A mudrā (Sanskrit: मुद्रा, lit. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical "seal") is a symbolic or ritual gesture in Hinduism and Buddhism. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices While some mudrās involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers. Mudrā (Sanskrit) is "spiritual gesture" and energetic "seal of authenticity" employed in the iconography and spiritual practice of Indian religions and Taoism. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Iconography is the branch of Art history which studies the identification description and the interpretation of the content of images For the 16th-century work by Ignatius of Loyola see Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola. Indian religions, also called Dharmic religions, are the related religious traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent, namely Hinduism, Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions
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Nomenclature and etymology
A mudrā [muːˈdrɑː] (Devanāgarī: मुद्रा, holds the semantic field: "seal". The semantic field of a Word is the set of Sememes (distinct meanings expressed by the word The Japanese cognate term is "in". Cognates in Linguistics are words that have a common origin They may occur within a language such as shirt and skirt as two English words descended from
Mudras are used mostly in Indian Classical Dance. There are over 200 mudras in bharathanatyam and over 250 in mohinattam
Iconography
Mudrā iconography of Hindu and Buddhist art of the Indian subcontinent, and described in the scriptures, such as Nātyaśāstra that lists 28 asaṁyuta ("separated", meaning "one-hand") and 24 saṁyuta ("joined", meaning "two-hand") mudrās. Iconography is the branch of Art history which studies the identification description and the interpretation of the content of images A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent following the historical life of Gautama Buddha, 6th to 5th century BCE and thereafter evolved by contact with This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. The Nātya Shastra ( Sanskrit: Nātyaśāstra नाट्य शास्त्र is an ancient Indian treatise on the Performing arts Mudrā positions are usually formed by both the hand and the fingers. Along with āsanas ("seated postures"), they are employed statically in the meditation and dynamically in Nāṭya practice of Hinduism. Asana ( Sanskrit आसन sitting down < आस to sit down) is a body position typically associated with the practice of Yoga, intended Meditation is a mental discipline by which one attempts to get beyond the conditioned "thinking" mind into a deeper state of relaxation or awareness Natya Yoga, popularly known as Dance Yoga, the all-inclusive spiritual path of action is a combination of mainly Bhakti Yoga and Karma Yoga with many Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Each mudrā has a specific effect on the practitioner. Common hand gestures are to be seen in both Hindu and Buddhist iconography. In some regions, for example Thailand and Laos, these are different from each other but related iconographic conventions are used. Gautama Buddha, the spiritual teacher from southern Asia (circa 563-483 BCE known as The Buddha, who is the central figure in Buddhism, is represented in the
Chinese gestures
Nearly all forms of Chinese traditional religion involve libai (禮拜)—bowing towards an altar, with a stick of incense in one's hand. Kowtow ( Cantonese Kau tàuh is the act of deep respect shown by kneeling and bowing so low as to touch the head to the ground [1] (Some schools prescribe the use of three sticks of incense in the hand at one time. [2] ) This may be done at home, or in a temple, or outdoors; by an ordinary person, or a professional (such as a Daoshi 道士); and the altar may feature any number of deities or ancestral tablets. Baibai is usually done in accordance with certain dates of the lunar/solar calendar (see Chinese calendar). The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, incorporating elements of a Lunar calendar with those of a Solar calendar.
Common Buddhist mudrās
Abhaya Mudrā
The Abhaya mudrā ("mudrā of no-fear") represents protection, peace, benevolence, and dispelling of fear. In the Theravāda it is usually made with the right hand raised to the shoulder's height, the arm bent and the palm facing outward with the fingers upright and joined and the left hand hanging down on the right side of the while standing. History Origin of the school The Theravāda school is ultimately derived from the Vibhajjavāda (or 'doctrine of analysis' grouping which was a continuation In Thailand and Laos this mudrā is associated with the walking Buddha often shown having both hands making a double Abhaya mudrā that is uniform. The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Laos (ˈlɑːoʊs or /ˈlaʊs/ officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a Landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma The mudrā was probably used before the onset of Buddhism as a symbol of good intentions proposing friendship when approaching strangers. In Gandhāra Art it is seen when showing the action of preaching and also seen in China during the Wei and Sui eras of the 4th and 7th centuries. Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient The Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏 Pinyin: běi wèi 386 - 534) also known as the Tuoba Wei (拓拔魏 Later Wei (後魏 or The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. The gesture was used by the Buddha when attacked by an elephant, subduing it as shown in several frescoes and scripts. Fresco (plural either frescos or frescoes) is any of several related Painting types done on Plaster on walls or In Mahāyāna the northern schools' deities often used it with another mudrā paired with the other hand. Mahayana ( Sanskrit: mahāyāna, Devanagari: महायान 'Great Vehicle' is one of the two main existing schools of Buddhism and a term for In Japan when the Abhaya mudrā is used with the middle finger slightly projected forward it is a symbol of the Shingon Sect. Shingon Buddhism (眞言 真言 " true words " is a major school of Japanese Buddhism, and is the other branch of Vajrayana Buddhism (Japanese: Semui-in; Chinese: Shiwuwei Yin)
Bhūmisparśa Mudrā
The Bhūmisparśa mudrā ("earth-touching mudrā") literally represents the Buddha as taking the earth as witness. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder It represents the moment when Buddha took the earth as testimony when he had resolved the problem of cessation of suffering while he was under the peepal tree at Bodh-Gaya. The Sacred Fig ( Ficus religiosa) or Bo-Tree (from the Sinhala bo) is a Species of Banyan Fig WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Bodh Gaya or Bodhgaya (Hindi बोधगया is a city in Gaya district in the Usually represented by the historical Buddha and Akṣobhya sitting in the lotus position. In Vajrayana Buddhism Akshobhya ( Sanskrit: "Immovable One" ( Japanese: 阿閃如来 Ashuku nyorai; Chinese A Jiu Rulai The lotus position ( Devanāgarī: पद्मासन IAST: padmāsana; Japanese:) is a cross- Legged The right hand touches the ground with the fingertips near the right knee extended or with only the index pointing down touching the ground with the left hand commonly resting on the lap with the palm facing up. It can also represent the subjugation of the demon horde of Māra. In Buddhism, Māra is the Demon who tempted Gautama Buddha by trying to seduce him with the vision of beautiful women who in various legends Akṣobhya is often seen using this mudrā while clutching part of his robe with his left hand. In Korea confusion of the high period led to rare imagery where Amitābha was using the Bhūmisparśa mudrā. Amitābha ( Sanskrit: अमिताभ Amitābha (wordstem pronunciation; Chinese: 阿彌陀佛 Ēmítuó Fó; Tibetan: འོད་དཔག་མེད་ (Japanese: Gōma-in, Anzan-in, Anchi-in, Sokuchi-in; Chinese: Chudi Yin)
Dharmacakra Mudrā
The Dharmacakra mudrā represents a central moment in the life of Buddha when he preached his first sermon after his Enlightenment, in Deer Park in Sarnath. The Dharmachakra ( Sanskrit) or Dhammachakka ( Pāli) Tibetan chos kyi 'khor lo, Chinese fălún 法輪 This article is about a place in India For H P Lovecraft 's fictitious city see The Doom That Came to Sarnath. Gautama Buddha is generally only shown making this mudrā, save Maitreya as the dispenser of the Law. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder Maitreya ( Sanskrit) or Metteyya ( Pāli) is a future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. This Mudrā position represents the turning of the wheel of the Dharma. Dhamma ( Pāli: धम्म or Dharma (धर्म in Buddhism has two primary meanings the teachings of the Buddha which lead to enlightenment Dharmacakra mudrā is formed when two hands close together in front of the chest in Vitarka having the right palm forward and the left palm upward, sometimes facing the chest. There are several variants such as in the frescoes of Ajanta, India the two hands are separated, and the fingers do not touch. In the Indo-Greek style of Gandhāra the clenched fist of the right hand seemingly overlie the fingers joined to the thumb on the left hand. The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient In pictorials of Hōryū-ji in Japan the right hand is superimposed on the left. is a Buddhist temple in Ikaruga, Nara Prefecture, Japan. Its full name is Hōryū Gakumonji (法隆学問寺 or Learning Temple Certain figures of Amitābha, Japan are seen using this mudrā before the 9th century. Amitābha ( Sanskrit: अमिताभ Amitābha (wordstem pronunciation; Chinese: 阿彌陀佛 Ēmítuó Fó; Tibetan: འོད་དཔག་མེད་ The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. (Japanese: Tenbōrin-in, Chikichi-jō, Hoshin-seppō-in; Chinese: Juanfalun Yin)
Dhyāna Mudrā
The Dhyāna mudrā ("meditation mudrā") is the gesture of meditation, of the concentration of the Good Law and the saṅgha. Amitābha ( Sanskrit: अमिताभ Amitābha (wordstem pronunciation; Chinese: 阿彌陀佛 Ēmítuó Fó; Tibetan: འོད་དཔག་མེད་ is a Buddhist temple of the Jōdo shū Sect in the city of Kamakura in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. is a city located in Kanagawa, Japan, about 50 km south-south-west of Tokyo. Dhyāna in Hinduism See also Dhyana in Hinduism In Hinduism dhyana is considered to be an instrument to gain self knowledge separating maya from This article concerns the concept of Sangha in Buddhism. For information on other senses see Sangha (disambiguation. The two hands are placed on the lap, right hand on left with fingers fully stretched and the palms facing upwards, forming a triangle, symbolic of the spiritual fire or the Triratna, the three jewels. The Three Jewels, also called the Three Treasures, the Three Refuges, or the Triple Gem, are the three things that Buddhists take refuge This mudrā is used in representations of the Śākyamuni Buddha and Amitābha Buddha. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder Amitābha ( Sanskrit: अमिताभ Amitābha (wordstem pronunciation; Chinese: 阿彌陀佛 Ēmítuó Fó; Tibetan: འོད་དཔག་མེད་ Sometimes the Dhyāna mudrā is used in certain representations of Bhaiṣajyaguru as the Medicine Buddha, with a medicine bowl placed on the hands. Bhaiṣajyaguru (藥師佛 Ch Yàoshīfó, 薬師 Jp Yakushi) more formally Bhaiṣajyaguruvaidūryaprabha (Jp It originated in India most likely in the Gandhāra and in China during the Wei period. Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient The Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏 Pinyin: běi wèi 386 - 534) also known as the Tuoba Wei (拓拔魏 Later Wei (後魏 or This mudrā was used long before the Buddha as yogis have used it during their concentration, healing, and meditation exercises. A yogi ( Sanskrit, feminine root Yogini) is a term for a male practitioner of various forms of the path of Yoga, maintaining It is heavily used in Southeast Asia in Theravāda Buddhism however the thumbs are placed against the palms. History Origin of the school The Theravāda school is ultimately derived from the Vibhajjavāda (or 'doctrine of analysis' grouping which was a continuation (Dhyāna mudrā is also known as Samādhi mudrā or Yoga mudrā; Japanese: Jō-in, Jōkai Jō-in; Chinese: Ding Yin. )
Varada Mudrā
The Varada mudrā ("favourable mudrā") signifies offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion and sincerity. It is nearly always used with the left hand for those whom devote oneself to human salvation. It can be made with the arm crooked the palm offered slightly turned up or in the case of the arm facing down the palm presented with the fingers upright or slightly bent. The Varada mudrā is rarely seen without using another mudrā used by the right hand, typically with the Abhaya mudrā. It is often confused with the Vitarka mudrā, which it closely resembles. In China and Japan during the Wei and Asuka periods respectively the fingers are stiff and then gradually begin to loosen as it developed through time, eventually leading to the Tang Dynasty were the fingers are naturally curved. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏 Pinyin: běi wèi 386 - 534) also known as the Tuoba Wei (拓拔魏 Later Wei (後魏 or The, was a period in the History of Japan lasting from 538 to 710 (or 592-645 although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding Kofun period. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by In India the mudrā is used in images of Avalokiteśvara from the Gupta Period of the 4th and 5th centuries. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Avalokiteśvara ( Nepali: अवलोकितेश्वर, lit The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C The Varada mudrā is extensively used in the statues of Southeast Asia. (Japanese: Yogan-in, Segan-in, Seyo-in; Chinese: Shiynan Yin. )
Vajra Mudrā
The Vajra mudrā ("thunder mudrā") is the gesture of knowledge. Vajra ( Devanagari: वज्र Tibetan: dorje ( is a Sanskrit word meaning both Thunderbolt and Diamond It is made making a fist with the right hand, index extending upward, and the left hand also making a fist and enclosing the index. A good example of the application of the Vajra mudrā is the seventh technique (out of nine) of the Nine Syllable Seals, using the mudrā with mantras in a ritual application. Kuji-in ( 九[[wikt 字|字]] 印) "Nine Syllable Seals" is a specialized form of Buddhist meditation A mantra ( Devanāgarī मन्त्र (or mantram is a religious or mystical syllable or poem typically from the Sanskrit language Here is a video of a Sanskrit prayer to set the mind in a sacred state, followed by a quick version of the kuji-in ritual, using the Japanese kanji pronunciation (Sanskrit mantras are usually offered to the serious seeker).
Vitarka Mudrā
The Vitarka mudrā ("mudrā of discussion") is the gesture of discussion and transmission of Buddhist teaching. The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km² It is done by joining the tips of the thumb and the index together, and keeping the other fingers straight very much like Abhaya and Varada mudrās but with the thumbs touching the index fingers. This mudrā has a great number of variants in Mahāyāna Buddhism in East Asia. Mahayana ( Sanskrit: mahāyāna, Devanagari: महायान 'Great Vehicle' is one of the two main existing schools of Buddhism and a term for In Tibet it is the mystic gesture of Tārās and Bodhisattvas with some differences by the deities in Yab-yum. Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European Tārā (तारा tārā or Ārya Tārā, also known as Jetsun Dolma ( rje btsun sgrol ma) in Tibetan is a female Buddha typically In the Buddhist context a bodhisattva (बोधिसत्त्व bodhisattva;; Vietnamese Bồ Tát; बोधिसत्त bodhisatta For the former brothel in Amsterdam see Yab Yum Yab-yum ( Tibetan literally "father-mother" is a common symbol in the Buddhist art (Vitarka mudrā is also known as Prajñāliṅganabhinaya, Vyākhyāna mudrā ("mudrā of explanation"); Japanese: Seppō-in, An-i-in; Chinese: Anwei Yin. )
Jnana Mudrā
The Jñana mudrā ("mudrā of knowledge") is done by touching the tips of the thumb and the index together, forming a circle, and the hand is held with the palm inward toward the heart. [3]
Karana Mudrā
The Karana mudrā is the mudrā which expels demons and removes obstacles such as sickness or negative thoughts. It is made by raising the index and the little finger, and folding the other fingers. It is the same as the rude gesture known as corna in many western countries. (This mudrā is also known as Tarjanī mudrā; Japanese: Funnu-in, Fudō-in)
Martial arts and mudrā
Mudrās are arm, hand and body positions used in the traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Also known as Ācalanātha Āryācalanātha Ācala-vidyā-rāja and Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices The historic Buddha knew the use of mudrās and is often depicted using these ritual gestures. Various Kung Fu forms contain positions identical to these mudrās. [4]
Muromoto (2003) in discussing his experience of mudrā in relation to his martial arts training makes reference to Mikkyō, Tendai and Shingon:
One of the more curious things that I encountered in my martial arts training was the use of mudra in combative arts. Introduction for Mikkyo Mikkyo is the contraction for Himitsu-Bukkyo which translates into esoteric buddism History The Tiantai teaching was first brought to Japan by the Chinese monk Jianzhen (鑑眞 Jp Ganjin in the middle of the 8th century, but Shingon Buddhism (眞言 真言 " true words " is a major school of Japanese Buddhism, and is the other branch of Vajrayana Buddhism Mudra (Japanese: in), for those who aren't familiar with them, are these weird hand gestures that are derived from esoteric Buddhism (mikkyo), particularly the Tendai and Shingon sects. These gestures are supposed to generate spiritual focus and power which then are manifested in some way externally. [5]
Muromoto (2003) states a lineage of mudrā in martial arts and evokes Koryū, Ryū, Kantō, Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū, Risuke Ōtake and Donn F. Draeger:
In any case, I had known of the use of mudra in koryu ("old" martial arts) since the time I was privy to a discussion with the training master of the Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto-ryu, Otake Risuke, and the late Donn F. is a Japanese word that is used in association with the ancient Japanese martial arts. The is a Geographical area of Honshū, the largest Island of Japan. is one of the oldest extant Japanese martial arts, and an exemplar of koryū Bujutsu. (born March 10, 1926) is a Japanese Martial artist. Known by the title Ōtake Risuke Minamoto no Takeyuki (大竹利典源健之 Donald "Donn" Frederick Draeger ( April 15 1922 in Milwaukee Wisconsin - October 20 1982 in Milwaukee Wisconsin Draeger. Otake sensei described some of the mudra used in his school, which is one of the oldest martial ryu still in existence in Kanto (Eastern) Japan. [6]
In relation to charting a historical tributary to mudrā within Japanese fighting culture, Muromoto (2003) incorporates Shintō, Samurai, Tokagawa government, Neo-Confucianism, Zen Buddhism, Kamakura period, Edo, Takuan and Hakuin:
The use of mudra and other aspects of mikkyo are found in many instances in many koryu, because mikkyo and Shinto were the religions of the samurai who founded those ryu that were created before the 1600s. is the native religion of Japan and was once its State religion. is the term for the military nobility of Pre-industrial Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the, and the, was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the Shoguns of Neo-Confucianism (/( is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. The Kamakura shogunate ( Japanese: 鎌倉幕府 Kamakura bakufu) was a feudal military dictatorship in Japan headed by the Shoguns from literally bay - Door, " Estuary " edo once also spelled Yedo or Yeddo, is the Takuan Sōhō (沢庵 宗彭 1573 &ndash 1645) was a major figure in the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism. Hakuin Ekaku (白隠 慧鶴 Hakuin Ekaku, 1686-1769 or 1685-1768 was one of the most influential figures in Japanese Zen Buddhism. Subsequent ryu developed after the imposition of the Tokugawa government were heavily influenced by Neo-Confucianism, and then later by Zen Buddhism. Although Zen was popularized among the warrior class in the Kamakura period, the 1300s, it did not greatly affect martial arts until the latter part of the Edo Period, with the writings of the Zen priests Takuan and Hakuin. And even at that, Edo Period (1600-1868) martial arts were equally influenced by Neo-Confucianism and even, in the latter part, mystical Shinto. [7]
Muromoto (2003) textually maps the execution of the Shutō mudrā:
Mikkyo uses mudra most often in combination with various rituals, chants and so on. A knifehand strike is a strike using the part of the hand opposite the thumb (from the little finger to the wrist familiar to many people as a karate chop, (in Japanese One common mudra is that of the "knife hand," or shuto. The first two fingers are extended while the thumb and other fingers are clenched. If you look closely, you may see this movement subtlely hidden in some koryu kata, especially by old schools such as the Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto-ryu, or in statues of divine Buddhist beings. This represents the sword of enlightenment, which cuts away all delusions. Sometimes the tips of the extended fingers are grasped in the fist of the other hand. There is a symbolic meaning for this, derived from mikkyo. [8]
Cross-cultural correlates
Jimmy Ramirez (2003) ventures that an informing cross-cultural correlate to Mudra as employed in martial arts is evidenced throughout the process of anchoring in Neuro-linguistic programming. Theories of the origins of Asian martial arts range from the highly Diffusionist to models which show greater recognition of independent invention Neuro-linguistic programming (or NLP) is an Interpersonal communication model applied in Psychotherapy and other contexts of communication and change [9]
Dale Schusterman (2005) explores cross-culture phenomena cognate with Mudra. [10]
The Catholic sacraments and holy rites of Exorcism, creation of Holy Water, Consecration, Baptism, Eucharist and Benediction involve sacred gestures. A rite is an established ceremonious usually Religious act or Process art. Exorcism (from Late Latin exorcismus, from Greek exorkizein - to adjure is the practice of evicting Demons or other evil Holy water can also refer to water that has been blessed, such as by a Priest, and is considered Holy. Consecration is the solemn dedication to a special purpose or service usually religious In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names is a Christian Sacrament by which in a common interpretation those A benediction ( Latin: bene, well + dicere, to speak is a short Invocation for divine help Blessing and guidance usually at the
Notes
- ^ Liu Zhongyu (Regarding "libai" as the term for the act of offering incense as a form of worship. )
- ^ Silvers (2005), p. 74
- ^ For translation of jñanamudrā as "gesture of knowledge" see: Stutley 2003, p. 60.
- ^ Johnson 2000, p. 48.
- ^ Muromoto, Wayne (2003) Mudra in the Martial Arts. Source: [1] (accessed: Thursday December 20, 2007)
- ^ Muromoto, Wayne (2003) Mudra in the Martial Arts. Source: [2] (accessed: Thursday December 20, 2007)
- ^ Muromoto, Wayne (2003) Mudra in the Martial Arts. Source: [3] (accessed: Thursday December 20, 2007)
- ^ Muromoto, Wayne (2003) Mudra in the Martial Arts. Source: [4] (accessed: Thursday December 20, 2007)
- ^ Ramirez, Jimmy K. (2003). On Mudra: Conceptual and Psychological Implications ~ The Study of Subjective Experience and Martial Arts. The Budo Journal of Classical Martial Arts and Culture. Source: [5] (accessed: December 20, 2007)
- ^ Schusterman, Dale (2005). The History of Hand Signs. Source: [6] (accessed: December 20, 2007)
See also
References
- Draeger, Donn (1980). A tea ceremony is an Asian ritualised form of making Tea. The term generally refers to the Japanese tea ceremony. Namasté, Namaskar or Namaskaram (Sanskrit नमस्ते from internal Sandhi between namaḥ and te For the former brothel in Amsterdam see Yab Yum Yab-yum ( Tibetan literally "father-mother" is a common symbol in the Buddhist art "Esoteric Buddhism in Japanese Warriorship", in: No. 3. 'Zen and the Japanese Warrior' of the International Hoplological Society Donn F. Draeger Monograph Series. The DFD monographs are transcriptions of lectures presented by Donn Draeger in the late 1970s and early 1980s at the University of Hawaii and at seminars in Malaysia.
- Johnson, Nathan J. (2000), Barefoot Zen: The Shaolin Roots of Kung Fu and Karate, Weiser, ISBN 1578631424
- Muromoto, Wayne (2003) Mudra in the Martial Arts. Source: [7] (accessed: Thursday December 20, 2007)
- Stutley, Margaret (2003), written at New Delhi, The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography (First Indian Edition ed. ), Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. , ISBN 81-215-1087-2 Originally published 1985, Routledge & Kegan Paul plc, London.
Further reading
- Saunders, Ernest Dale (1985 ). Mudra: A Study of Symbolic Gestures in Japanese Buddhist Sculpture. Princeton University Press. ISBN13: 978-0-691-01866-9.
External links
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