Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior, especially human behavior as studied in psychology and neuropsychology. For the Björk song see Human Behaviour Human behavior is the collection of Behaviors exhibited by Human beings and influenced by Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors These reasons may include basic needs such as food or a desired object, hobbies, goal, state of being, or ideal. A goal or objective consists of a projected state of affairs which a Person or a System plans or intends to achieve or bring about — a personal or iDEAL is an Internet payment method in The Netherlands, based on online banking The motivation for a behavior may also be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism or morality. Altruism is selfless concern for the welfare of others It is a traditional Virtue in many cultures and central to many religious traditions Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings According to Geen,^[1] motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of human behavior. For the Björk song see Human Behaviour Human behavior is the collection of Behaviors exhibited by Human beings and influenced by

Contents 1 Motivational concepts 1.1 Reward and reinforcement 1.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation 1.3 Self-control 2 Motivational Theories 2.1 Drive Reduction Theories 2.1.1 Cognitive dissonance theory 2.2 Affective-Arousal Theories 2.2.1 Need Achievement Theory 2.2.2 Interests Theory 2.3 Need Theories 2.3.1 Need Hierarchy Theory 2.3.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory 2.3.3 Alderfer’s ERG theory 2.3.4 Self-determination theory 2.4 Cognitive theories 2.4.1 Goal-setting theory 2.5 Unconscious motivation 3 Controlling motivation 3.1 Early programming 3.2 Organization 3.3 Drugs 4 Applications 4.1 Education 4.2 Business 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

Motivational concepts

Reward and reinforcement

A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i. In neuroscience the reward system is a collection of brain structures which attempts to regulate and control behavior by inducing pleasurable effects e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior. In Psychology and Marketing, two concepts or stimuli are associated when the experience of one leads to the effects of another due to repeated pairing Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become habit. Habits are habituated routines of behavior that are repeated regularly tend to occur Subconsciously and tend to occur without directly thinking consciously

Rewards can also be organized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are external to the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to the person; for example, satisfaction or a feeling of accomplishment. Gratification is the positive emotional response ( Happiness) to a fulfillment of desire

Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one based on enjoyment, the other on obligation. Happiness is an Emotion associated with feelings ranging from contentment and satisfaction to Bliss and intense Joy. In this context, obligation refers to motivation based on what an individual thinks ought to be done. An obligation is a requirement to take some course of action whether legal or moral. For instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.

A reinforcer is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment. In Operant conditioning, reinforcement is an immediate increase in the strength of a response following a change in environment

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is when people engage in an activity, such as a hobby, without obvious external incentives. A hobby is a spare-time Recreational pursuit Etymology A Hobby horse is a wooden or Wickerwork toy made to be

Intrinsic motivation has been studied by educational psychologists since the 1970s, and numerous studies have found it to be associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by students. Educational psychology is the study of how Humans learn in Educational settings the effectiveness of educational interventions the psychology of teaching and the There is currently no universal theory to explain the origin or elements of intrinsic motivation, and most explanations combine elements of Fritz Heider's attribution theory, Bandura's work on self-efficacy and other studies relating to locus of control and goal orientation. Attribution theory is a Social psychology theory developed by Fritz Heider, Harold Kelley, Edward E Self-efficacy is the belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner to attain certain goals Locus of control is a term in Psychology which refers to a person's belief about what causes the good or bad results in their life either in general or in a specific area such Goal Theory is the label used in Educational psychology to discuss research into Motivation to learn Though it is thought that students are more likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

• Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e. g. the amount of effort they put in),
• Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i. e. the results are not determined by luck),
• Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.

Note that the idea of reward for achievement is absent from this model of intrinsic motivation, since rewards are an extrinsic factor.

In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite altruistic reasons for their participation, including contributing to a common good, a moral obligation to the group, mentorship or 'giving back'. In work environments, money may provide a more powerful extrinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable workplace. Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. Money is anything that is generally accepted as Payment for Goods and services and repayment of Debts.

The most obvious form of motivation is coercion, where the avoidance of pain or other negative consequences has an immediate effect. Coercion (co-er-shion is the practice of compelling a person or manipulating them to behave in an involuntary way (whether through action or inaction by use of threats Pain, in the sense of physical pain, is a typical sensory experience that may be described as the unpleasant awareness of a noxious stimulus or bodily harm Extreme use of coercion is considered slavery. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another While coercion is considered morally reprehensible in many philosophies, it is widely practiced on prisoners, students in mandatory schooling, within the nuclear family unit (on children), and in the form of conscription. Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority Critics of modern capitalism charge that without social safety networks, wage slavery is inevitable. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Wage slavery is a term first coined by the Lowell Mill Girls in 1836 though articulated as a concept at least as early as Cicero and elaborated by subsequent thinkers However, many capitalists such as Ayn Rand have been very vocal against coercion. Ayn Rand (ˈaɪn ˈrænd &ndash March 6 1982 born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum (Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум was a Russian born American Successful coercion sometimes can take priority over other types of motivation. Self-coercion is rarely substantially negative (typically only negative in the sense that it avoids a positive, such as forgoing an expensive dinner or a period of relaxation), however it is interesting in that it illustrates how lower levels of motivation may be sometimes tweaked to satisfy higher ones.

In terms of GCSE PE, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from inside the performer. E. g. they compete for the love of the sport. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. E. g. The crowd cheer the performer on, this motivates them to do well, or to beat a PB (Personal Best). Another example is trophies or a reward. It makes the performer want to win and beat the other competitors, thereby motivating the performer.

Self-control

The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservative definition (as measured by many intelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks. Emotional Intelligence ( EI) often measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient ( EQ) describes an Ability, capacity Skill or (in An Intelligence Quotient or IQ is a score derived from one of several different Standardized tests attempting to measure Intelligence. Yale School of Management professor Victor Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides an account of when people will decide whether to exert self control to pursue a particular goal. About the School The School conducts education and research in Leadership, Economics, Operations management, Victor Vroom is a business school professor at the Yale School of Management, who was born on 9 August 1932 in Montreal Canada. Expectancy theory is about choice It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices

Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behaviour that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behaviour. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.

By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed from the process.

Motivational Theories

Drive Reduction Theories

There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept that we have certain biological needs, such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the drive increases as it is not satisfied. Then as we satisfy that drive by fulfilling its desire, such as eating, the drive's strength is reduced. It is based on the theories of Freud and the idea of feedback control systems, such as a thermostat. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded

There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of the Drive Reduction Theory open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how Secondary Reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money does not satisfy any biological or psychological need but reduces drive on a regular basis through a pay check second-order conditioning. Secondly, if the drive reduction theory held true we would not be able to explain how a hungry human being can prepare a meal without eating the food before they finished cooking it.

However, when comparing this to a real life situation such as preparing food, one does get hungrier as the food is being made (drive increases), and after the food has been consumed the drive decreases. The only reason the food does not get eaten before is the human element of restraint and has nothing to do with drive theory. Also, the food will either be nicer after it is cooked, or it won't be edible at all before it is cooked.

Cognitive dissonance theory

Main article: Cognitive dissonance

Suggested by Leon Festinger, this occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an incompatibility between two cognitions. In Psychology, cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling or stress caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously Leon Festinger (pronounced Feh-sting-er ( New York City, May 8, 1919 – New York City, February 11, 1989) a prominent For example, a consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that another decision may have been preferable.

Another example of cognitive dissonance is when a belief and a behavior are in conflict. A person may believe smoking is bad for one's health and yet continues to smoke.

Affective-Arousal Theories

Need Achievement Theory

Main article: David McClelland

David McClelland’s achievement motivation theory envisions that a person has a need for three things, but differs in degrees to which the various needs influence their behavior: Need for achievement, Need for power, and Need for affiliation. N-Ach ( Need for Achievement) is a term introduced by David McClelland into the field of Psychology, referring to an individual's desire N-Pow (Need for Power is a term that was popularized by renowned psychologist David McClelland in 1961. N-Affil (Need for Affiliation is a term that was popularised by David McClelland and describes a person's need to feel a sense of involvement and 'belonging' within a social

Interests Theory

Main article: Holland Codes

Holland Codes are used in the assessment of interests as in Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI; Holland, 1985). Holland Codes are personality types created by psychologist John L One way to look at interests is that if a person has a strong interest in one of the 6 Holland areas, then obtaining outcomes in that area will be strongly reinforcing relative to obtaining outcomes in areas of weak interest.

Need Theories

Need Hierarchy Theory

Main article: Hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of human needs theory is the most widely discussed theory of motivation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in Psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation, which Abraham Harold Maslow ( April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in Psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation, which

The theory can be summarized as thus:

• Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior; only unsatisfied needs can influence behavior, satisfied needs cannot.
• Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to the complex.
• The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least minimally satisfied.
• The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show.

The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to most complex (highest, latest) are as follows:

• Physiological
• Safety and security
• Social
• Self esteem
• Self actualization

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

Main article: Frederick Herzberg

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory, aka intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, but if absent, lead to dissatisfaction. Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Definition In the absence of agreement about its meaning the term "social" is used in many different senses referring among other things to attitudes In Psychology, self-esteem reflects a Person 's overall evaluation or appraisal of her or his own worth See also Self-actualization Self-actualization is a term that has been used in various Psychology theories often in slightly different Frederick Irving Herzberg (1923 - 2000 was a noted Psychologist who became one of the most influential names in business management Frederick Irving Herzberg (1923 - 2000 was a noted Psychologist who became one of the most influential names in business management Job satisfaction describes how content an Individual is with his or her job

He distinguished between:

• Motivators; (e. g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and
• Hygiene factors; (e. Hygiene factors are job factors that can cause dissatisfaction if missing but do not necessarily motivate Employees if increased. g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) that do not motivate if present, but, if absent, result in demotivation. Job security is the probability that an individual will keep his or her job; a job with a high level of job security is such that a person with the job would have a small chance A salary is a form of periodic payment from an Employer to an Employee, which may be specified in an Employment contract.

The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not make you healthier, but absence can cause health deterioration.

The theory is sometimes called the "Motivator-Hygiene Theory. "

Alderfer’s ERG theory

Main article: Clayton Alderfer

Clayton Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory (existence, relatedness and growth). Clayton Paul Alderfer is an American Psychologist who further expanded Maslow's hierarchy of needs by categorizing the hierarchy into his ERG theory (Existence Clayton Paul Alderfer is an American Psychologist who further expanded Maslow's hierarchy of needs by categorizing the hierarchy into his ERG theory (Existence In common usage existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses but in Philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning and is often contrasted with Human development is the process of Growing to maturity In biological terms this entails growth from a one-celled Zygote to an adult Human being Physiological and safety, the lower order needs, are placed in the existence category, while love and self esteem needs are placed in the relatedness category. Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Safety is the state of being "safe" (from French sauf) the condition of being protected against physical social spiritual financial political Love is any of a number of Emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong Affection. In Psychology, self-esteem reflects a Person 's overall evaluation or appraisal of her or his own worth The growth category contains our self-actualization and self-esteem needs.

Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory, developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses on the importance of intrinsic motivation in driving human behavior. Self-determination theory (SDT is a general theory of human motivation concerned with the development and functioning of personality within social contexts Edward L Deci is a Professor of Psychology and Gowen Professor in the Social Sciences at the University of Rochester, and director of its human motivation program Like Maslow's hierarchical theory and others that built on it, SDT posits a natural tendency toward growth and development. Unlike these other theories, however, SDT does not include any sort of "autopilot" for achievement, but instead requires active encouragement from the environment. The primary factors that encourage motivation and development are autonomy, competence feedback, and relatedness. ^[2]

Cognitive theories

Goal-setting theory

Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features; proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal. For further reading, see Locke and Latham (2002).

Unconscious motivation

Some psychologists believe that a significant portion of human behavior is energized and directed by unconscious motives. Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition, According to Maslow: "Psychoanalysis has often demonstrated that the relationship between a conscious desire and the ultimate unconscious aim that underlies it need not be at all direct ^[3]. Abraham Harold Maslow ( April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist. " In other words, stated motives do not always match those inferred by skilled observers. For example, it is possible that a person can be accident-prone because he has an unconscious desire to hurt himself and not because he is careless or ignorant of the safety rules. Similarly, some overweight people are not really hungry for food but for attention and love. Eating is merely a defensive reaction to lack of attention. Some workers damage more equipment than others because they harbor unconscious feelings of aggression toward authority figures.

Psychotherapists point out that some behavior is so automatic that the reasons for it are not available in the individual's conscious mind. Compulsive cigarette smoking is an example. Sometimes maintaining self-esteem is so important and the motive for an activity is so threatening that it is simply not recognized and, in fact, may be disguised or repressed. Rationalization, or "explaining away", is one such disguise, or defense mechanism, as it is called. Another is projecting or attributing one's own faults to others. "I feel I am to blame", becomes "It is her fault; she is selfish". Repression of powerful but socially unacceptable motives may result in outward behavior that is the opposite of the repressed tendencies. An example of this would be the employee who hates his boss but overworks himself on the job to show that he holds him in high regard.

Unconscious motives add to the hazards of interpreting human behavior and, to the extent that they are present, complicate the life of the administrator. On the other hand, knowledge that unconscious motives exist can lead to a more careful assessment of behavioral problems. Although few contemporary psychologists deny the existence of unconscious factors, many do believe that these are activated only in times of anxiety and stress, and that in the ordinary course of events, human behavior — from the subject's point of view — is rationally purposeful.

Controlling motivation

The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches of motivation training, but many of these are considered pseudoscientific by critics. Pseudoscience is defined as a body of knowledge methodology belief or practice that is claimed to be Scientific or made to appear scientific but does not adhere to the To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation.

Early programming

Modern imaging has provided solid empirical support for the psychological theory that emotional programming is largely defined in childhood. Harold Chugani, Medical Director of the PET Clinic at the Children's Hospital of Michigan and professor of pediatrics, neurology and radiology at Wayne State University School of Medicine, has found that children's brains are much more capable of consuming new information (linked to emotions) than those of adults. Positron emission tomography ( PET) is a Nuclear medicine imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or map of functional processes in the Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents Radiology is the medical specialty directing Medical imaging technologies to diagnose and treat diseases The Wayne State University School of Medicine ( WSUSOM) is the largest single-campus Medical school in the United States Brain activity in cortical regions is about twice as high in children as in adults from the third to the ninth year of life. After that period, it declines constantly to the low levels of adulthood. Brain volume, on the other hand, is already at about 95% of adult levels in the ninth year of life.

Organization

Besides the very direct approaches to motivation, beginning in early life, there are solutions which are more abstract but perhaps nevertheless more practical for self-motivation. Virtually every motivation guidebook includes at least one chapter about the proper organization of one's tasks and goals. It is usually suggested that it is critical to maintain a list of tasks, with a distinction between those which are completed and those which are not, thereby moving some of the required motivation for their completion from the tasks themselves into a "meta-task", namely the processing of the tasks in the task list, which can become a routine. The viewing of the list of completed tasks may also be considered motivating, as it can create a satisfying sense of accomplishment.

Most electronic to-do lists have this basic functionality, although the distinction between completed and non-completed tasks is not always clear (completed tasks are sometimes simply deleted, instead of kept in a separate list).

Other forms of information organization may also be motivational, such as the use of mind maps to organize one's ideas, and thereby "train" the neural network that is the human brain to focus on the given task. A mind map is a Diagram used to represent Words, Ideas tasks or other items linked to and arranged radially around a central key word or idea Traditionally the term neural network had been used to refer to a network or circuit of biological neurons. Simpler forms of idea notation such as simple bullet-point style lists may also be sufficient, or even more useful to less visually oriented persons.

Drugs

Some authors, especially in the transhumanist movement, have suggested the use of "smart drugs", also known as nootropics, as "motivation-enhancers". Transhumanism (sometimes symbolized by >H or H+) a term often used as a synonym for " Human enhancement " is an international intellectual '''Nootropics''' popularly referred to as " smart drugs " " smart nutrients " " cognitive enhancers " and " brain enhancers The effects of many of these drugs on the brain are emphatically not well understood, and their legal status often makes open experimentation difficult.

Converging neurobiological evidence also supports the idea that addictive drugs such as cocaine, nicotine, alcohol, and heroin act on brain systems underlying motivation for natural rewards, such as the mesolimbic dopamine system. Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Normally, these brain systems serve to guide us toward fitness-enhancing rewards (food, water, sex, etc. ), but they can be co-opted by repeated use of drugs of abuse, causing addicts to excessively pursue drug rewards. Therefore, drugs can hijack brain systems underlying other motivations, causing the almost singular pursuit of drugs characteristic of addiction.

Applications

Education

Motivation is of particular interest to Educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. Educational psychology is the study of how Humans learn in Educational settings the effectiveness of educational interventions the psychology of teaching and the However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.

Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and their behavior towards subject matter (Ormrod, 2003). It can:

1. Direct behavior toward particular goals
2. Lead to increased effort and energy
3. Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
4. Enhance cognitive processing
5. Determine what consequences are reinforcing
6. Lead to improved performance.

Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.

There are two kinds of motivation:

• Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant.
• Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades).

Note also that there is already questioning and expansion about this dichotomy on motivation, e. g. , Self-Determination Theory. Self-determination theory (SDT is a general theory of human motivation concerned with the development and functioning of personality within social contexts

Motivation has been found to be a pivotal area in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as in Pivotal Response Therapy. Pivotal response therapy (PRT also referred to as pivotal response treatment or pivotal response training, is a behavioral intervention therapy for

Motivation is also an important element in the concept of Andragogy (what motivates the adult learner). Andragogy is the process of engaging adult learners in the structure of the learning experience

Business

At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as Physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation). Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in Psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation, which Frederick Irving Herzberg (1923 - 2000 was a noted Psychologist who became one of the most influential names in business management At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation and Douglas McGregor's Theory X and theory Y (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate. Empowerment refers to increasing the spiritual, political, Social or economic strength of individuals and communities Abraham Harold Maslow ( April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist. Douglas McGregor (1906 - 1964 was a Management professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management and president of Antioch College from 1948 to 1954 Theory X and theory Y are theories of human motivation created and developed by Douglas McGregor at the MIT Sloan School of Management in the 1960s that have been

Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered stronger motivators than money.

• Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.
• Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
• Motivated workers are more productive.

The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side.

According to the system of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, a worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work. Frederick Winslow Taylor ( 20 March 1856 &ndash 21 March 1915) widely known as F In essence scientific management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.

In contrast, David McClelland believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for money-- in fact, extrinsic motivation (e. Money is anything that is generally accepted as Payment for Goods and services and repayment of Debts. g. , money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e. g. , keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free. " For McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental motivations.

Elton Mayo found out that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. George Elton Mayo ( December 26, 1880 - September 7, 1949) was an Australian Psychologist, Sociologist and Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and greater attention was paid to informal work groups. Mayo named the model the Hawthorne effect. The Hawthorne effect is a form of reactivity, and describes a temporary change to behavior or performance in response to a change in the environmental conditions with the response His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts at work situations for motivating employees. ^[4]

See also

• Academy of Management
• Aptitude
• Behavior
• Equity theory
• Human behavior
• Humanistic psychology
• Human Potential Movement
• Organizational behavior
• Personality psychology
• Preference
• Successories
• Social cycle theory
• Victor Vroom
• Operant conditioning
• Flow
• Motivation crowding theory
• Organismic theory
• Humanism
• Andragogy

References

External links

• Factors of intrinsic motivation
• No Intrinsic Motivation

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