- This article is concerned with architectural aspects of modernism; for the most recent developments in architecture, see Contemporary architecture. Modernism describes an array of Cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Contemporary architecture is the architecture being made at the present time
Modern architecture, is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. For other uses of the term see Ornament In Architecture, ornament is a decorative detail used to embellish parts of a building or interior The style was conceived early in the 20th century. Modern architecture was adopted by many influential architects and architectural educators, however very few "Modern buildings" were built in the first half of the century. It gained popularity after the Second World War and became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings for three decades. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including
The exact characteristics and origins of Modern architecture are still open to interpretation and debate.
Contents |
History
Origins
Some historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and thus the Enlightenment. Modernity is a term that refers to the Modern era. It is distinct from Modernism, and in different contexts refers to cultural and intellectual movements of the The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century The Modern style developed, in their opinion, as a result of social and political revolutions. [1]
Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 Concrete is a construction material composed of Cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as Fly ash and Slag Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his 'fireproof' design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Shrewsbury ( /ˈʃruːzbri/ or /ˈʃroʊzbri/ is the County town of Shropshire, in the West Midlands region of England "Fireproof" redirects here For the album see Fireproof (album. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, "Dark satanic mills" of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. Eaton A Hodgkinson ( February 26, 1789 - June 18, 1861) was an English Engineer, a pioneer of the application of Mathematics Section Beams are made of Steel and they have a specific lengths and shapes like I-beam, L, channel and I flanged beam West Yorkshire is a Metropolitan county within the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England with a population of The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. The Crystal Palace was a cast-iron and Glass building originally erected in Hyde Park, London, England, to house the Sir Joseph Paxton ( 3 August 1803 &ndash 8 June 1865) was an English Gardener and Architect, best known The Great Exhibition, also known as Crystal Palace, was an international exhibition that was held in Hyde Park, London, England, from 1 Chicago (ʃɪˈkɑːgoʊ is the largest City by population in the state of Illinois and the American Midwest of the United States. William Le Baron Jenney ( 25 September 1832 &mdash 14 June 1907) was an American Architect and Engineer who Louis Henri Sullivan (September 4 1856 &ndash April 14 1924 was an American Architect, and has been called the "father of modernism. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland. Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8 1867 &ndash April 9 1959 was an American (of Welsh descent Architect, Interior designer, Writer, and educator who Unity Temple is a Unitarian Universalist church in Oak Park Illinois, and the home of the Unity Temple Unitarian Universalist Congregation Rudolf Steiner ( 25 February 1861 – 30 March 1925) was an Austrian philosopher literary scholar educator artist playwright The Goetheanum, located in Dornach (near Basel) Switzerland, is the world center for the anthroposophical movement "Basilia" redirects here For the Fly Genus, see Basilia (fly. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation
Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau. Eclecticism is a kind of mixed style in the Fine arts: "the Borrowing of a variety of styles from different sources and combining them" (Hume 1998 Culture The Victorian fascination with novelty resulted in a deep interest in the relationship between modernity and cultural continuities Class and society Socially the Edwardian era was a period during which the British Class system was very rigid Art Nouveau ( nu vo anglicised /ˈɑːt nuːvəu/ ( French for 'new art' also known as Jugendstil ( German for 'youth style' is an international Note that the Russian word for Art Nouveau, "Модерн", and the Spanish word for Art Nouveau, "Modernismo" are cognates of English word "Modern" though they carry different meanings. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States
Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. See also Gothic art Gothic architecture is a style of Architecture which flourished during the high and late medieval period. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new. Louis Henri Sullivan (September 4 1856 &ndash April 14 1924 was an American Architect, and has been called the "father of modernism. Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8 1867 &ndash April 9 1959 was an American (of Welsh descent Architect, Interior designer, Writer, and educator who Victor Baron Horta ( January 6 1861 - September 9 1947) was a Belgian Architect and designer Otto Koloman Wagner ( 13 July 1841 – 11 April 1918) was an Austrian Architect. An early use of the term in print around this time, approaching its later meaning, was in the title of a book by Otto Wagner. Otto Koloman Wagner ( 13 July 1841 – 11 April 1918) was an Austrian Architect. [2][3]
A key organization that spans the ideals of the Arts and Crafts and Modernism as it developed in the 1920s was the Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation) a German association of architects, designers and industrialists. The Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation was a German association of artists architects designers and industrialists Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. An architect is a licensed individual who leads a design team in the Planning and Design of buildings and participates in oversight of Building Construction It was founded in 1907 in Munich at the instigation of Hermann Muthesius. Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Adam Gottlieb Hermann Muthesius ( April 20, 1861 - October 29, 1927) known as Hermann Muthesius, was a German Architect Muthesius was the author of a three-volume "The English House" of 1905, a survey of the practical lessons of the English Arts and Crafts movement and a leading political and cultural commentator. The Arts and Crafts Movement was a British, Canadian, and American Aesthetic movement occurring in the last years of the 19th century and the [4] The purpose of the Werkbund was to sponsor the attempt to integrate traditional crafts with the techniques of industrial mass production. The organization originally included twelve architects and twelve business firms, but quickly expanded. The architects include Peter Behrens, Theodor Fischer (who served as its first president), Josef Hoffmann and Richard Riemerschmid. For the Canadian writer see Peter Behrens (writer. For the German musician and member of Trio, see Peter Behrens (musician Theodor Fischer ( 28 May 1862 - 25 December 1938) was a German Architect and teacher For the Polish-American pianist see Józef Hofmann. Josef Hoffmann ( December 15, 1870 Brtnice Richard Riemerschmid ( June 20 1868 &ndash April 13 1957) was a German Architect and city planner from Munich Joseph August Lux, an Austrian-born critic, helped formulate its agenda. [5]
Modernism as dominant style
By the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris, who chose to be known as Le Corbusier ( October 6, 1887 – August 27, 1965) was a Swiss Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (ˈlʊdvɪç miːs faːn dɛʀ ˈʀoːɐ born Maria Ludwig Michael Mies ( March 27, 1886 &ndash August 17, 1969 Walter Adolph Georg Gropius ( May 18, 1883 &ndash July 5, 1969) was a German Architect and founder of Bauhaus Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology. ("House of Building" or "Building School" is the common term for the, a school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts and was famous
Frank Lloyd Wright's career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8 1867 &ndash April 9 1959 was an American (of Welsh descent Architect, Interior designer, Writer, and educator who The Wasmuth portfolio (1910 is a two-volume folio of 100 lithographs of the work of the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959 Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture. Organic architecture is a philosophy of Architecture which promotes harmony between human habitation and the natural world through design approaches so sympathetic and well integrated
In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, USA, on 53rd Street between Fifth Philip Cortelyou Johnson (July 8 1906&ndash January 25 2005 was an influential American Architect. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International style. Henry-Russell Hitchcock (1903-1987 was the leading American architectural historian of his generation The International style was a major Architectural style of the 1920s and 1930s
This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including ("House of Building" or "Building School" is the common term for the, a school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts and was famous The Harvard Graduate School of Design (GSD is a graduate school at Harvard University offering degrees in Architecture, Landscape Architecture, and Black Mountain College, founded in 1933 near Asheville North Carolina, was known as one of the leading progressive schools in the United States While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.
Architects who worked in the International style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The International style was a major Architectural style of the 1920s and 1930s The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The Seagram Building is a Skyscraper in New York City, located at 375 Park Avenue, between 52nd Street and 53rd Street in Lever House, designed by Gordon Bunshaft of Skidmore Owings and Merrill and located at 390 Park Avenue in New York City, is the quintessential Skidmore Owings and Merrill LLP (SOM is a Chicago -based Architectural and Engineering firm that was formed in 1936 by Louis Skidmore and A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles. The Lovell House or Lovell Health House is a modern residence designed and built by Richard Neutra between 1927-29 Richard Joseph Neutra ( April 8, 1892 &ndash April 16, 1970) is considered one of Modernism 's most important Architects
Detractors of the International style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for living", but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines. Even Philip Johnson admitted he was "bored with the box. " Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Mid-Century modern is an architectural interior and product design form that generally describes pre- and post- second world war developments in modern design architecture and urban Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism. Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto ( February 3, 1898 — May 11, 1976) was a Finnish Architect and Designer, sometimes Eero Saarinen (eːro saːrinen (August 20 1910 Kirkkonummi, Finland – September 1 1961 Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States) was
Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a "style" that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion. Sigfried Giedion ( 14 April 1888, Prague &ndash 10 April 1968, Zürich) (also spelled Siegfried Giedion) was " At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[6] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglass Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons. The MetLife Building, originally called the Pan Am Building, is a Skyscraper located at 200 "Grand Central Station" redirects here For other uses see Grand Central. Air rights are a type of development right in Real estate. Generally speaking owning or renting land or a Building gives one the right to use and develop the empty Ada Louise (Landman Huxtable (b March 14 1921 in New York NY is an Architecture Critic and Writer on architecture Walter Adolph Georg Gropius ( May 18, 1883 &ndash July 5, 1969) was a German Architect and founder of Bauhaus Pietro Belluschi ( August 18 1899 — February 14 1994) was a Portland Oregon architect Emery Roth (born Róth Imre, 1871 &ndash August 20, 1948) was a Hungarian-American Architect who built many of the definitive New York The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. Postmodern architecture was an international style whose first examples are generally cited as being from the 1950s and which continues to influence present-day Architecture By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.
Characteristics
Modern architecture is usually characterized by:
- an adoption of the principle that the materials and functional requirements determine the result
- an adoption of the machine aesthetic
- a rejection of ornament
- a simplification of form and elimination of "unnecessary detail"
- an adoption of expressed structure
- Form follows function
Preservation
Although relatively young, works of Modern architecture may be lost because of demolition, neglect, or alterations. While an awareness of the plight of endangered Modern buildings is growing, the threats continue. Non-profit groups such as the World Monuments Fund, Docomomo International and the Recent Past Preservation Network are working to safeguard and document imperiled Modern architecture. The World Monuments Fund (WMF is a New York -based private Non-profit organization dedicated to the preservation of historic Architecture and Docomomo International (sometimes written as DoCoMoMo) is a non-profit organization whose full title is International Working Party for Documentation and Conservation of In 2006, the World Monuments Fund launched Modernism at Risk, an advocacy and conservation program. The World Monuments Fund (WMF is a New York -based private Non-profit organization dedicated to the preservation of historic Architecture and Since Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans modernist structures have been increasingly slated for demolition. Currently plans are underway to demolish many of the city's modernist public schools, as well as large portions of the city's Civic Plaza. FEMA funds will contribute to razing the State Office Building and State Supreme Court Building, both designed by the collaborating architectural firms of August Perez and Associates; Goldstein, Parham and Labouisse; and Favrot, Reed, Mathes and Bergman. The New Orleans Recovery School District has proposed demolitions of schools designed by Charles R. Colbert, Curtis and Davis, and Ricciuti Associates.
See also
References
- ^ Crouch, Christopher. Modern furniture refers to Furniture produced from the late 19th century through the present that is influenced by Modernism. ("House of Building" or "Building School" is the common term for the, a school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts and was famous 2000. "Modernism in Art Design and Architecture", New York: St. Martins Press. ISBN 0312218303 (cloth) ISBN 031221832X (pbk)
- ^ Otto Wagner. Moderne Architektur: Seinen Schülern ein Führer auf diesem Kunstgebiete. Anton Schroll. 1902.
- ^ Otto Wagner. Translated by Harry Francis Mallgrave. Modern Architecture: A Guidebook for His Students to This Field of Art. Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities. 1988. ISBN 0226869385
- ^ Lucius Burckhardt (1987) . The Werkbund. ? : Hyperion Press. ISBN. Frederic J. Schwartz (1996). The Werkbund: Design Theory and Mass Culture Before the First World War. New Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press. ISBN.
- ^ Mark Jarzombek. Mark Jarzombek (born 1954 is a US -born architectural historian author and critic "Joseph August Lux: Werkbund Promoter, Historian of a Lost Modernity," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 63/1 (June 2004): 202-219.
- ^ Meredith L. Clausen, 2005. The Pan Am building and the shattering of the Modernist Dream (Cambridge: MIT Press) (On-line analytical review)
External links
- http://www.mastersofmodernism.com/?page=Modernism
- Atomic Age Alliance Volunteer group dedicated to celebrating and preserving Modern architecture
- Lotta Living Message Board Online Community for fans of Mid-century modern, Googie, International, Art Deco, 20th century architecture culture and design
- Graphic and chronological vision of modern architecture through its houses.
- Famous architects - Biographies of well-known architects, almost all of the Modern Movement.
- Architecture and Modernism
- World Monuments Fund Modernism at Risk
- "Preservation of Modern Buildings" edition of AIA Architect
- Modern architecture & design news
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