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Expansion of the Mongol Empire
Expansion of the Mongol Empire
Mongol dominions, ca. 1300. The gray area is the later Timurid empire.
Mongol dominions, ca. 1300. The gray area is the later Timurid empire. Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among

The Mongol Empire, (Mongolian: Монголын Эзэнт Гүрэн (help·info), Mongolyn Ezent Güren or Их Mонгол улс, Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1405) was the largest contiguous empire in world history, and in its time the most feared in Eurasia. The Mongolian language (mn [[ImageMonggol kelesvg 17px]] Mongɣol kele, Cyrillic: Монгол хэл Mongol khel) is the best-known member of This article provides a list of the largest Empires in world history. An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. It emerged from the unification of Mongol and Turkic tribes in modern day Mongolia, and grew through invasions, after Genghis Khan had been proclaimed ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East The Mongol Empire emerged in the course of the 13th century by a series of conquests and invasions throughout Central and Western Asia, reaching Eastern Europe Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder

By 1279, the Mongol Empire covered over 33,000,000 km² (12,741,000 sq mi),[1] 22% of the Earth's total land area. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 It held sway over a population of over 100 million people. However, by that time the empire had already partly fragmented, with the Golden Horde and the Chagatai Khanate being de facto independent and refusing to accept Kublai Khan as Khagan. This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. The Chagatai Khanate was a Mongol and later more Turko-Islamic in language and culture Khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it For other titles related to and uses of Khan, see that article Origin The title [2][3] By the time of Kublai Khan's death, with no accepted Khagan in existence, the Mongol Empire became divided into four separate khanates.

Contents

Formation

History of Mongolia
Before Genghis Khan
Mongol Empire
Khanates
- Chagatai Khanate
- Golden Horde
- Ilkhanate
- Yuan Dynasty
Timurid Empire
Mughal Empire
Crimean Khanate
Khanate of Sibir
Dzungar
Qing Dynasty (Outer Mongolia, Mongolia during Qing)
Mongolian People's Republic
Modern Mongolia
Inner Mongolia
Buryat Mongolia
Kalmyk Mongolia
Hazara Mongols
Aimak Mongols
Timeline
edit box

Genghis Khan through political manipulation and military might, united the nomadic, previously ever-rivaling Mongol-Turkic tribes under his rule by 1206. The area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various Nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Rouran, the Xianbei, the Gökturks Origins of the Mongols Archaeological evidence places early Stone Age human habitation in the southern Gobi between 100000 and 200000 years ago The Chagatai Khanate was a Mongol and later more Turko-Islamic in language and culture Khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai The Timurids, self-designated Gurkānī ( were a Persianate Central Asian Sunni Muslim dynasty The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most The Crimean Khanate or the Khanate of Crimea (Qırım Hanlığı|قريم خانلغى Крымское ханство - Krymskoye khanstvo; Siberia Khanate is an anachronistic rendering of its actual name Khanate of Sibir, a Tatar Khanate in the later Russian Siberia Dzungar (also Jungar or Zungar; Mongolian: Зүүнгар Züüngar) is the collective identity of several Oirat tribes that Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China Outer Mongolia (Ar Mongol Manchu: Tulergi Monggo) was the main part of the Bogdo Khanate of Mongolia which proclaimed its independence on 29 December 1911 The Mongolian People's Republic ( Mongolian: Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Ард Улс (БНМАУ Bügd Nairamdakh Mongol Ard Uls (BNMAU) was a Following the collapse of the Communist regime, Mongolia's first free multi-party elections for a bicameral parliament were held on July 29, 1990. Inner Mongolia ( Mongolian:, Öbür mongɣul; occasionally romanized to Nei Mongol is the Mongol Buryat Republic (Респу́блика Буря́тия Буряад Республика is a federal subject of Russia (a Republic) The Republic of Kalmykia (Респу́блика Калмы́кия Kalmyk: Хальмг Таңһч is a federal subject of the Russian Federation (a The Hazāra ( are a Persian-speaking people residing in the central region of Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. Aimak (or Aimaq) is a term designating Persian -speaking Nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes of mixed Iranian and Mongolian stock inhabiting Manchu Era 1620s and -30s Ligden Khan, the last Mongol Great Khan aims to create a new empire by centralizing control over the various Mongol tribes but Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family He quickly came into conflict with the Jin Dynasty empire of the Jurchens and the Western Xia of the Tanguts in northern China. This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty The Jurchens ( were a Tungus people who inhabited the region of Manchuria ( Northeast China) until the 17th century when they adopted the name Manchu Xi Xia redirects here For a Chinese general whose name may be transliterated as Xi Xia see Xi Qia The Western Xia Dynasty ( or The Tangut ( identified with the state of Western Xia, were a Qiangic - Tibetan people who moved to northwestern China sometime before China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Under the provocation of the Muslim Khwarezmid Empire, he moved into Central Asia as well, devastating Transoxiana and eastern Persia, then raiding into Kievan Rus' (a predecessor state of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine) and the Caucasus. The Khwarezmian Empire, more commonly known as the empire of the Khwarezm Shahs ( Khwārezmšhāḥīān, "Kings of Khwarezmia " Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan Succession of states is a theory in International relations regarding the recognition and acceptance of a newly created State by other states based on Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Before dying, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and immediate family, but as custom made clear, it remained the joint property of the entire imperial family who, along with the Mongol aristocracy, constituted the ruling class.

Major events in the Early Mongol Empire

Eurasia on the eve of the Mongol invasions, c. 1200.
Eurasia on the eve of the Mongol invasions, c. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. 1200.
Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis' death
Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis' death

Major events in the Late Mongol Empire

Organization

Military setup

Main article: Mongol military tactics and organization

The Mongol military organization was simple, but effective. The Mongol military tactics and organization helped the Mongol Empire to conquer nearly all of continental Asia the Middle East and parts of eastern Europe It was based on an old tradition of the steppe, which was a decimal system known in Iranian cultures since Achaemenid Persia, and later: the army was built up from squads of ten men each, called an arbat; ten arbats constituted a company of a hundred, called a zuut; ten zuuts made a regiment of a thousand called myanghan and ten myanghans would then constitute a regiment of ten thousand (tumen), which is the equivalent of a modern division. In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced The decimal ( base ten or occasionally denary) Numeral system has ten as its base. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of

Unlike other mobile-only warriors, such as the Xiongnu or the Huns, the Mongols were very comfortable in the art of the siege. According to the Random House Dictionary, the term warrior has two meanings The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy They were very careful to recruit artisans and military talents from the cities they conquered, and along with a group of experienced Chinese engineers and bombardier corps, they were experts in building the trebuchet, Xuanfeng catapults and other machines with which they could lay siege to fortified positions. A trebuchet or trebucket is a Siege engine that was employed in the Middle Ages either to smash Masonry Walls or to throw These were effectively used in the successful European campaigns under General Subutai. Subutai ( Subetei, Subetai, Сүбээдэй Sübeedei; Classic Mongolian Sübügätäi or Sübü'ätäi; 1176–1248 was the primary These weapons may be built on the spot using immediate local resources such as nearby trees.

Within a battle Mongol forces used extensive coordination of combined arms forces. Though they were famous for their horse archers, their lance forces were equally skilled and just as essential to their success. Mongol forces also used their engineers in battle. They used siege engines and rockets to disrupt enemy formations, confused enemy forces with smoke, and used smoke to isolate portions of an enemy force while destroying that force to prevent their allies from sending aid.

The army's discipline distinguished Mongol soldiers from their peers. The forces under the command of the Mongol Empire were generally trained, organized, and equipped for mobility and speed. To maximize mobility, Mongol soldiers were relatively lightly armored compared to many of the armies they faced. In addition, soldiers of the Mongol army functioned independently of supply lines, considerably speeding up army movement. Skillful use of couriers enabled these armies to maintain contact with each other and with their higher leaders. Discipline was inculcated in nerge (traditional hunts), as reported by Juvayni. Ala'iddin Ata-Malik Juvayni (1226 &ndash 1283 (Persian علاءالدين عطا ملك جويني was a Persian historian who wrote an account of the Mongol Empire These hunts were distinct from hunts in other cultures which were the equivalent to small unit actions. Mongol forces would spread out on line, surrounding an entire region and drive all of the game within that area together. The goal was to let none of the animals escape and to slaughter them all.

All military campaigns were preceded by careful planning, reconnaissance and gathering of sensitive information relating to the enemy territories and forces. The success, organization and mobility of the Mongol armies permitted them to fight on several fronts at once. All males aged from 15 to 60 and capable of undergoing rigorous training were eligible for conscription into the army, the source of honor in the tribal warrior tradition.

Another advantage of the Mongols was their ability to traverse large distances even in debilitatingly cold winters; in particular, frozen rivers led them like highways to large urban conurbations on their banks. In addition to siege engineering, the Mongols were also adept at river-work, crossing the river Sajó in spring flood conditions with thirty thousand cavalry in a single night during the battle of Mohi (April, 1241), defeating the Hungarian king Bela IV. The Sajó (- Hungarian; Slovak: Slaná) is a River in Slovakia and Hungary. The Battle of Mohi, or Battle of the Sajó River, (on April 11, 1241) was the main Battle between the Mongols and the Kingdom Béla IV (IV Béla (1206 &ndash 3 May 1270 King of Hungary and Croatia (1214-1270 Duke of Styria (1254-1258 Similarly, in the attack against the Muslim Khwarezmshah, a flotilla of barges was used to prevent escape on the river. Ala ad-Din Muhammad II (علاءالدين محمد ʿAlā al-Dīn Muḥammad was the ruler of the Khwarezmid Empire from 1200 to 1220

Law and governance

See also: Organization of state under Genghis Khan. Politics Pax Mongolica See also Pax Mongolica Loyalty In the face of the ethnic religious and tribal diversity of the civilians and soldiers

The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law devised by Genghis, called Yassa, meaning "order" or "decree". Yassa (alternatively Yasa, Yasaq, Jazag, Zasag, Mongolian: Их засаг хууль) was a secret written code A particular canon of this code was that the nobility shared much of the same hardship as the common man. It also imposed severe penalties – e. g. , the death penalty was decreed if the mounted soldier following another did not pick up something dropped from the mount in front. On the whole, the tight discipline made the Mongol Empire extremely safe and well-run; European travelers were amazed by the organization and strict discipline of the people within the Mongol Empire.

Under Yassa, chiefs and generals were selected based on merit, religious tolerance was guaranteed, and thievery and vandalizing of civilian property was strictly forbidden. Meritocracy is a system of a government or another organization wherein Appointments are made and responsibilities are given based on demonstrated talent and Ability Freedom of religion is the freedom of an individual or community in public or private to manifest religion or belief in teaching practice worship and observance According to legend, a woman carrying a sack of gold could travel safely from one end of the Empire to another.

The empire was governed by a non-democratic parliamentary-style central assembly, called Kurultai, in which the Mongol chiefs met with the Great Khan to discuss domestic and foreign policies. TalkParliament#Screen-size. -->A  parliament is a Legislature, especially in those Kurultai (Құрылтай Qurıltay Qorıltay Qurultay Kurultay is a political and military council of ancient Mongol and Turkic chiefs and khans.

Genghis also demonstrated a rather liberal and tolerant attitude to the beliefs of others, and never persecuted people on religious grounds. This proved to be good military strategy, as when he was at war with Sultan Muhammad of Khwarezm, other Islamic leaders did not join the fight against Genghis — it was instead seen as a non-holy war between two individuals.

Throughout the empire, trade routes and an extensive postal system (yam) were created. Many merchants, messengers and travelers from China, the Middle East and Europe used the system. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Genghis Khan also created a national seal, encouraged the use of a written alphabet in Mongolia, and exempted teachers, lawyers, and artists from taxes, although taxes were heavy on all other subjects of the empire.

At the same time, any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive collective punishment. Cities were destroyed and their inhabitants slaughtered if they defied Mongol orders.

Religions

Mongols were highly tolerant of most religions, and typically sponsored several at the same time. At the time of Genghis Khan, virtually every religion had found converts, from Buddhism to Christianity and Manichaeanism to Islam. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a shamanist. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt from taxation, and from public service. [4]

Initially there were few formal places of worship, because of the nomadic lifestyle. However, under Ögedei, several building projects were undertaken in Karakorum. Ögedei Khan, (Өгэдэй Ögedei; also Ogotai or Oktay, 窩闊臺 c Karakorum (Khalkha Mongolian Khara-khorin, Classical Mongolian Qara Qorum) was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century Along with palaces, Ogodei built houses of worship for the Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and Taoist followers. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions The dominant religion at that time was Shamanism, Tengriism and Buddhism, although Ogodei's wife was a Christian. Tengriism ( Tengerism, Tengrianism, Tengrianizm, Tengricilik) was the major belief of the Mongols and Turkic peoples before Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices [5]

Buddhism

Main article: History of Tibet

Ogedei's son and Guyuk's younger brother, Khoten (Хүдэн, Kötön), became the governor of Ningxia and Gansu. Tibetan history is characterized by a special dedication to the Buddhist religion both in the eyes of its own people as well as for the Mongol and Manchu He launched a military campaign into Tibet under the command of Generals Lichi and Dhordha. Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European The marauding Mongols burned down Tibetan monuments such as the Reting monastery and the Gyal temple in 1240. Prince Kötön was convinced that no power in the world exceeded the might of the Mongols. However, he believed that religion was necessary in the interests of the next life. Thus he invited Sakya Pandita to Mongolia. Prince Kötön was impressed by Sakya Pandita's teachings. Then he became the first known buddhist prince of Mongol empire. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices

Khatun Chabi influenced Kublai to be converted to Buddhism. Khatun ( - Khātūn) is a female title of nobility and alternative to male " Khan " prominently used in the First Turkish Empire and in the She received the Hévajra tantra initiations from Phagspa and was very impressed. Khubilai offered Phagpa rule over the thirteen trikhors of Tibet. On the completion of the second stage, Khubilai offered Phagpa a white dharma conch shell and rule over all the three provinces of Tibet. The third stage of the initiation was followed by Khubilai taking a vow to renounce the yearly mass sacrifices of his Chinese subjects. The sacrifices involved an annual ritual of throwing a large number of Chinese subjects into Lake Miyou to check the growth of the Chinese population in his empire[6].

Scientists says Hulagu and Abaqa were buddhists. This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as Abaqa Khan (1234&ndash1282 also Abaga or Abagha Khan, was the second Mongol ruler (Il-khan of the Persian Ilkhanate And their religion flourished in Persia until Ghazan's reign. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Tokhta of Golden Horde also encouraged lamas to settle in Russia[7]. Tokhta ( Toqta, Tokhtai,or Tokhtogha) (Тохтога (? - c 1312 was a khan of the Golden Horde, son of Mengu-Timur This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. Lama ( is a title for a Tibetan teacher Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending

Christianity

Main article: Christianity among the Mongols
Nestorian tombstone found in Issyk Kul, dated 1312.
Nestorian tombstone found in Issyk Kul, dated 1312. Overall the Mongols were highly tolerant of most religions and typically sponsored several at the same time Issyk Kul (also Ysyk Köl, Issyk-kol; Ысыккөл Иссык-Куль is an Endorheic Lake in the northern Tian Shan mountains

Some Mongols had been proselytized by Christian Nestorians since about the 7th century, and a few Mongols were converted to Catholicism, esp. Nestorius Nestorius (c  386 &ndashc  451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern As a Christian Ecclesiastical term Catholic —from the Greek adjective, meaning "general" or "universal"—is described by John of Montecorvino. John of Montecorvino, or Giovanni Da/di Montecorvino in Italian also spelled Monte Corvino (1246 Montecorvino, Southern Italy - 1328 [8]

Some of the major Christian figures among the Mongols were: Sorghaghtani Beki, daughter in law of Genghis Khan, and mother of the Great Khans Möngke, Kublai, Hulagu and Ariq Boke; Sartaq, khan of Golden Horde; Doquz Khatun, the mother of the ruler Abaqa; Kitbuqa, general of Mongol forces in the Levant, who fought in alliance with Christians. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder For other titles related to and uses of Khan, see that article Origin The title Möngke Khan (Мөнх хаан also transliterated as Mongke Mongka Möngka Mangu or Mangku ( c Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as Ariq Böke, or Arigh Bukha, or a combination of both (Аригбөх; died 1266 the youngest son of Tolui, was a grandson of Genghis Khan and a claimant Sartaq (or Sartak or Sartach) Khan (died 1256 was the son of Batu Khan and Regent Dowager Khatun Boraqcin Doquz Khatun (also spelled Dokuz Khatun) was a Mongol Kerait princess of the 13th century who was married to the Mongol ruler Hulagu. Abaqa Khan (1234&ndash1282 also Abaga or Abagha Khan, was the second Mongol ruler (Il-khan of the Persian Ilkhanate Kitbuqa Noyan (d 1260 ( Turkic: Kitbuga, Mongolian: Хитбух) was a Christian Turk belonging to the tribe of See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Marital alliances with Western powers also occurred, as in the 1265 marriage of Maria Despina Palaiologina, daughter of Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus, with Abaqa. Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( Greek: Μιχαήλ Η΄ Παλαιολόγος Mikhaēl VIII Palaiologos) (1223 &ndash December 11 Abaqa Khan (1234&ndash1282 also Abaga or Abagha Khan, was the second Mongol ruler (Il-khan of the Persian Ilkhanate

The 13th century saw attempts at a Franco-Mongol alliance with exchange of ambassadors and even military collaboration with European Christians in the Holy Land. Many attempts were made towards forming a Franco-Mongol alliance between the mid-13th and early 14th centuries starting around the time of the Seventh Crusade. The Holy Land ( Arabic: الأرض المقدسة al-Arḍ ul-Muqaddasah;Ancient Aramaic: ארעא קדישא Ar'a Qaddisha; Hebrew: ארץ_הקודש The Nestorian Mongol Rabban Bar Sauma visited some European courts in 1287-1288. Rabban Bar Sauma (c 1220–1294 (pronounced "ruh-BAHN BAR sah-OO-muh" also known as Rabban Ṣawma or Rabban Çauma, (Chinese拉賓掃務瑪 was a

Islam

Main article: Islam during the Yuan Dynasty

Although Berke was the first Muslim leader of Mongol khanates, full adoption of the religion was quite later. The establishment of the Yuan Dynasty in China had dramatically benefited Islam in China in contrast to previous dynasties Berke Khan (Бэрх was the Khan of the Kipchak or Golden Horde who effectively consolidated the power of the Blue Horde and White Hordes Mongols had to use talent wherever they could find it because they were so few. Muslims became a favored class of officials. Muslims were well educated and knew Turkish and Mongolian.

Ghazan was the first Muslim khan to adopt Islam as national religion of Ilkhanate. Mahmud Ghazan or Qazaan the Khan of the Tartars (original Mongol name Ghazan Khan, Ch合贊 b After then, Uzbek forced his subjects to accept the religion. Sultan Mohammed Öz-Beg, better known as Uzbeg or Ozbeg (1282&ndash1341 reign 1313&ndash1341 was the longest-reigning khan of the Golden But Moghulistan was another case. There, Mongols enjoyed a nomadic life style and Buddhism and shamanism flourished as well as Christianity until 1350's. However, mongol khanates converted to Islam, mongol men did not prohibit women's political influence.

Though the Yuan Dynasty was the only Khanate not to convert to Islam, there had been many Muslim foreigners since the khans were tolerant of other religions. Contact between Yuan emperors in China and Papal states and other Muslim states lasted until the mid-14th century. The Papal States, State(s of the Church or Pontifical States (in Italian Stato Ecclesiastico, Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa According to Jack Weatherford, there were more than one million Muslims in Yuan Dynasty. Jack Weatherford is a professor of Anthropology at Macalester College, specializing in Mongolia.

Trade networks

Mongols prized their commercial and trade relationships with neighboring economies and this policy they continued during the process of their conquests and during the expansion of their empire. All merchants and ambassadors, having proper documentation and authorization, traveling through their realms were protected. This greatly increased overland trade.

During the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, European merchants, numbering hundreds, perhaps thousands, made their way from Europe to the distant land of China — Marco Polo is only one of the best known of these. Marco Polo ( September 15 1254 – January 9 1324 at earliest but no later than June 1325 was a Venetian trader and explorer Well-traveled and relatively well-maintained roads linked lands from the Mediterranean basin to China. The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. The Mongol Empire had negligible influence on seaborne trade.

Mail system

Letter of Oljeitu to Philippe le Bel, 1305. The huge roll measures 302x50 cm.
Letter of Oljeitu to Philippe le Bel, 1305. Öljaitü, Oljeitu or Uljeitu, also known as Muhammad Khodabandeh, ( Persian محمد خدابنده - اولجایتو The huge roll measures 302x50 cm.

The Mongol Empire had an ingenious and efficient mail system for the time, often referred to by scholars as the Yam, which had lavishly furnished and well guarded relay posts known as örtöö set up all over the Mongol Empire. Yam (Өртөө Örtöö) is a Supply point route messenger system employed and extensively used and expanded by Genghis Khan and used by subsequent The yam system would be replicated later in the U.S. in form of the Pony Express. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Pony Express was a fast Mail service crossing the North American continent from St [9] A messenger would typically travel 25 miles (40 km) from one ordu to the next, and he would either receive a fresh, rested horse or relay the mail to the next rider to ensure the speediest possible delivery. The Mongol riders regularly covered 125 miles per day, which is faster than the fastest record set by the Pony Express some 600 years later.

Military conquests

Central Asia

Main article: Mongol invasion of Central Asia

Mongol invasion of Central Asia initially was composed of Genghis Khan's victory over and unification of the Mongol and Turkic central Asian confederations such as Merkits, Tartars, Mongols, Uighurs that eventually created the Mongol Empire. The Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia lasted from 1219 to 1221. It marked the beginning of the Mongol Conquest of the Islamic States and it also expanded Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family A confederation is a group of empowered states or communities usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution The Merkit, Merged, or Mergid ( Merged means "wise ones" "adept ones" "skillful ones" "(skillful archers" The Uyghur (also spelled Uygur, Uighur, Uigur, Uyghur: ئۇيغۇر) are a Turkic people of Central Asia. It then continued with invasion of Khwarezmid Empire in Persia. The Khwarezmian Empire, more commonly known as the empire of the Khwarezm Shahs ( Khwārezmšhāḥīān, "Kings of Khwarezmia " The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia

Middle East

Main article: Mongol invasion of Middle East

The Mongol invasion of the Middle East consists of the conquest, by force or voluntary submission, of the areas today known as Iran, Iraq, Syria, and parts of Turkey, with further Mongol raids reaching southwards as far as Gaza into the Palestine region in 1260 and 1300. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Gaza (غزة, עַזָּה ʕazzā is the largest city in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian territories. Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The major battles were the Battle of Baghdad (1258), when the Mongols sacked the city which for 500 years had been the center of Islamic power; and the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, when the Muslim Egyptian Mamluks, with some unusual provisioning assistance from the Christian European Crusaders, were for the first time able to stop the Mongol advance at Ain Jalut, in the northern part of what is today known as the West Bank. The Battle of Baghdad in 1258 was a victory for the Mongol leader Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan. The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic ar عين جالوت the "Eye of Goliath" or the "Spring of Goliath" took place on 3 September 1260 between The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The West Bank (الضفة الغربية, הגדה המערבית Hagadah Hamaaravit) also referred to in Israel as " Judea and Samaria

Due to a combination of political and geographic factors, such as lack of sufficient grazing room for their horses, the Mongol invasion of the Middle East turned out to be the farthest that the Mongols would ever reach, towards the Mediterranean and Africa.

East Asia

Main article: Mongol invasion of East Asia

Mongol invasion of East Asia refers to the Mongols 13th and 14th century conquests under Genghis Khan and his descendants of Mongol invasion of China, the invasion of Korea which forced Korea to become a vassal, and attempted Mongol invasion of Japan, and it also can include Mongols attempted invasion of Vietnam. Mongol invasion of East Asia refers to the Mongols 13th and 14th century conquests under Genghis Khan and his descendants of Mongol invasion of China, Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder The Mongol invasion of China lasted over 6 decades and particularly involved the defeat of Jin Dynasty, Western Xia, and the Southern Song The Mongol invasions of Korea (1231 - 1273 consisted of a series of campaigns by the Mongol Empire against Korea, then known as Goryeo, from 1231 to 1259 The of 1274 and 1281 were major Military operations undertaken by Kublai Khan to invade the Japanese Islands after conquering Korea Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially The biggest conquest was the total invasion of China in the end. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National

Europe

Main articles: Mongol invasion of Rus and Mongol invasion of Europe

Mongol invasion of Europe largely constitute of their invasion and conquest of Kievan Rus, much of Russia, invasion of Poland and Hungary among others. The Mongol invasion of Rus' was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223 between Subutai 's reconnaissance unit and the combined force The Mongol invasions of Europe, under the leadership of Subutai, centered on the destruction of East Slavic principalities such as Kiev and Vladimir Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic

Pope’s envoy to Mongol Khan Giovanni de Plano Carpini, who passed through Kiev in February 1246, wrote:

"They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, or John of Plano Carpini or John of Pian de Carpine or Joannes de Plano (c Kiev, also known as Kyiv ( Ukrainian:, Kyiv, ˈkɪjiw Russian:, Kiyev; see also Cities' alternative names) is the When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery. "[10]

After Genghis Khan

Ögedei Khan, Genghis Khan's son and successor
Ögedei Khan, Genghis Khan's son and successor
Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of the Yuan Dynasty
Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of the Yuan Dynasty
Hulagu, Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of the il-Khan
Hulagu, Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of the il-Khan

At first, the Mongol Empire was ruled by Ögedei Khan, Genghis Khan's third son and designated heir, but after his death in 1241, the fractures which would ultimately crack the Empire began to show. Ögedei Khan, (Өгэдэй Ögedei; also Ogotai or Oktay, 窩闊臺 c Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in Ögedei Khan, (Өгэдэй Ögedei; also Ogotai or Oktay, 窩闊臺 c Enmity between the grandchildren of Genghis Khan resulted in a five year regency by Ögedei's widow until she finally got her son Guyuk Khan confirmed as Great Khan. Güyük ( cyrillic:Гүюг хаан c. 1206–1248 was the third Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. But he only ruled two years, and following his death -- he was on his way to confront his cousin Batu Khan, who had never accepted his authority -- another regency followed, until finally a period of stability came with the reign of Mongke Khan, from 1251-1259. Möngke Khan (Мөнх хаан also transliterated as Mongke Mongka Möngka Mangu or Mangku ( c The last universally accepted Great Khan was his brother Arigboh (aka. Arigbuga, or Arigbuha), his elder brother Kublai Khan dethroned him with his own supporters after some extensive battles. Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it Kublai Khan ruled from 1260-1294. Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it Despite his recognition as Great Khan, he was unable to keep his brother Hulagu and their cousin Berke from open warfare in 1263, and after Kublai's death there was not an accepted Great Khan, so the Mongol Empire was fragmented for good. This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as Berke Khan (Бэрх was the Khan of the Kipchak or Golden Horde who effectively consolidated the power of the Blue Horde and White Hordes

Genghis Khan divided his realm into four Khanates, subdivisions of a single empire under the Great Khan (Khan of Khans). Khanate or Chanat is a Turkic origined word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. For other titles related to and uses of Khan, see that article Origin The title The following Khanates emerged after the regency following Ögedei Khan's death, and became formally independent after Kublai Khan's death:

The Mongol Empire and its successor khanates
The Mongol Empire and its successor khanates

The empire's expansion continued for a generation or more after Genghis's death in 1227. The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East Karakorum (Khalkha Mongolian Khara-khorin, Classical Mongolian Qara Qorum) was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century Tolui, also rendered Toluy or Tolui Khan (Толуй; c 1190 &ndash 1232 was the youngest son of Genghis Khan by Börte. The Chagatai Khanate was a Mongol and later more Turko-Islamic in language and culture Khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan Chagatai Khan (Цагадай Tsagadai) was the second son of Genghis Khan. Khanate or Chanat is a Turkic origined word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. Under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan, the speed of expansion reached its peak. Ögedei Khan, (Өгэдэй Ögedei; also Ogotai or Oktay, 窩闊臺 c Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and came into conflict with the Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that concluded in 1279 with the conquest of populous China, which then constituted the majority of the world's economic production. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

In the late 1230s, the Mongols under Batu Khan invaded Russia and Volga Bulgaria, reducing most of its principalities to vassalage, and pressed on into Eastern Europe. Batu Khan (Бат Хаан Баты́й (c 1205–1255 was a Mongol ruler and the founder of the Blue Horde. The Mongol invasion of Rus' was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223 between Subutai 's reconnaissance unit and the combined force The Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria lasted from 1223 to 1236 In 1241 the Mongols may have been ready to invade Western Europe as well, having defeated the last Polish-German and Hungarian armies at the Battle of Legnica and the Battle of Mohi. The Battle of Legnica (Bitwa pod Legnicą also known as the Battle of Liegnitz (Schlacht von Liegnitz or Battle of Wahlstatt (Schlacht bei Wahlstatt was The Battle of Mohi, or Battle of the Sajó River, (on April 11, 1241) was the main Battle between the Mongols and the Kingdom Batu Khan and Subutai were preparing to start with a winter campaign against Austria and Germany, and finish with Italy. However news of Ögedei's death spared Western Europe as Batu had to turn his attentions to the election of the next Great Khan. It is often speculated that this was one of the great turning points in history and that Europe may well have fallen to the Mongols had the invasion gone ahead. During the 1250s, Genghis's grandson Hulegu Khan, operating from the Mongol base in Persia, destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad and destroyed the cult of the Assassins, moving into Palestine towards Egypt. This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous The Hashshashin (also Hashishin, Hashashiyyin, Hashasheen or Assassins) were an offshoot of the Ismā'īlī sect of Shia This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Great Khan Möngke having died, however, he hastened to return for the election, and the force that remained in Palestine was destroyed by the Mamluks under Saif ad-Din Qutuz in 1261 at Ayn Jalut. Möngke Khan (Мөнх хаан also transliterated as Mongke Mongka Möngka Mangu or Mangku ( c Saif ad-Din Qutuz also spelled Kutuz, (سيف الدين قطز ( epithet: al-Malik al-Muzafar Saif ad-Din Qutuz (Arabic الملك المظفر سيف The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic ar عين جالوت the "Eye of Goliath" or the "Spring of Goliath" took place on 3 September 1260 between

Vassals

The Mongol Empire included China, most of Russia, Siberia, parts of Burma, and all of Georgia, Armenia, Cilicia, Anatolia, Iraq, Persia, Central Asia, Ukraine and Belarus. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east

European vassals

East and Southeast Asian vassals

Middle East vassals

Main article: Franco-Mongol alliance

The small crusader state paid annual tributes for many years. The closest thing to actual Frankish cooperation with Mongol military actions was the overlord-subject relationship between the Mongols and the Franks of Antioch and others.

The Seljuks and the military forces of Trebizond were defeated by the Mongols in 1243 . The Empire of Trebizond ( was a Byzantine Greek successor state of the Byzantine Empire founded in 1204 as a result of the capture of Constantinople The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled The Battle of Köse Dağ was fought between the Seljuk Turks of Rum and the Mongols on June 26 1243 at the defile of Köse After that, Kaykhusraw II, the Sultan of Iconium was compelled to relieve himself by paying tribute and supplying annually horses, hunting dogs, and jewels. Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II ( Arabic / Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Kayqubād II Konya ( قونیه; also Koniah, Konieh, Konia, and Qunia; historically also known as Iconium ( Latin The emperor Manuel I of Trebizond, realizing the impossibility of fighting the Mongols, made a speedy peace with them and, on condition of paying an annual tribute, became a Mongol vassal. Manuel I Megas Komnenos ( Greek: Μανουήλ Α΄ Μέγας Κομνηνός Manouēl I Megas Komnēnos) (c The empire reached its greatest prosperity and had opportunity to export the produce of its own rich hinterland during the era of Ilkhans. The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in But with the decline of Mongol power in 1335, Trebizond suffered increasingly from Turkish attacks, civil wars, and domestic intrigues[20].

Tributary states

Areas that avoided Mongol conquest

Essentially, only six areas accessible to the Mongols avoided conquest by them -- Indochina, South Asia, Japan, Western Europe and Arabia. Also, two important cities that evaded the Mongol Conquest were Vienna and Jerusalem. Both evaded the conquest because of the death of a Great Khan.

Western Europe

While the Mongolian Empire extended into Poland and threatening present day Austria, the Mongols were not able to push into Western Europe. The most popular explanation was the fact that on 11 December 1241, during pre-emptive operations by Mongol reconnaissance forces inside Austria for the invasion of Vienna, news came that Ogedei Khan died, and bound by Mongol tradition, all Mongol commanders and princes had to report back to the capital of Karakorum to elect a new Khan. An invasion is a military offensive consisting of all or large parts of the Armed forces of one geopolitical entity aggressively entering territory Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Ögedei Khan, (Өгэдэй Ögedei; also Ogotai or Oktay, 窩闊臺 c Karakorum (Khalkha Mongolian Khara-khorin, Classical Mongolian Qara Qorum) was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century It was believed that the Mongol abandonment of the European campaign was only temporary, but in fact, the Mongols had committed no further campaigns into Europe in earnest. Some western historians attribute European survival to Mongol unwillingness to fight in the more densely populated German principalities, where the wetter weather affected their bows. But the same weather did not stop them from devastating Russia or the campaigns against the Southern Song, and Europe was less densely populated than China. [9]

The probable answer for the Mongol's stopping after the Mohi River, and the destruction of the Hungarian army, was that they never intended to advance further at that time. [22]

Batu Khan had made his Russian conquests safe for the next 10 generations, and when the Great Khan died, he rushed back to Mongolia to put in his claim for power. Upon his return, relations with his cousin Guyuk Khan had deteriorated to the point that open warfare between them came shortly after Guyuk's death. The point is that the Mongols were unable to bring a unified army to bear on either Europe, or Egypt, after 1260. Batu Khan was in fact planning invasion of Europe all the way to the "Great Sea" — the Atlantic Ocean, when he died in 1255. [22][9]

His son inherited the Khanate, but also died in a short time, and Batu's brother Berke became Khan of the Kipchak Khanate. Berke Khan (Бэрх was the Khan of the Kipchak or Golden Horde who effectively consolidated the power of the Blue Horde and White Hordes This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. He was far more interested in fighting with his cousin Hulagu than invading the remainder of Europe, which was no threat to him.

Vietnam and Japan

Main articles: Mongol invasions of Vietnam and Mongol invasion of Japan

Another area not conquered by Mongols was Vietnam under the Trần Dynasty, which repelled Mongol attacks in 1257/1258, 1284/1285 and 1287/1288. The of 1274 and 1281 were major Military operations undertaken by Kublai Khan to invade the Japanese Islands after conquering Korea Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially The Trần Dynasty ( Vietnamese: Nhà Trần, Hán Việt: Trần Triều, 陳朝 was a Vietnamese dynasty that ruled Vietnam (at that For other articles of the same title see Battle of Bạch Đằng.

But around 1288, Annam and Champa started to pay tributary to the emperors of the Yuan Dynasty. That is why the two states of Vietnam are considered vassals of the Mongol Empire.

Japan also repelled massive Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The of 1274 and 1281 were major Military operations undertaken by Kublai Khan to invade the Japanese Islands after conquering Korea Japan's ruler Hojo Tokimune first sent back the emissaries time and time again without audience in Kamakura, and then after the first invasion was so bold as to behead Kubilai's emissaries, twice. Life Born as the eldest son of the regent Tokiyori of the Adachi House Tokimune became a shikken at age 18 is a city located in Kanagawa, Japan, about 50 km south-south-west of Tokyo. [23] In both Japan and Vietnam, Kublai sent part of the Mongol armies, instead of concentrating on Vietnam first, and then Japan. Furthermore, the splitting of resources left the Mongols with a fleet that was not readily equipped for the storms that plagued the Sea of Japan. The Sea of Japan is a Marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean, bordered by Japan, Korea, North Korea and Russia A great storm sank the primary invasion fleet and killed most of the Mongol army during the 1281 invasion. Kamikaze (神風 is a Japanese word usually translated as divine wind, believed to be a gift from the gods

Indochina (Khmer Empire)

Many other kingdoms in Indochina could counter the Mongol invasion, such as the Maoluang Kingdom (or Kingdom of Mong Mao) in Northern Thailand, Shan and Kachin in today's Northern and Northeastern Myanmar as well as Assam in Eastern India and Southwestern China. Assam) ( Assamese: অসম Ôxôm) is a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur, a suburb of the city Sa Khaan Pha (or Si Ke Fa), king of Maoluang Kingdom, was able to negotiate a treaty after he defeated the Mongols three times during the period of Kublai Khan. He received authority over the land south of the Sang city which is now Kunming in the Yunnan province of China. Mongol-led Yuan forces attacked Champa in Southern Vietnam with large scale of army once in 1287. The kingdom of Champa ( Chăm Pa in Vietnamese or Chiêm Thành in Hán Việt records was an Indianized kingdom and controlled what Northern Vietnam and Southern Vietnam are two general regions within Vietnam. Lanna and Sibsongpanna (in present Northern Thailand, Northern Laos and Southern China), Lan Xang (in present Laos), the Siamese kingdoms of Chiang Saen (or Chieng Saeng), Lavo, Haripunjai, Phyao and Sukhotai never invaded by the Mongols due to the rough terrain. However, the Burmese Pagan dynasty was destroyed in 1287 by Kublai Khan as well as the Northern Vietnamese empire of Viet. Sodu sent also 100 mongols to raid on Khmer empire while he was fighting with Champa. The Khmer Empire was the largest empire of South East Asia based in what is now Cambodia. The kingdom of Champa ( Chăm Pa in Vietnamese or Chiêm Thành in Hán Việt records was an Indianized kingdom and controlled what But Yuan later made most of Southeast Asian states tributary vassals somehow.

South Asia

Main article: Mongol invasions of India

South Asia was also able to withstand the advance of the Mongols. The Mongol Empire launched several Mongol invasions into the Indian subcontinent from 1221 to 1327 At this time, Northern India was under the rule of the Delhi sultanate. Though the Mongols raided into the Punjab and invaded Delhi itself (unsuccessfully), the Sultans--mostly notably Ghiyasuddin Balban--were able to keep them at bay and roll them back. Ghiyas ud din Balban (1200 &ndash 1286 ( غیاث الدین بلبن) was a Turkic ruler of the Delhi Sultanate during the Mamluk dynasty (or Historian John Keay credited the successful combination of the Indian elephant phalanx and maneuverable central Asian cavalry operated by the rulers of Northern India. Ironically, 300 years later, Babar, a Timurid scion who claimed descent from Genghis Khan, would go on to conquer northern India and found the Mughal Empire. The difficult terrain, and other natural obstacles, such as those that plagued the Mongol empire in its attempt to conquer Japan also played a fair role in aiding the southern Asiatic kingdoms to repel the Mongols.

Arabia and Egypt

The final area which would withstand the Mongols was the Levant. The Mamluks successfully defended the Holy Land with the aid of Berke Khan who allied himself with them after his cousin enraged him by sacking Baghdad, (Berke was a Muslim, and sent word to the Great Khan that he would "call him to account (Hulagu Khan), for he has murdered the Caliph in Baghdad, and killed all the faithful. The Battle of Baghdad in 1258 was a victory for the Mongol leader Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan. This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as ")[24] This Mongol against Mongol fighting, after the Mamluks defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260 ultimately brought down the Mongol Empire. The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic ar عين جالوت the "Eye of Goliath" or the "Spring of Goliath" took place on 3 September 1260 between Mamluks also repelled Mongol attacks in Syria in 1271, 1281, 1299/1300, 1303/1304 and 1312.

See also: Franco-Mongol alliance

Disintegration

When Genghis Khan died, a major potential weakness of the system he had set up manifested itself. Many attempts were made towards forming a Franco-Mongol alliance between the mid-13th and early 14th centuries starting around the time of the Seventh Crusade. It took many months to summon the kurultai, as many of its most important members were leading military campaigns thousands of miles from the Mongol heartland. And then it took months more for the kurultai to come to the decision that had been almost inevitable from the start — that Genghis's choice as successor, his third son Ögedei, should become Great Khan. Ögedei was a rather passive ruler and personally self-indulgent, but he was intelligent, charming and a good decision-maker whose authority was respected throughout his reign by apparently stronger-willed relatives and generals whom he had inherited from Genghis.

After the initial massive campaigns at the beginning of the conquest of Europe, where the Mongol war machine handily defeated the Hungarian and Polish armies, the Hospitallers, the Teutonic Knights, as well as the slaughtering of countless many civilians, Ögedei Khan suddenly died in 1241; just as the Mongol forces under General Subutai were preparing an all out assault on Vienna, Austria. The Kingdom of Hungary (short form Hungary) was a considerable state in Central Europe that existed from 1001 to 1918 then from 1919 to 1946 The Knights Hospitaller (also known as the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. Subutai ( Subetei, Subetai, Сүбээдэй Sübeedei; Classic Mongolian Sübügätäi or Sübü'ätäi; 1176–1248 was the primary Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich This sudden vacuum of power is seen as the beginning of the events that led to the decline of the Mongol Empire. A power vacuum is an expression for a political situation that can occur when a Government has no identifiable central Authority. As customary to Mongol military tradition, all generals and princes, and thus the tumens, had to report back to the capital Karakorum thousands of miles away (the relocation of the capital to Dadu would add to this difficulty under Kublai Khan), for the election of a successor to the throne. Pending a kurultai to elect Ögedei's successor, his widow Toregene Khatun assumed power and proceeded to ensure the election of her son Guyuk by the kurultai. Güyük ( cyrillic:Гүюг хаан c. 1206–1248 was the third Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. Batu, bitterly disappointed by the postponement of the European campaign, was unwilling to accept Guyuk as Great Khan, but lacked the influence in the kurultai to procure his own election. Therefore, while moving no further west, he simultaneously insisted that the situation in Europe was too precarious for him to come east and that he could not accept the result of any kurultai held in his absence. The resulting stalemate lasted four years. In 1246 Batu eventually agreed to send a representative to the kurultai but never acknowledged the resulting election of Guyuk as Great Khan. Toregene Khatun and Guyuk were also less in favor of the Mandarin officials installed by Genghis Khan himself, most notably Chancellor Yeh-Lu Ch'u-Ts'ai, who were so instrumental in the successful administration of Mongol conquests, choosing instead, to place Muslim administrators from the new domains to help run Mongol politics. A Mandarin was a Bureaucrat in Imperial China, and also in the monarchist days of Vietnam where the system of Imperial examinations and Yelü Chucai ( Mongolian: Urtu Saqal 吾图撒合里 "long beard" also Yeh-Lu Ch'u-Ts'ai) (1189 &ndash 1243 was a Mandarin statesman of A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion [9]

Guyuk died in 1248, only two years after his election, on his way west, apparently to force Batu to acknowledge his authority, and his widow Oghul Ghaymish assumed the regency pending the meeting of the kurultai; unfortunately for her, she could not keep the power. Batu remained in the west but this time gave his support to his and Guyuk's cousin, Möngke, who was duly elected Great Khan in 1251. Möngke Khan (Мөнх хаан also transliterated as Mongke Mongka Möngka Mangu or Mangku ( c

Möngke Khan assigned his brother Kublai, or Qubilai, to a province in North China, which would unwittingly provide Kublai with a chance to become Khan in 1260 shortly after Möngke's death in 1259. Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it

Kublai expanded the Mongol Empire and became a favorite of Möngke. Kublai's conquest of China is estimated by Holworth, based on census figures, to have killed over 18 million people. As pointed out by Rummel, these figures are probably highly exaggerated, although a large number of people died in the course of the conquest. [25]

Later, though, when Kublai began to adopt many Chinese laws and customs, his brother was persuaded by his advisors that Kublai was becoming too sinicized and would be considered treasonous. The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history Sinicization, Sinicisation or Sinification, (in Mandarin: 中国化 Zhōngguóhuà) is the linguistic assimilation or Möngke kept a closer watch on Kublai from then on but died campaigning against Southern Song China at the Fishing Town in Chongqing. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Fishing Town or Fishing City (Traditional Chinese 釣魚城遺址 Simplified Chinese 钓鱼城遗址 Pingyin diàoyúchéng yízhĭ is one of the three great ancient battlefields Chongqing ( Postal map spelling: Chungking; Wade-Giles: Ch'ung-ch'ing) is the largest and most populous of the People's Republic of China After his older brother's death, Kublai placed himself in the running for a new khan against his younger brother, and, although his younger brother won the election, Kublai defeated him in battle, and Kublai became the last Great Khan. Note, among historians there is no consensus who was the last true Great Khan. Many scholars believe that Möngke was the last, because after his death, the great empire fell apart into 4 khanates.

He proved to be a strong warrior, but his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Chinese culture. The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history When he moved his headquarters to Beijing, there was an uprising in the old capital that he barely staunched. He focused mostly on foreign alliances, and opened trade routes. He dined with a large court every day, and met with many ambassadors, foreign merchants, and even offered to convert to Christianity if this religion was proved to be correct by 100 priests.

By the reign of Kublai Khan, the empire was already in the process of splitting into a number of smaller khanates. Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it Khanate or Chanat is a Turkic origined word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. After Kublai died in 1294, his heirs failed to maintain the Pax Mongolica effective. The Pax Mongolica or " Mongol Peace " is a phrase coined by Western scholars to describe the alleged stabilizing effects of the conquest of the Mongol Inter-family rivalry compounded by the complicated politics of succession, which twice paralyzed military operations as far off as Hungary and the borders of Egypt (crippling their chances of success), and the tendencies of some of the khans to drink themselves to death fairly young (causing the aforementioned succession crises), hastened the disintegration of the empire.

Another factor which contributed to the disintegration was the difficulty of the potential two-weeks extra transit time of officials and messengers and a general decline of morale when the capital was moved from Karakorum to Dadu, the Yuan name for the modern day city of Beijing by Kublai Khan; as Kublai Khan associated more closely to Chinese culture. Karakorum (Khalkha Mongolian Khara-khorin, Classical Mongolian Qara Qorum) was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history Kublai concentrated on the war with the Song Dynasty, assuming the mantle of ruler of China, while the khanates to the west gradually drifted away. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

The four descendant empires were the Mongol-founded Yuan Dynasty in China, the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde that controlled Central Asia and Russia, and the Ilkhanate that ruled Persia from 1256 to 1353. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Chagatai Khanate was a Mongol and later more Turko-Islamic in language and culture Khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in The conflict between Kublai Khan and the khanates in Central Asia led by Kaidu (Qaidu) had lasted for a few decades, until the beginning of the 14th century, when both of them had died. Kaidu or Qaidu, (1230 - 1301 was the son of Kashin a grandson of Ögedei Khan and a great-grandson of Genghis Khan and Börte. Of the Ilkhanate, their ruler Ilkhan Ghazan was converted to Islam in 1295 and renounced all allegiance to the Great Khan. Mahmud Ghazan or Qazaan the Khan of the Tartars (original Mongol name Ghazan Khan, Ch合贊 b For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. [26] He actively supported the expansion of this religion in his empire. The Mongol Empire was never again under one rule, though the other three khanates negotiated peace with Temür Khan of Yuan Dynasty in 1304, in order to maintain trade and diplomatic relations. Early career Kublai ordered him to guard the Liao River area and Liaodong in the east from Nayan (Naiyan and other rival relatives in 1287 The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Most of the khanates began to fall during this century.

Silk Road

Main article: Silk Road

The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent from around 1215 to 1360 helped bring political stability and re-establish the Silk Road vis-à-vis Karakorum. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Karakorum (Khalkha Mongolian Khara-khorin, Classical Mongolian Qara Qorum) was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century The 13th century saw a Franco-Mongol alliance with exchange of ambassadors and even military collaboration in the Holy Land. Many attempts were made towards forming a Franco-Mongol alliance between the mid-13th and early 14th centuries starting around the time of the Seventh Crusade. The Holy Land ( Arabic: الأرض المقدسة al-Arḍ ul-Muqaddasah;Ancient Aramaic: ארעא קדישא Ar'a Qaddisha; Hebrew: ארץ_הקודש The Chinese Mongol Rabban Bar Sauma visited the courts of Europe in 1287-1288. Rabban Bar Sauma (c 1220–1294 (pronounced "ruh-BAHN BAR sah-OO-muh" also known as Rabban Ṣawma or Rabban Çauma, (Chinese拉賓掃務瑪 was a With rare exceptions such as Marco Polo or Christian missionaries such as William of Rubruck, few Europeans traveled the entire length of the Silk Road. Marco Polo ( September 15 1254 – January 9 1324 at earliest but no later than June 1325 was a Venetian trader and explorer William of Rubruck (c 1220 in Rubrouck Flanders - c 1293 was a Flemish Franciscan missionary and explorer Instead traders moved products much like a bucket brigade, with luxury goods being traded from one middleman to another, from China to the West, and resulting in extravagant prices for the trade goods.

The disintegration of the Mongol Empire led to the collapse of the Silk Road's political unity. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Also falling victim were the cultural and economic aspects of its unity. Turkic tribes seized the western end of the Silk Road from the decaying Byzantine Empire, and sowed the seeds of a Turkic culture that would later crystallize into the Ottoman Empire under the Sunni faith. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Turkic-Mongol military bands in Iran, after some years of chaos were united under the Saffavid tribe, under whom the modern Iranian nation took shape under the Shiite faith. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz Meanwhile Mongol princes in Central Asia were content with Sunni orthodoxy with decentralized princedoms of the Chagatay, Timurid and Uzbek houses. In the Kypchak-Tatar zone, Mongol khanates all but crumbled under the assaults of the Black Death and the rising power of Muscovy. Tatars ( Tatar: Tatarlar/Татарлар sometimes spelled Tartars, are a Turkic -speaking ethnic group or multiple ethnic groups The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia In the east end, the Chinese Ming Dynasty overthrew the Mongol yoke and pursued a policy of economic isolationism. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Yet another force, the Kalmyk-Oyrats pushed out of the Baikal area in central Siberia, but failed to deliver much impact beyond Turkestan. Turkestan (literally meaning "Land of the Turks" is a region in Central Asia, which today is largely inhabited by Turkic peoples. Some Kalmyk tribes did manage to migrate into the Volga-North Caucasus region, but their impact was limited. Kalmyk redirects here for the breed of cattle see Kalmyk (cattle.

After the Mongol Empire, the great political powers along the Silk Road became economically and culturally separated. Accompanying the crystallization of regional states was the decline of nomad power, partly due to the devastation of the Black Death and partly due to the encroachment of sedentary civilizations equipped with gunpowder. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes

Ironically, as a footnote, the effect of gunpowder and early modernity on Europe was the integration of territorial states and increasing mercantilism. Modernity is a term that refers to the Modern era. It is distinct from Modernism, and in different contexts refers to cultural and intellectual movements of the Whereas along the Silk Road, it was quite the opposite: failure to maintain the level of integration of the Mongol Empire and decline in trade, partly due to European maritime trade. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the The Silk Road stopped serving as a shipping route for silk around 1400.

Legacy

The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous empire in human history. The 13th and 14th century, when the empire came to power, is often called the "Age of the Mongols". The Mongol armies during that time were extremely well organized. The death toll (by battle, massacre, flooding, and famine) of the Mongol wars of conquest is placed at about 40 million according to some sources. This is a list of wars and human-made disasters by death toll.

Many ancient sources described Genghis Khan's conquests as wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale in their certain geographical regions, and therefore probably causing great changes in the demographics of Asia. "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. A source text is a text (sometimes Oral) from which information or ideas are derived For example, over much of Central Asia speakers of Iranian languages were replaced by speakers of Turkic languages. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. The Turkic languages constitute a Language family of some thirty languages spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the The eastern part of the Islamic world experienced the terrifying holocaust of the Mongol invasion, which turned northern and eastern Iran into a desert. The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Between 1220 and 1260, the total population of Persia may have dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass extermination and famine. Murder is the unlawful killing of another human person with Malice aforethought, as defined in Common Law countries A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation [27]

Non-military achievements of the Mongol Empire include the introduction of a writing system, based on the Uyghur script, that is still used in Inner Mongolia. Uyghur (/ ug-Latn Uyƣurqə/ug-Cyrl Уйғурчә, or / ug-Latn Uyƣur tili/ug-Cyrl Уйғур Inner Mongolia ( Mongolian:, Öbür mongɣul; occasionally romanized to Nei Mongol is the Mongol The Empire unified all the tribes of Mongolia, which made possible the emergence of a Mongol nation and culture. Modern Mongolians are generally proud of the empire and the sense of identity that it gave to them.

Some of the long-term consequences of the Mongol Empire include:

Genghis Khan, founder of the Mongol Empire and Mongol Nation.
Genghis Khan, founder of the Mongol Empire and Mongol Nation. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire

One of the more successful tactics employed by the Mongols was to wipe out urban populations that had refused to surrender. Military tactics ( Greek: Taktikē, the art of organizing an army are the techniques for using weapons or military units in combination for engaging and defeating In the invasion of Kievan Rus', almost all major cities were destroyed. The Mongol invasion of Rus' was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223 between Subutai 's reconnaissance unit and the combined force Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan If they chose to submit, the people were spared and treated as slaves, which meant most of them would be driven to die quickly by hard work, with the exception that war prisoners became part of their army to aid in future conquests. Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons — known as slaves — are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services [33] In addition to intimidation tactics, the rapid expansion of the Empire was facilitated by military hardiness (especially during bitterly cold winters), military skill, meritocracy, and discipline. A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking Meritocracy is a system of a government or another organization wherein Appointments are made and responsibilities are given based on demonstrated talent and Ability Subutai, in particular among the Mongol Commanders, viewed winter as the best time for war — while less hardy people hid from the elements, the Mongols were able to use frozen lakes and rivers as highways for their horsemen, a strategy he used with great effect in Russia. Subutai ( Subetei, Subetai, Сүбээдэй Sübeedei; Classic Mongolian Sübügätäi or Sübü'ätäi; 1176–1248 was the primary Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending

The Mongol Empire had a lasting impact, unifying large regions, some of which (such as eastern and western Russia and the western parts of China) remain unified today, albeit under different rulership. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Mongols themselves were assimilated into local populations after the fall of the empire, and many of these descendants adopted local religions — for example, the eastern Khanates largely adopted Buddhism, and the western Khanates adopted Islam, largely under Sufi influence. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Khanate or Chanat is a Turkic origined word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Khanate or Chanat is a Turkic origined word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف The last Khan who was the ruler of South Asia, Bahadur Shah Zafar was deposed by the British after the collapse of the 1857 uprising and exiled to Rangoon where he lies buried. Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar, also known as Bahadur Shah or Bahadur Shah II; 24 October 1775 7 November 1862 was the last of the Mughal The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, Yangon (also known as Rangoon) is the largest city and a former capital of Burma. His sons were killed by the British in Humayun's tomb, the burial place of their ancestor in Delhi. Humayun's tomb is a complex of buildings in Mughal architecture built as Mughal Emperor Humayun 's tomb Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population

The influence of the Mongol Empire may prove to be even more direct — Zerjal et al [2003][34] identify a Y-chromosomal lineage present in about 8% of the men in a large region of Asia (or about 0. 5% of the men in the world). The paper suggests that the pattern of variation within the lineage is consistent with a hypothesis that it originated in Mongolia about 1,000 years ago. Such a spread would be too rapid to have occurred by diffusion, and must therefore be the result of selection. Diffusion is the net movement of particles (typically molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration by uncoordinated random movement In the context of Evolution, certain traits or Alleles of a Species may be subject to selection The authors propose that the lineage is carried by likely male line descendants of Genghis Khan, and that it has spread through social selection.

Mongolia today
Mongolia today

In addition to the Khanates and other descendants, the Mughal royal family of South Asia are also descended from Genghis Khan: Babur's mother was a descendant — whereas his father was directly descended from Timur (Tamerlane). Khanate or Chanat is a Turkic origined word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. Babur ( February 14 1483 - December 26 1530) was a Muslim conqueror from Central Asia who following a series of setbacks Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among At the time of Genghis Khan's death in 1227, the empire was divided among his four sons, with his third son as the supreme Khan, and by the 1350s, the khanates were in a state of fracture and had lost the order brought to them by Genghis Khan. Eventually the separate khanates drifted away from each other, becoming the Il-Khans Dynasty based in Iran, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Yuan Dynasty in China, and what would become the Golden Horde in present day Russia. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National

See also

Notes

  1. ^ http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html
  2. ^ The Islamic World to 1600: The Golden Horde
  3. ^ Michael Biran, Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State in Central Asia. Origins of the Mongols Archaeological evidence places early Stone Age human habitation in the southern Gobi between 100000 and 200000 years ago The Mongol Empire emerged in the course of the 13th century by a series of conquests and invasions throughout Central and Western Asia, reaching Eastern Europe This is the list of Mongol Khans and Khagans Great Khan of the Mongol Empire Genghis Khan ( 1206 The Mongol military tactics and organization helped the Mongol Empire to conquer nearly all of continental Asia the Middle East and parts of eastern Europe Food in the Mongolian Empire During the Mongolian Empire there were two different groups of food “white foods” and “red foods” The Curzon Press, 1997, ISBN 0-7007-0631-3
  4. ^ Weatherford, p. 69
  5. ^ Weatherford, p. 135
  6. ^ Dharamsalaь Department of Information and International Relations Central Tibetan Administration - The Mongoals and Tibet
  7. ^ Л. Н. Гумилев - Древняя русь и великая степь
  8. ^ Foltz "Religions of the Silk Road"
  9. ^ a b c d Chambers, James, The Devil's Horsemen Atheneum, 1979, ISBN 0-689-10942-3
  10. ^ The Destruction of Kiev
  11. ^ Rene Grousset - The Empires of Steppes, Ж. Бор Еварзийн дипломат шашстир II боть
  12. ^ Л. Н. Гумилев - Древняя Русь и великая степь
  13. ^ Ринчен Хара Даван - Чингис хан гений
  14. ^ Ринчен Хара Даван - Чингис хан гений
  15. ^ Rene Grousset - Empires of Steppes, Ж. Бор Евразийн дипломат шашстир II боть
  16. ^ Rene Grousset - Empires of Steppes, Ж. Бор Евразийн дипломат шашстир II боть
  17. ^ Rene Grousset - Empires of Steppes, Ж. Бор Евразийн дипломат шашстир II боть
  18. ^ Rene Grousset - Empires of Steppes, Ж. Бор Евразийн дипломат шашстир II боть
  19. ^ Reuven Amitei Press Mamluk Ilkhanid war 1260-1280
  20. ^ A History of the Byzantine Empire by Al. Vasilief, © 2007
  21. ^ Ринчен Хара-Даван: Чингис хан гений, Ж. Бор: Евразийн дипломат шашстир II боть
  22. ^ a b Saunders, J. J. (1971). The History of the Mongol Conquests, Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 0-8122-1766-7
  23. ^ [1]
  24. ^ Nicolle, David, The Mongol Warlords Brockhampton Press, 1998, ISBN 978-1853141041.
  25. ^ hawaii.edu
  26. ^ [2]
  27. ^ Battuta's Travels: Part Three - Persia and Iraq
  28. ^ Svat Soucek. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press, 2000. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 ISBN 0-521-65704-0. P. 116.
  29. ^ Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33-53.
  30. ^ Mongol Conquests
  31. ^ History of Russia, Early Slavs history, Kievan Rus, Mongol invasion
  32. ^ The Mongol invasion: the last Arpad kings
  33. ^ The Story of the Mongols Whom We Call the Tartars= Historia Mongalorum Quo s Nos Tartaros Appellamus: Friar Giovanni Di Plano Carpini's Account of His Embassy to the Court of the Mongol Khan by Da Pian Del Carpine Giovanni and Erik Hildinger (Branden BooksApril 1996 ISBN-13: 978-0828320177)
  34. ^ Zerjal, Xue, Bertolle, Wells, Bao, Zhu, Qamar, Ayub, Mohyuddin, Fu, Li, Yuldasheva, Ruzibakiev, Xu, Shu, Du, Yang, Hurles, Robinson, Gerelsaikhan, Dashnyam, Mehdi, Tyler-Smith (2003). "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols". American Journal of Human Genetics (72): 717–721.

References

Template:Histoire de l'Asie

External links

edit Khagans of Mongol Empire
Genghis Khan (1215–1227) | Tolui Khan (regent) (1227–1229) | Ögedei Khan (1229–1241) | Töregene Khatun (regent) (1241–1245) | Güyük Khan (1246–1248) | Möngke Khan (1251–1259) | Khublai Khan (1260–1294)

Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it For other titles related to and uses of Khan, see that article Origin The title Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder Tolui, also rendered Toluy or Tolui Khan (Толуй; c 1190 &ndash 1232 was the youngest son of Genghis Khan by Börte. Ögedei Khan, (Өгэдэй Ögedei; also Ogotai or Oktay, 窩闊臺 c Töregene Khatun ( ?–1265) was a very high ranking Khatun and ruled as Regent of the Mongol Empire from the death of her husband Ögedei Güyük ( cyrillic:Гүюг хаан c. 1206–1248 was the third Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. Möngke Khan (Мөнх хаан also transliterated as Mongke Mongka Möngka Mangu or Mangku ( c Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it
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