Mosquito
A female Culiseta longiareolata
Conservation status
Secure
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Subphylum: Hexapoda Class: Insecta Subclass: Pterygota Infraclass: Neoptera Superorder: Endopterygota Order: Diptera Suborder: Nematocera Infraorder: Culicomorpha Superfamily: Culicoidea Family: Culicidae
Diversity
41 genera
Genera
See text. The conservation status of a Species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species remaining extant either in the present day or the near future Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " The subphylum Hexapoda (from the Greek for six legs) constitutes the largest (in terms of number of species grouping of Arthropods and includes the Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Pterygota is a subclass of Insects that includes the winged insects Neoptera is a classification group that includes almost all the winged Insects specifically those that can flex their wings over their abdomens The Endopterygota, also known as Holometabola, are Insects of the subclass Pterygota which go through distinctive Larval Pupal True flies are Insects of the Order Diptera ( Greek: di = two and pteron = wing possessing a single pair of Nematocera are generally primitive flies, typically recognized by filamentous multi-segmented antennae which may be plumose in some males Culicomorpha is a infraorder of Nematocera. It includes Mosquitoes black flies, and several extant and extinct families of insect Culicoidea is a Superfamily within the order Diptera. The following families are included within the Culicoidea Dixidae &ndash Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic

Mosquitoes are insects which make up the family Culicidae. Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described In Biological classification, family ( Latin They have a pair of scaled wings , a pair of halteres, a slender body, and long legs. This article concerns insect anatomy For halteres as used in ancient sports see Halteres (ancient Greece Halteres (hælˈtɪəriːz singular The females of most mosquito species suck blood (hematophagy) from other animals, which has made them the most deadly disease vectors known to man, killing millions of people over thousands of years and continuing to kill millions per year by the spread of diseases. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. In Epidemiology, a vector is an Organism that does not cause Disease itself but which transmits Infection by conveying Pathogens from ^[1][2]

Length varies but is rarely greater than 16 mm (0. 6 inch)^[3], and weight up to 2. Inches redirects here To see the Les Savy Fav album see Inches. 5 mg (0. For other uses of the words gram or gramme see Gram (disambiguation. 04 grain). In many cultures a grain is a unit of measurement of Mass that is based upon the mass of a single seed of a typical Cereal. A mosquito can fly for 1 to 4 hours continuously at up to 1–2 km/h^[4] travelling up to 10 km in a night. Most species are nocturnal or crepuscular (dawn or evening) feeders. As an Animal behavior, nocturnality describes sleeping during the Daytime and being active at Night - the opposite of the diurnal Crepuscular is a term used to describe animals that are primarily active during Twilight, hence at Dawn and at Dusk. During the heat of the day most mosquitoes rest in a cool place and wait for the evenings. They may still bite if disturbed. ^[5]

Contents 1 Feeding habits 1.1 Mosquito saliva 2 Origin of the name "mosquito" 3 Biology 3.1 Anatomy 3.2 Life cycle and feeding habits 3.2.1 Egg 3.2.2 Larval stage 3.2.3 Pupa 3.2.4 Adult 4 Mosquitoes and humans 4.1 Mosquitoes and health 4.2 Mosquito control and integrated mosquito management 4.3 Mosquito repellents and personal mosquito control 5 Repellants 6 Other controls 7 Natural Predators 7.1 Treatment of mosquito bites 7.2 Cultural views 8 Systematics 9 Identification 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

Feeding habits

Both male and female mosquitoes are nectar feeders, but the female of many species is also capable of haematophagy (drinking blood). A nectar source is a flowering plant that produces nectar as part of its reproductive strategy Females do not require blood for survival, but they do need supplemental substances (like protein and iron) for the development and laying of their eggs. Prior to and during blood feeding, they inject saliva. The Toxorhynchites species of mosquito never drink blood. Toxorhynchites, also known as Mosquito hawks or mosquito eaters is a large cosmopolitan genus (nearly 100 species and one of the few types of Mosquito ^[6] This genus includes the largest of the extant mosquitoes, the larvae of which are predatory on the larvae of other mosquitoes. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic These mosquito eaters have been used in the past as mosquito control agents and have varying success. ^[7]

Mosquitoes hunt their host by detecting CO₂ being breathed out from a distance. When they get closer they can also pick up on the infrared heat being emitted which identifies the host as a warm blooded animal.

Mosquito saliva

In order for a mosquito to obtain a blood meal it must surmount the vertebrate physiological responses. Vertebrates are members of the Subphylum Vertebrata, Chordates with backbones or spinal columns The grouping sometimes includes The mosquito, as with all blood-feeding arthropods, has evolved mechanisms to effectively block the hemostasis system with their saliva - a complex concoction of secreted proteins. Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " Hemostasis (or Haemostasis refers to a process whereby bleeding is halted in most animals with a closed Circulatory system. Mosquito saliva is a pharmacologic cocktail that can affect vascular constriction, blood clotting, platelet aggregation, inflammation, immunity, and angiogenesis. Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels particularly the large Arteries, Arterioles Coagulation is a complex process by which Blood forms Clots It is an important part of Hemostasis (the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel whereby Inflammation ( Latin, inflamatio, to set on fire is the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli such as Pathogens Angiogenesis is a physiological process involving the growth of new Blood vessels from pre-existing vessels ^[8] Universally, hematophagous arthropod saliva contains at least one anticlotting, one anti-platelet, and one vasodilatory substance. Mosquito saliva also contains enzymes that aid in sugar feeding^[9] and antimicrobial agents to control bacterial growth in the sugar meal. An antimicrobial is a substance that kills or inhibits the growth of Microbes such as Bacteria, Fungi, or Viruses. ^[10] The composition of mosquito saliva is relatively simple as it usually contains fewer than 20 dominant proteins. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl ^[11] Despite the great strides in knowledge of these molecules and their role in bloodfeeding achieved recently, scientists still cannot ascribe functions to more than half of the molecules found in arthropod saliva. Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " ^[12]

It is now well recognized that the feeding ticks, sandflies, and, more recently, mosquitoes have an ability to modulate the immune response of the animals (hosts) they feed on. An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor ^[13] The presence of this activity in vector saliva is a reflection of the inherent overlapping and interconnected nature of the host hemostatic and inflammatory/immunological responses and the intrinsic need to prevent these host defenses from disrupting successful feeding. An antihemorrhagic ( antihaemorrhagic) agent is a substance that promotes Hemostasis (stops Bleeding) Inflammation ( Latin, inflamatio, to set on fire is the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli such as Pathogens Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical Science that covers the study of all aspects of the Immune system in all Organisms It deals with The mechanism for mosquito saliva-induced alteration of the host immune response is unclear, but the data has become increasingly convincing that such an effect occurs. Early work described a factor in saliva that directly suppresses TNF-α release, but not antigen-induced histamine secretion, from activated mast cells. Tumor necrosis factor ( TNF, cachexin or cachectin and formally known as Tumor necrosis factor-alpha) is a Cytokine involved in systemic Histamine is a Biogenic amine involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a Neurotransmitter A mast cell (or mastocyte) is a resident cell of several types of tissues and contains many granules rich in Histamine and Heparin ^[14] Experiments by Cross et al. (1994) demonstrated that the inclusion of Ae. aegypti mosquito saliva into naïve cultures led to a suppression of interleukin (IL)-2 and IFN-γ production, while the cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 are unaffected by mosquito saliva. Interleukins are a group of Cytokines (secreted Signaling molecules) that were first seen to be expressed by White blood cells ( Leukocytes hence Interferon-gamma ( IFN-γ) is a Dimerized soluble Cytokine that is the only member of the type II class of Interferons This interferon was originally Interleukin 5 or IL-5 is an Interleukin produced by T helper -2 cells and Mast cells. ^[15] Cellular proliferation in response to IL-2 is clearly reduced by prior treatment of cells with SGE. ^[16] Correspondingly, activated splenocytes isolated from mice fed upon by either Ae. aegypti or Cx. pipiens mosquitoes produce markedly higher levels of IL-4 and IL-10 concurrent with suppressed IFN-γ production. ^[17] Unexpectedly, this shift in cytokine expression is observed in splenocytes up to 10 days after mosquito exposure, suggesting that natural feeding of mosquitoes can have a profound, enduring, and systemic effect on the immune response. ^[18]

T cell populations are decidedly susceptible to the suppressive effect of mosquito saliva, showing enhanced mortality and decreased division rates. T cells belong to a group of White blood cells known as Lymphocytes, and play a central role in Cell-mediated immunity. ^[19] Parallel work by Wasserman et al. (2004) demonstrated that T- and B-cell proliferation was inhibited in a dose dependent manner with concentrations as low as 1/7th of the saliva in a single mosquito. B cells are Lymphocytes that play a large role in the humoral immune response (as opposed to the cell-mediated immune response, which is governed by ^[20] Depinay et al. (2005) observed a suppression of antibody-specific T cell responses mediated by mosquito saliva and dependent on mast cells and IL-10 expression. ^[21] A recent study suggests that mosquito saliva can also decrease expression of interferon−α/β during early mosquito-borne virus infection. Interferons ( IFN s are natural Proteins produced by the cells of the Immune system of most Vertebrates in response to challenges by foreign agents ^[22] The contribution of type I interferons (IFN) in recovery from infection with viruses has been demonstrated in vivo by the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of administration of IFN-inducers or IFN,^[23] and recent research suggests that mosquito saliva exacerbates West Nile virus infection,^[24] as well as other mosquito-transmitted viruses. West Nile virus (or WNV is a Virus of the family Flaviviridae; part of the Japanese encephalitis (JE antigenic complex of viruses it is found in ^[25]

Origin of the name "mosquito"

In English, the word mosquito is recorded since 1538^[26]. In the Spanish language, the word mosquito dates back to about 1400^[26]. In Spanish, the word can be interpreted as "little fly" but Corominas thinks that the -ito suffix is an analog of that of cabrito < Latin CAPRĪTUS. Joan Coromines i Vigneaux, in Spanish Joan Corominas ( Barcelona, 1905 - Pineda de Mar, Catalonia, 1997 was a linguist who made important contributions The word was adopted in English to replace the term "biting flies" to prevent confusion with the house fly. The housefly (also house fly, house-fly or common housefly) Musca domestica, is the most common of all Flies It is derived from the word fly (Latin musca, cf. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Skt maksh) and is related to the Italian moschetta and the French moustique. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Mosquitoes were originally called "les moucherons" or "les cousins" by French writers, "Stechmücken" or "Schnaken" by Germans, "mygg" and "mygga" by Scandinavians, and "κώνωψ" (konops) by the ancient Greeks. The Scandinavian word is related to the Modern Greek word "μύγα" (myga) for the housefly, and to the English "midge". Midges comprise many kinds of very small two-winged flies The term does not encapsulate a well-defined taxonomic group but includes animals in several families of Nematoceran The Icelandic "mý" mostly stands for biting midges or non-biting chironomids, as there are no mosquitoes in Iceland. Ceratopogonidae, or biting Midges (including what are called in the United States, no-see-ums, midgies, Sand flies Chironomidae (informally known as chironomids or non-biting Midges) are a family of Nematoceran flies with a global distribution Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( ^[27] Aristotle referred to mosquitoes in 300 B. C. as "empis". In Newfoundland, mosquitos are better known as nippers, and in the Southern US as "skeeters". Newfoundland — ˈn(jufənˌlænd (Terre-Neuve Talamh an Éisc — is a large island 15 km off the east coast of

Biology

Anatomy

The mosquito is composed of a head, thorax, and abdomen. The head contains two compound eyes and proboscis. The proboscis is a piercing mouthpart used to suck blood from its prey. The mosquito's head is mostly eye. Each eye is made up of many tiny lenses forming a compound eye. This type of eye allows a very big field of vision that easily detects movement. Next is the thorax. The thorax has one pair of wings and one pair of halteres. The thorax also has markings that are used in the identification of the mosquito. The abdomen, or gut, expands as it ingests its prey's blood. The abdomen also has many markings that are used to identify the mosquito species.

Life cycle and feeding habits

In its life cycle the mosquito undergoes complete metamorphosis, going through four distinct stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult, first described by the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Culex is a Genus of Mosquito, and several species act as vectors of important diseases such as West Nile virus, Filariasis Metamorphosis is a Biological process by which an Animal physically develops after Birth or hatching involving a conspicuous and relatively In most Birds and Reptiles an egg ( Latin ovum) is the Zygote, resulting from Fertilization of the Ovum. A larva ( Latin; plural larvae) is a juvenile form of Animal with indirect development, undergoing Metamorphosis (for example A pupa ( Latin pupa for doll pl pupae or pupas) is the life stage of some Insects undergoing transformation Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ^[28]

Egg

Female mosquitoes lay their eggs one at a time or together in rafts of fifty or more eggs on the surface in fresh or any stagnant water. Anopheles and Aedes mosquitoes do not make egg rafts but lay their eggs separately. Anopheles is a Genus of Mosquito ( Culicidae) There are approximately 400 Anopheles species of which 30-40 transmit five different Aedes is a Genus of Mosquito originally found in tropical and subtropical zones but has spread by human activity to all continents excluding Culex, Culiseta, and Anopheles lay their eggs on water while Aedes lay their eggs on damp soil that is periodically flooded by water. Culex is a Genus of Mosquito, and several species act as vectors of important diseases such as West Nile virus, Filariasis Culiseta is a genus of Mosquitoes Most Culiseta are cold-adapted species which only occur in warmer climates during the colder parts of the year Most eggs hatch into larvae in about 48 hours. A female mosquito may lay a raft of eggs every third night during its life span if it can find enough blood to develop the eggs.

Larval stage

The hatching eggs turn into larvae that live in the water, coming to the surface to breathe. The first larval stage is known as the first instar. As they grow, they shed or moult their skin about four times, growing larger after each moulting. After the first molt they are second instars, then third, then fourth. Most larvae use siphon tubes going to the water surface for breathing and hang on or near the water surface. Anopheles larvae do not have a siphon and typically lie parallel to the water surface. The larvae eat micro-organisms and organic matter in the water for food. Mosquito larvae, commonly called "wigglers" or "wrigglers", must live in water from 7 to 14 days depending on the water's temperature. At their last moult they may be up to 1 cm or 1/2 inch long. In each stage they may be eaten by other insects or fish. Mosquito larvae in the genus Toxorhynchites eat other mosquito larvae. Toxorhynchites, also known as Mosquito hawks or mosquito eaters is a large cosmopolitan genus (nearly 100 species and one of the few types of Mosquito

The length of the first three stages (or instars) is dependent on the species and temperature, with lower temperatures increasing the length of the development stage. ^[29] Culex tarsalis may complete its life cycle in 14 days at 20 C (68 F) and only ten days at 25 C (77 F). Some species have a life cycle of as little as four days, whereas in other species some adult females can live through the winter, laying their eggs in the spring. Many species of mosquito live their adult stage in roughly two weeks to two months. The larvae are the "wrigglers" found in puddles or water-filled containers. These breathe air through a siphon at the tail end. The pupae, or "tumblers", are nearly as active as the larvae, but breathe through thoracic "horns" attached to the thoracic spiracles. Most larvae feed on micro-organisms, but a few are predatory on other mosquito larvae. Some mosquito larvae, such as those of Wyeomyia live in unusual situations. These mosquito wigglers live either in the water collected in epiphytic bromeliads or inside water stored in carnivorous pitcher plants. Pitcher plants are Carnivorous plants whose prey-trapping mechanism features a deep cavity filled with Liquid known as a pitfall trap. Larvae of the genus Deinocerites live in crab holes along the edge of the ocean. On the fourth molt the larva changes into a pupa.

Pupa

The pupae are lighter than water and float on the surface as the mosquito larva metamorphoses (changes) into an adult mosquito in about two days. Pupae do not have mouths and therefore do not feed. This is important to know from a larviciding point of view because most larvicide has to be ingested by the mosquito. A surface oil or mmf (monomolecular film) should be applied to the breeding site as a means of suffocating the pupa.

Adult

The newly emerged adult must rest on the surface of the water for a short time to allow itself to dry and all its parts to harden before it can fly. This requires still water: mosquitoes do not breed in fast-moving water.

The total time to go through all four stages depends on the temperature and the type of mosquito, but typically takes 14 days or less in warmer weather. In various species the time varies from 4 to 30 days.

Most mosquito species outside of the tropics overwinter as eggs, but many overwinter as larvae or adults. Mosquitoes of the genus Culex (a vector for St. Louis encephalitis) overwinter as mated adult females. Culex is a Genus of Mosquito, and several species act as vectors of important diseases such as West Nile virus, Filariasis In Epidemiology, a vector is an Organism that does not cause Disease itself but which transmits Infection by conveying Pathogens from St Louis Encephalitis is a disease caused by the Mosquito borne St

Most mosquitoes stay fairly close to the ground and do not range too far from where they were born, but may be dispersed long distances by wind. Mosquitoes are not strong flyers, making only 1-2 km/h (1-1. 5 mph); therefore, an electric fan may suffice as an effective mosquito screen. They feed mostly in the mornings and evenings and occasionally at night, avoiding the heat of the day. During the day they usually find somewhere cool to rest. Mosquitoes can tend to live over puddled water or grassy areas.

Only female mosquitoes bite animals to get blood needed to produce eggs. Male mosquitoes do not bite, but both the male and female feed on the nectar of flowers for food. In most female mosquitoes, the mouth parts form a long proboscis for piercing the skin of mammals (or in some cases birds or even reptiles and amphibians) to suck their blood. In general a proboscis (from Greek προ pro "before" and βοσκειν boskein "to feed" also known as probiscus Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells ��such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products As opposed to a syringe's typically smooth needle, the mosquito proboscis is highly serrated, which leaves a minimal number of points of contact with the skin being pierced — this reduces nerve stimulation to the point where the "bite" is typically not felt at all. (See the Mosquitoes and health section below for an explanation on the swelling). The females require protein for egg development and laying, and since the normal mosquito diet consists of nectar and fruit juice, which has no protein, most females must drink blood to lay eggs. Males differ from females, with mouth parts not suitable for blood-sucking.

The female mosquitoes locate their next blood donor victims primarily through scent. They are extremely sensitive to the carbon dioxide in exhaled breath, as well as to substances found in sweat and various body odours such as 1-octen-3-ol. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single They are believed to be able to track potential prey for tens of meters. Some people attract more mosquitoes than others, apparently based on how they "smell" to a mosquito. Mosquitoes can also detect heat, so they can find warm-blooded mammals and birds very easily once they get close enough. Repellents like DEET work by disorienting the mosquito as it gets close to its potential next meal but do not kill mosquitoes. N, N -Diethyl- meta -toluamide, abbreviated DEET, is the most common active Ingredient in Insect repellents It is intended This works about 95% of the time.

Male mosquitoes may tend to be smaller than females, with features such as feathered antennae and conspicuous external genitalia.

Mosquitoes and humans

Mosquitoes and health

Mosquitoes are a vector agent that carries disease-causing viruses and parasites from person to person without catching the disease themselves. Yellow fever (also called yellow jack, black vomit or sometimes American Plague) is an acute viral disease Yellow fever (also called yellow jack, black vomit or sometimes American Plague) is an acute viral disease In Epidemiology, a vector is an Organism that does not cause Disease itself but which transmits Infection by conveying Pathogens from A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Female mosquitoes suck blood from people and other animals as part of their eating and breeding habits. When a mosquito bites, she also injects saliva and anti-coagulants into the blood which may also contain disease-causing viruses or other parasites. This cycle can be interrupted by killing the mosquitoes, isolating infected people from all mosquitoes while they are infectious or vaccinating the exposed population. All three techniques have been used, often in combination, to control mosquito transmitted diseases. Window screens, introduced in the 1880s, were called "the most humane contribution the 19th century made to the preservation of sanity and good temper. "^[30]

Mosquitoes are estimated to transmit disease to more than 700 million people annually in Africa, South America, Central America, Mexico and much of Asia with millions of resulting deaths. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. In Europe, Russia, Greenland, Canada, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Japan and other temperate and developed countries, mosquito bites are now mostly an irritating nuisance; but still cause some deaths each year. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat meaning "Land of the Greenlanders" Grønland is a self-governing Danish Province located between the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. ^[31] Historically, before mosquito transmitted diseases were brought under control, they caused tens of thousands of deaths in these countries and hundreds of thousands of infections. ^[32] Mosquitoes were shown to be the method by which yellow fever and malaria were transmitted from person to person by Walter Reed, William C. Gorgas and associates in the U. Major Walter Reed, MD, ( September 13 1851 - November 23 1902) was a U Major General William Crawford Gorgas KCMG ( October 3, 1854, in Mobile Alabama -- July 3, 1920, in London S. Army Medical Corps first in Cuba and then around the Panama Canal in the early 1900s. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la The Panama Canal is a man-made Canal in Panama which joins the ^[33][34] Since then other diseases have been shown to be transmitted the same way.

The mosquito genus Anopheles carries the malaria parasite (see Plasmodium). Anopheles is a Genus of Mosquito ( Culicidae) There are approximately 400 Anopheles species of which 30-40 transmit five different Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. A plasmodium is also the macroscopic form of the Protist known as a Slime mould. Worldwide, malaria is a leading cause of premature mortality, particularly in children under the age of five, with around 5. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including 3 million deaths annually, according to the Centers for Disease Control. Some species of mosquito can carry the filariasis worm, a parasite that causes a disfiguring condition (often referred to as elephantiasis) characterized by a great swelling of several parts of the body; worldwide, around 40 million people are living with a filariasis disability. See special page for Filariasis in domestic animals Lymphatic Filariasis (Philariasis is a parasitic and Elephantiasis (/ˌɛləfənˈtaɪəsɪs -fæn-/ -fan- is a disease that is characterized by the thickening of the skin and underlying tissues especially in the legs and genitals The viral diseases yellow fever and dengue fever are transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Yellow fever (also called yellow jack, black vomit or sometimes American Plague) is an acute viral disease The yellow fever mosquito, Stegomyia aegypti (= Aedes aegypti, = Aedes (Stegomyia aegypti) is a Mosquito Other viral diseases like epidemic polyarthritis, Rift Valley fever, Ross River Fever, St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile virus (WNV), Japanese encephalitis, La Crosse encephalitis and several other encephalitis type diseases are carried by several different mosquitoes. Polyarthritis is any type of Arthritis which involves five or more joints &mdash an inflammation of two three or four joints is an Oligoarthritis. Rift Valley Fever (RVF is a viral Zoonosis (affects primarily domestic Livestock, but can be passed to humans causing Fever. Ross River Virus or Ross River Fever also referred to as epidemic polyarthritis, is a mosquito-transmitted Alphavirus. St Louis Encephalitis is a disease caused by the Mosquito borne St West Nile virus (or WNV is a Virus of the family Flaviviridae; part of the Japanese encephalitis (JE antigenic complex of viruses it is found in Japanese encephalitis ( Japanese: 日本脳炎 Nihon-nōen; previously known as Japanese B encephalitis to distinguish it from von Economo La Crosse encephalitis is an Encephalitis caused by an Arbovirus (the La Crosse Virus) which has a Mosquito vector ( Encephalitis is an acute Inflammation of the Brain, commonly caused by a viral Infection. Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) and Western equine encephalitis (WEE) occurs in the United States where it causes disease in humans, horses, and some bird species. Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus (EEE, commonly called sleeping sickness or "Triple E" is a zoonotic Alphavirus and Arbovirus present The Western equine encephalitis virus is the causative agent of relatively uncommon viral disease Western equine encephalitis (WEE Because of the high mortality rate, EEE and WEE are regarded as two of the most serious mosquito-borne diseases in the United States. Symptoms range from mild flu-like illness to encephalitis, coma and death. ^[35] Viruses carried by arthropods such as mosquitoes or ticks are known collectively as arboviruses. Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " Arbovirus is a shortened name given to viruses that are transmitted by arthropods, or ar thropod- bo rne viruses. West Nile virus was accidentally introduced into the United States in 1999 and by 2003 had spread to almost every state with over 3,000 cases in 2006. West Nile virus (or WNV is a Virus of the family Flaviviridae; part of the Japanese encephalitis (JE antigenic complex of viruses it is found in

A mosquito's period of feeding is often undetected; the bite only becomes apparent because of the immune reaction it provokes. When a mosquito bites a human, she injects saliva and anti-coagulants. An anticoagulant is a substance that prevents coagulation; that is it stops Blood from clotting For any given individual, with the initial bite there is no reaction but with subsequent bites the body's immune system develops antibodies and a bite becomes inflamed and itchy within 24 hours. An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are Gamma globulin Proteins that are found in Blood or other Bodily This is the usual reaction in young children. With more bites, the sensitivity of the human immune system increases, and an itchy red hive appears in minutes where the immune response has broken capillary blood vessels and fluid has collected under the skin. This type of reaction is common in older children and adults. Some adults can become desensitized to mosquitoes and have little or no reaction to their bites, while others can become hyper-sensitive with bites causing blistering, bruising, and large inflammatory reactions, a response known as Skeeter Syndrome. Skeeter Syndrome is a severe localized allergic reaction to Mosquito bites consisting of inflammation and Fever.

Mosquito control and integrated mosquito management

Main article: Mosquito control

There are two kinds of mosquito control: large, organized programs to reduce mosquito populations over a wide area, and actions individuals can take to control or exclude mosquitoes with respect to themselves and their own property. The Mosquito Control EP is the first studio release by American Post-metal band Isis, released in 1998 by Escape Artist

Organized mosquito control programs today draw on the principles of integrated pest management. In Agriculture, Integrated Pest Management (IPM is a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods mechanical devices physical devices An integrated mosquito control program typically includes the following measures, all guided by surveillance of mosquito populations and knowledge of the mosquito life cycle:^[36]

• source reduction - the removal of mosquito breeding habitats
• habitat modification - manipulating habitats to reduce breeding or access
• biocontrol - introducing natural predators of mosquitoes
• larvicide - using pesticides to reduce larval populations
• adulticide - using pesticides to reduce adult populations

Some solutions for malaria control efforts in the third world are: mosquito nets (klamboe), mosquito nets treated with insecticide (often permethrin), and DDT. A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. Biological control of pests in Agriculture is a method of controlling pests (including Insects Mites Weeds and plant diseases A larvicide (alternatively larvacide) is an Insecticide that is specifically targeted against the Larval life stage of an Insect. Third World is a name given to nations that are generally considered to be underdeveloped economically A mosquito net offers Protection against Mosquitos flies, and other Insects and thus against diseases such as Malaria. Permethrin is a common synthetic chemical widely used as an Insecticide and Acaricide and as an Insect repellent. DDT (from its trivial name D ichloro- D iphenyl- T richloroethane is one of the best known synthetic Pesticides It is a chemical with a long ^[37] Nets are treated with insecticide because mosquitoes can sometimes get past an imperfect net. Insecticide-treated nets (ITN) are estimated to be twice as effective as untreated nets in preventing mosquito bites. ^[38] Untreated mosquito nets are less expensive, and they are effective in protecting humans when the nets do not have any holes and are tightly sealed around the edges. Insecticide free nets do not adversely affect the health of natural predators such as dragonflies. Anisoptera redirects here For the genus of trees see Anisoptera (tree.

The role of DDT in combating mosquitoes has been the subject of considerable controversy. While some argue that DDT deeply damages biodiversity, others argue that DDT is the most effective weapon in combating mosquitoes and hence malaria. While some of this disagreement is based on differences in the extent to which disease control is valued as opposed to the value of biodiversity, there is also genuine disagreement amongst experts about the costs and benefits of using DDT. Moreover, DDT-resistant mosquitoes have started to increase in numbers, especially in tropics due to mutations, reducing the effectiveness of this chemical.

Mosquito repellents and personal mosquito control

One of the main, non-chemical ways to prevent mosquito bites is the mosquito net. Mosquito netting if properly used and maintained (no holes), provides the maximum possible personal protection against biting insects. In many areas of the world, mosquitoes are not only a nuisance, but also pose a serious health threat. Sleeping under a bednet is highly recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO)^[39] and the U. S. Center for Disease Control (CDC)^[40] if staying in these areas.

One of the most popular chemical treatments is N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide, commonly known as DEET. N, N -Diethyl- meta -toluamide, abbreviated DEET, is the most common active Ingredient in Insect repellents It is intended It has been used widely since its invention by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1945. However, DEET products have been widely used for many years but these products have occasionally been associated with some minor to moderate adverse reactions. DEET concentrations range from a low of about five percent up to 100 percent.

Other less commonly used mosquito repellents include: catnip oil extract, nepetalactone (no known credible tests), citronella 10% solution (84% effective for about 1 hour), or eucalyptus oil extract. Nepeta is a Genus of about 250 Species of Flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae. Nepetalactone is an Organic compound first isolated in the Plant Catnip, Nepeta cataria. Eucalyptus (From Greek ευκάλυπτος meaning "well covered" is a diverse Genus of Trees (and a few shrubs the members of which ^[41] Soy bean oil (in Bite Blocker for Kids) worked for about 1 ½ hours and Repel’s plant-based lemon eucalyptus solution worked for about 3 hours.

Oils of Syzygium aromaticum (clove) and Zanthoxylum limonella (makaen), widely used essential oils for dental caries or flavoring of food in Thailand, were prepared as 10 experimental repellent products in gel or cream form against Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Anopheles dirus under laboratory conditions, using the human-arm-in-cage method. Two products that gave the longest-lasting complete protection were selected to examine their repellency against a variety of mosquito species under field conditions. In laboratory tests, 0. 1 g of each product was applied to 3x10 cm of exposed area on a volunteer's forearm, while in field trials, 1. 0 g was applied to each volunteer's leg (from knee to ankle). In the laboratory, the gel dosage form contained 20% clove oil (Gel B) or 10% clove plus 10% makaen oil mixture (Gel E) were promising plant-based repellents against three mosquito species and gave significantly longer complete protection times of 4-5 hours than all other developing products. Therefore, their efficacy in the field was evaluated. Under field conditions, Gel E showed complete protection for 4 hours and gave 95. 7% repellency after 5 hours application, whereas Gel B and 20% deet (di-methyl benzamide) provided only 86. 8 and 82. 7% repellency after treatment, respectively against Ae. aegypti, daytime-biting mosquitoes. For nighttime-biting, the 3 repellents under development yielded equally excellent (average 97. 1%) repellency for 5 hours against the predominant Cx. quinquefasciatus and Mansonia uniformis, but they gave 89. 0% repellency against Cx. tritaeniorhynchus and Cx. gelidus. This finding demonstrated the effectiveness of Gel B and Gel E products for possible use by low-income rural communities against various mosquito species.

Picaridin, first used in Europe in 2001, has been reported to be effective by Consumer Reports (7% solution)^[42] and the Australian Army (20% solution). Icaridin, also known as picaridine, KBR 3023, under the INCI name hydroxyethyl isobutyl piperidine carboxylate, and under the old trade ^[43] Consumer Report retests in 2006 show that a 7% solution of picaridin now has a protection time of about 0 minutes and a 15% solution was only good for about one hour. ^[44] So far DEET is the champion effective repellent against mosquitoes, especially when worn in conjunction with light coloured clothing, long sleeved pants and shirts and a hat. N, N -Diethyl- meta -toluamide, abbreviated DEET, is the most common active Ingredient in Insect repellents It is intended

Other commercial products offered for household mosquito "control" include small electrical mats, mosquito repellent vapor, DEET-impregnated wrist bands, and mosquito coils containing a form of the chemical allethrin. The allethrins are a pair of related synthetic compounds used in Insecticides. Mosquito-repellent candles containing citronella oil are sold widely in the U. S. All of these have been used with mixed reports of success and failure. Some claim that plants like wormwood or sagewort, lemon balm, lemon grass, lemon thyme and the mosquito plant (Pelargonium) will act against mosquitoes. Lemon balm ( Melissa officinalis) not to be confused with Bee balm, Monarda species is a perennial Herb in the Cymbopogon is a genus of about 55 species of grasses, native to warm temperate and tropical regions of the Old World and Oceania. Thyme (ˈtaɪm is a well known herb in common usage the name may refer to either the any or all members of the plant Genus Thymus, Pelargonium is a Genus of Flowering plants which includes about 200 Species of perennial, succulent, and Shrub However, scientists have determined that these plants are “effective” for a limited time only when the leaves are crushed and applied directly to the skin. ^[45]

There are several, widespread, unproven theories about mosquito control such as the assertion that Vitamin B, in particular B1 Thiamine, garlic, ultrasonic devices, incense, can be used to repel or control mosquitoes. The B vitamins are eight water-soluble Vitamins that play important roles in cell Metabolism. For the similarly spelled pyrimidine see Thymine Thiamin or thiamine, also known as Vitamin B1 Allium sativum L, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the Onion family Alliaceae. Incense is composed of Aromatic biotic materials It releases fragrant Smoke when burned ^{[46] [47]} Moreover, some manufacturers of "mosquito repelling" ultrasonic devices have been found to be fraudulent,^[48] and their devices were deemed "useless" in tests by the UK Consumer magazine Which?^[49]

The Dragonfly eats mosquitoes at all stages of development and is quite effective in controlling populations^[50]. Which? is a product-testing and campaigning charity with a Magazine and Website run by Which? Ltd (formerly known as the Consumers' Anisoptera redirects here For the genus of trees see Anisoptera (tree. Although bats and Purple Martins can be prodigious consumers of insects, many of which are pests, less than 1% of their diet typically consists of mosquitoes. The Purple Martin ( Progne subis) is the largest North American Swallow at 20 cm length Bats are known carriers of rabies, and neither they nor Purple Martins are known to control or even significantly reduce mosquito populations^[51]. Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that

Similarly, bug zappers kill a wide range of flying insects including many beneficial insects that eat mosquitoes as well as some mosquitoes. A bug zapper is a device that attracts and kills Insects that are attracted by light Bug zappers have not been proven effective at controlling overall mosquito population.

Some newer mosquito traps or known mosquito attractants emit a plume of carbon dioxide together with other mosquito attractants such as sugary scents, lactic acid, octenol, warmth, water vapor and sounds. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Lactic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: 2-hydroxypropanoic acid) also known as milk acid, is a Chemical compound that plays a role By mimicking a mammal’s scent and outputs, female mosquitoes are drawn toward the trap, where they are typically sucked into a net or holder by an electric fan where they are collected. According to the American Mosquito Control Association,^[52] "these devices will, indeed, trap and kill measurable numbers of mosquitoes," but their effectiveness in any particular case will depend on a number of factors such as the size and species of the mosquito population and the type and location of the breeding habitat. They are useful in specimen collection studies to determine the types of mosquitoes prevalent in an area but are typically far too inefficient to be useful in reducing mosquito populations.

Repellants

Main article: Insect repellent

One of the most popular chemical treatments is N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide, commonly known as DEET. An insect repellent is a substance applied to skin clothing or other surfaces which discourages Insects (and Arthropods in general from landing or climbing on that N, N -Diethyl- meta -toluamide, abbreviated DEET, is the most common active Ingredient in Insect repellents It is intended It has been used widely since its invention by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1945. DEET products have been widely used for many years but these products have occasionally been associated with some minor to moderate adverse reactions. DEET concentrations in repellents range from 5% up to 100%.

Other less commonly used mosquito repellents include: catnip oil extract, nepetalactone (no known credible tests), citronella 10% solution (84% effective for about 1 hour), or eucalyptus oil extract. Nepeta is a Genus of about 250 Species of Flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae. Nepetalactone is an Organic compound first isolated in the Plant Catnip, Nepeta cataria. Eucalyptus (From Greek ευκάλυπτος meaning "well covered" is a diverse Genus of Trees (and a few shrubs the members of which ^[53] A soybean oil-based product worked for about 1. 5 hours and a lemon eucalyptus-based solution worked for about 3 hours. Corymbia citriodora is a tall Tree, to 50 metres in height from Temperate and tropical eastern Australia.

Picaridin, first used in Europe in 2001, has been reported to be effective by Consumer Reports (7% solution)^[54] and the Australian Army (20% solution). Icaridin, also known as picaridine, KBR 3023, under the INCI name hydroxyethyl isobutyl piperidine carboxylate, and under the old trade ^[55] Consumer Report retests in 2006 show that a 7% solution of picaridin now has a protection time of about 0 minutes and a 15% solution was only good for about one hour. ^[56] So far DEET is the champion effective repellent against mosquitoes, especially when worn in conjunction with light coloured clothing, long sleeved pants and shirts and a hat. N, N -Diethyl- meta -toluamide, abbreviated DEET, is the most common active Ingredient in Insect repellents It is intended

Mosquitoes use carbon dioxide (CO₂) and 1-octen-3-ol from human and animal breath and sweat as odor cues and DEET inhibits the detection of the latter in insects. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single ^[57]

Other controls

Other commercial products offered for household mosquito "control" include small electrical mats, mosquito repellent vapor, DEET-impregnated wrist bands, and mosquito coils containing a form of the chemical allethrin. The allethrins are a pair of related synthetic compounds used in Insecticides. Mosquito-repellent candles containing citronella oil are sold widely in the U. S. All of these have been used with mixed reports of success and failure. Some claim that plants like wormwood or sagewort, lemon balm, lemon grass, lemon thyme and the mosquito plant (Pelargonium) will act against mosquitoes. Lemon balm ( Melissa officinalis) not to be confused with Bee balm, Monarda species is a perennial Herb in the Cymbopogon is a genus of about 55 species of grasses, native to warm temperate and tropical regions of the Old World and Oceania. Thyme (ˈtaɪm is a well known herb in common usage the name may refer to either the any or all members of the plant Genus Thymus, Pelargonium is a Genus of Flowering plants which includes about 200 Species of perennial, succulent, and Shrub However, scientists have determined that these plants are “effective” for a limited time only when the leaves are crushed and applied directly to the skin. ^[58]

There are several, widespread, unproven theories about mosquito control such as the assertion that Vitamin B, in particular B1 Thiamine, garlic, ultrasonic devices, incense, can be used to repel or control mosquitoes. The B vitamins are eight water-soluble Vitamins that play important roles in cell Metabolism. For the similarly spelled pyrimidine see Thymine Thiamin or thiamine, also known as Vitamin B1 Allium sativum L, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the Onion family Alliaceae. Incense is composed of Aromatic biotic materials It releases fragrant Smoke when burned ^{[59] [60]} Moreover, some manufacturers of "mosquito repelling" ultrasonic devices have been found to be fraudulent,^[61] and their devices were deemed "useless" in tests by the UK Consumer magazine Which?^[49]

The yellow chrysanthemum has a scent that repels mosquitoes. Which? is a product-testing and campaigning charity with a Magazine and Website run by Which? Ltd (formerly known as the Consumers' However, the blue chrysanthemum attracts them. A temporary solution to repel mosquitoes is incense, however if you have small animals such as parakeets or mice you don't want to burn it by them because of their sensitive small lungs. Mosquito eaters (crane flies) are often confused for mosquitoes, but are recognizable because they are often 4-6 times the size of a mosquito. Insects in the family Tipulidae are commonly known as crane flies. Despite their name they do not eat mosquitoes, however they do not feed on humans or mammals either. Occasionally, they will eat the larvae of mosquitoes.

Natural Predators

The Dragonfly eats mosquitoes at all stages of development and is quite effective in controlling populations^[62]. Anisoptera redirects here For the genus of trees see Anisoptera (tree. Although bats and Purple Martins can be prodigious consumers of insects, many of which are pests, less than 1% of their diet typically consists of mosquitoes. The Purple Martin ( Progne subis) is the largest North American Swallow at 20 cm length Bats are known carriers of rabies, and neither they nor Purple Martins are known to control or even significantly reduce mosquito populations^[63]. Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that

Treatment of mosquito bites

Visible, irritating bites are due to an immune response from the binding of IgG and IgE antibodies to antigens in the mosquito's saliva. An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor Immunoglobulin G ( IgG) is a Monomeric Immunoglobulin, built of two heavy chains γ and two light chains. In Biology, Immunoglobulin E ( IgE) is a class of Antibody (or Immunoglobulin " Isotype " that has only been found in Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are Gamma globulin Proteins that are found in Blood or other Bodily An antigen (from antibody-generating) or immunogen is a substance that prompts the generation of Antibodies and can cause an immune response For the band see Saliva (band; for the village in Azerbaijan see Səliva. Some of the sensitizing antigens are common to all mosquito species, whereas others are specific to certain species. There are both immediate hypersensitivity reactions (Types I & III) and delayed hypersensitivity reactions (Type IV) to mosquito bites (see Clements, 2000). Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction refers to undesirable (damaging discomfort-producing and sometimes fatal reactions produced by the normal immune system Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction refers to undesirable (damaging discomfort-producing and sometimes fatal reactions produced by the normal immune system Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction refers to undesirable (damaging discomfort-producing and sometimes fatal reactions produced by the normal immune system

There are several commercially available anti-itch medications. Antipruritics, also known as anti-itch drugs, are Medications that inhibit the Itching (Latin Pruritus) that is often associated with Sunburns These are usually orally or topically applied antihistamines and, for more severe cases, corticosteroids such as hydrocortisone and triamcinolone. A histamine antagonist is an agent which serves to inhibit the release or action of Histamine. Corticosteroids are a class of Steroid hormones that are produced in the Adrenal cortex. Cortisol is a Corticosteroid Hormone produced by the Adrenal gland (in the Zona fasciculata of the Adrenal cortex) Triamcinolone (trade names Kenalog Aristocort Nasacort Tri-Nasal Triderm Azmacort Trilone Volon A Tristoject, Fougera, Tricortone, Triesence Many home remedy and recipes exist, most of which are effective against itching, including calamine lotion, baking soda, rubbing alcohol, vinegar. A home remedy is a treatment to cure a Disease or ailment that employs certain spices vegetables or other common items For the mineral see Calamine (mineral, for other uses of the word see Calamine (disambiguation. Sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate is the Chemical compound with the formula NaHCO3 Rubbing alcohol USP / BP is a liquid prepared and used primarily for Topical application Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the Fermentation of Ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient Acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid Ammonia has been clinically demonstrated to be an effective treatment^[64].

Scratching, cooling, and heat are effective but bring relief only during the application, although scratching a mosquito bite usually serves to irritate and inflame the area further and increase the risk of infection and scarring.

Cultural views

According to the “Mosquitoes” chapter in Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things, by Lafcadio Hearn (1850–1904), mosquitoes are seen as reincarnations of the dead, condemned by the errors of their former lives to the condition of Jiki-ketsu-gaki, or "blood-drinking pretas". Kwaidan Stories and Studies of Strange Things (often abbreviated to Kwaidan) is a book by Lafcadio Hearn that features several Japanese Patrick Lafcadio Hearn ( June 27, 1850 - September 26, 1904) also known as after gaining Japanese citizenship was an author best known In East Asian religion a hungry ghost is a kind of Ghost associated with Hunger common to many religions ^[65]

The Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b) asserts that the Roman Emperor Titus was punished by God for having destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem by having a mosquito fly into Titus' nose, picking at his brain, ceaselessly buzzing, driving him crazy and eventually causing his death. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus ( December 30 39 &ndash September 13 81) was a Roman Emperor who Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the No such account appears in any Roman source, but it is quite well known that Titus died prematurely, after only two years in power, from unclear causes.

Systematics

• Subfamily Anophelinae

• Anopheles
• Cellia
• Bironella
• Chagasia

• Subfamily Culicinae

• Subfamily Toxorhynchitinae

• Toxorhynchites

Identification

• Brunhes, J. Culex is a Genus of Mosquito, and several species act as vectors of important diseases such as West Nile virus, Filariasis Culiseta is a genus of Mosquitoes Most Culiseta are cold-adapted species which only occur in warmer climates during the colder parts of the year Toxorhynchites, also known as Mosquito hawks or mosquito eaters is a large cosmopolitan genus (nearly 100 species and one of the few types of Mosquito Toxorhynchites, also known as Mosquito hawks or mosquito eaters is a large cosmopolitan genus (nearly 100 species and one of the few types of Mosquito ; Rhaim, A. ; Geoffroy, B. Angel G. Hervy P. Les Moustiques de l'Afrique mediterranéenne French/English. Interactive identification guide to mosquitoes of North Africa, with database of information on morphology, ecology, epidemiology, and control. Mac/PC Numerous illustrations. IRD/IPT [12640] 2000 CD-ROM. ISBN 2-7099-1446-8 Mosquito species can also be identified through their DNA, however this is relatively expensive so it is not commonly performed. See the Use of DNA in forensic entomology. Forensic entomology contains three aspects medicocriminal entomology urban entomology and Stored product entomology.

See also

• Insect repellent
• Cymbopogon
• Anti-itch drug

References

External links

• Mosquito at the Open Directory Project
• Mosquito Pest Control Information - National Pesticide Information Center
• West Nile Virus Resource Guide - National Pesticide Information Center
• Mosquitoes of Wisconsin
• Biological Database for Anopheline Mosquitoes
• Database for Disease Vectors
• Inland Floodwater mosquito Aedes vexans diagnostic photographs and taxonomy
• Mosquitoes and mosquito repellents: a clinician’s guidePDF (151 KiB)
• University of Florida Public Health Pesticide Applicator Training Manual - Chapter on Mosquitoes
• Vertical Flight Capabilities of Mosquitoes
• Mosquito Genomics WWW Server
• Mosquitoes - Micscape September 2003
• Mosquito Species of the British IslesPDF (31. The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directory A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International 9 KiB)
• CDC Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases - Information on West Nile virus as well as other mosquito- and tick- bourne diseases. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International
• Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory - A mosquito identification key, along with other helpful information.
• Mosquito photographs from NSW (New South Wales, Australia) Arbovirus Surveillance
• Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit. - Links to the online mosquito catalog, keys for mosquito identification, images and information on medically important species and much more.
• Repellents, Traps, Virus Information, Maps, etc Florida and National information

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