single works to be kept in albums which The Timurids, self-designated Gurkānī ( were a Persianate Central Asian Sunni Muslim dynasty The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians The Muhammadan Period is a book with eight volumes written by H Charlemagne to the Mughals is a genealogical route connecting Charlemagne with the Mughal dynasty of India. Mughal ( are a Central Asian tribe of Turkic origin settled Central Asia, Middle East and South Asia. 5 of the New Cambridge History of India, Cambridge University Press, 1996
- ^ The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Tamarind Empire)
- ^ Bhawan Singh Rana, 'Maharana Partap' pp. 19 ISBN 8128808257
- ^ The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire)
- ^ Iran in the Age of the Raj
- ^ Irfan Habib, The Agrarian System of Mughal India (Revised edition, Oxford University Press India, 2001) 317–51.
- ^ M. Athar Ali, The Mughal nobility under Aurangzeb. Revised ed. (Delhi: Oxford University Press. 1997) 11.
- ^ Ross Marlay, Clark D. Neher. 'Patriots and Tyrants: Ten Asian Leaders' pp. 269 ISBN 0847684423
- ^ The Baburnama Ed. Bāburnāma ( Chagatai / literally "Book of Babur" or "Letters of Babur") are the memoirs of Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur & Trans. Wheeler M. Thackston (New York) 2002 p. 352
Further reading
- Elliot, Sir H. M. , Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians The Muhammadan Period is a book with eight volumes written by H (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List)
- Preston, Diana and Michael; Taj Mahal: Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire; Walker & Company; ISBN-10: 0802716733.
External links
- Mughal India an interactive experience from the British Museum
- The Mughal Empire from BBC
- Mughal Empire
- The Great Mughals
- Gardens of the Mughal Empire
- Indo-Iranian Socio-Cultural Relations at Past, Present and Future, by M. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. Reza Pourjafar, Ali
- A. Taghvaee, in Web Journal on Cultural Patrimony (Fabio Maniscalco ed.), vol. 1, January–June 2006
- Adrian Fletcher's Paradoxplace — PHOTOS — Great Mughal Emperors of India
- A Mughal diamond on BBC
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