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Electron micrograph of several E. coli cells
Electron micrograph of several E. coli cells
Drosophila, one of the most famous subjects for experiments
Drosophila, one of the most famous subjects for experiments

A model organism is a species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms. Drosophila melanogaster (from the Greek for black-bellied dew-lover) is a two-winged insect that belongs to the Diptera, the order In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles A phenomenon (from Greek φαινόμενoν, pl φαινόμενα - phenomena) is any observable occurrence In particular, model organisms are widely used to explore potential causes and treatments for human disease when human experimentation would be unfeasible or unethical. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Human subject research (HSR or human subject use (HSU involves the use of human beings as research subjects Bioethics is the philosophical study of the ethical controversies brought about by advances in Biology and Medicine. This strategy is made possible by the common descent of all living organisms, and the conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic material over the course of evolution. A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common Ancestor. In Biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. Developmental Biology is the official journal of the Society for Developmental Biology. Genetic material is used to store the genetic information of an organic life form eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 [1] Studying model organisms can be informative, but we must be careful when generalizing from one organism to another.

Contents

Selecting a model organism

Models are those organisms with a wealth of biological data that make them attractive to study as examples for other species – including humans – that are more difficult to study directly. These can be classed as genetic models (with short generation times, such as the fruitfly and nematode worm), experimental models, and genomic models, with a pivotal position in the evolutionary tree [2]. The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common Genomics is the study of an organism's entire Genome. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale Genetic Historically, model organisms include a handful of species with extensive genomic research data, such as the NIH model organisms [3].

Often, model organisms are chosen on the basis that they are amenable to experimental manipulation. This usually will include characteristics such as short life-cycle, techniques for genetic manipulation (inbred strains, stem cell lines, and transfection systems) and non-specialist living requirements. Inbreeding is breeding between close Relatives whether plant or animal Stem cells are cells found in most if not all multi-cellular Organisms. Transfection is the process of introducing nucleic acids into cells by non-viral methods. Sometimes, the genome arrangement facilitates the sequencing of the model organism's genome, for example, by being very compact or having a low proportion of junk DNA (e. In Molecular biology, junk DNA is a provisional label for the portions of the DNA sequence of a Chromosome or a Genome for which no g. yeast, Arabidopsis, or pufferfish). Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Arabidopsis ( A-ra-bi-dóp-sis, rockcress) is a genus in the family Brassicaceae. Tetraodontidae is a family of primarily marine and estuarine fish

When researchers look for an organism to use in their studies, they look for several traits. Among these are size, generation time, accessibility, manipulation, genetics, conservation of mechanisms, and potential economic benefit. As comparative molecular biology has become more common, some researchers have sought model organisms from a wider assortment of lineages on the tree of life. Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Kinship is a relationship between any entities that share a genealogical origin through either biological cultural or historical descent See also Tree of life (disambiguation for other meanings of the Tree of Life

Use of model organisms

There are many model organisms. One of the first model systems for molecular biology was the bacterium Escherichia coli, a common constituent of the human digestive system. Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Several of the bacterial viruses (bacteriophage) that infect E. coli also have been very useful for the study of gene structure and gene regulation (e. This article is about a biological infectious particle for other uses see Phage (disambiguation. Gene modulation redirects here For information on therapeutic regulation of gene expression see Therapeutic gene modulation. g. phages Lambda and T4). Enterobacteria phage λ ( Lambda phage) is a temperate bacteriophage that infects Escherichia coli Enterobacteria phage T4 is a Phage that infects E coli bacteria. However, bacteriophages are not organisms because they lack metabolism and depend on functions of the host cells for propagation.

In eukaryotes, several yeasts, particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae ("baker's" or "budding" yeast), have been widely used in genetics and cell biology, largely because they are quick and easy to grow. Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a Species of Budding Yeast. It is perhaps the most useful Yeast owing to its use since ancient times Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is See also List of basic cell biology topics. Cell biology (also called cellular biology or formerly cytology, from the The cell cycle in a simple yeast is very similar to the cell cycle in humans and is regulated by homologous proteins. The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a eukaryotic cell leading to its replication Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus In Evolutionary biology, homology has come to mean any similarity between characters that is due to their shared ancestry. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is studied, again, because it is easy to grow for an animal, has various visible congenital traits and has a polytene (giant) chromosome in its salivary glands that can be examined under a light microscope. Drosophila melanogaster (from the Greek for black-bellied dew-lover) is a two-winged insect that belongs to the Diptera, the order The roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans is studied because it has very defined development patterns involving fixed numbers of cells, and it can be rapidly assayed for abnormalities. The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common Caenorhabditis elegans (ˌsiːnoʊræbˈdaɪtɪs ˈɛlɪgænz is a free-living Nematode (roundworm about 1  mm in length which

Electron microphotograph of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) particles
Electron microphotograph of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) particles

Important model organisms

Viruses

Viruses include:

Prokaryotes

Sporulating Bacillus subtilis
Sporulating Bacillus subtilis

Prokaryotes include:

Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes include:

Protists

  • Chlamydomonas reinhardtii - a unicellular green alga used to study photosynthesis, flagella and motility, regulation of metabolism, cell-cell recognition and adhesion, response to nutrient deprivation and many other topics. Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex Protists (ˈproʊtɨst are a diverse group of eukaryotic Microorganisms Historically protists were treated as the kingdom Protista but this Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a motile single celled Green alga about 10 Micrometres in diameter that swims with two Flagella. The green algae (singular green alga) are the large group of Algae from which the Embryophytes (higher plants emerged Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. A flagellum ( plural flagella) is a tail-like structure that projects from the Cell body of certain Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells and it Motility is a biological term which refers to the ability to move spontaneously and actively consuming energy in the process Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. Cellular adhesion is the binding of a cell to another cell or to a Surface or matrix. Starvation (also called inanition) is a severe reduction in Vitamin, Nutrient, and Energy intake and is the most extreme form of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has a well-studied genetics, with many known and mapped mutants and expressed sequence tags, and there are advanced methods for genetic transformation and selection of genes. [4] Sequencing of the Chlamydomonas reinhardtii genome was reported in October 2007. [5] A Chlamydomonas genetic stock center exists at Duke University, and an international Chlamydomonas research interest group meets on a regular basis to discuss research results. Duke University is a private Research University located in Durham, North Carolina, United States. Chlamydomonas is easy to grow on an inexpensive defined medium. A growth medium or culture medium is a liquid or gel designed to support the growth of Microorganisms or cells There are different types of media for
  • Dictyostelium discoideum is used in molecular biology and genetics (its genome has been sequenced), and is studied as an example of cell communication, differentiation, and programmed cell death. The dictyostelids are a group of cellular Slime molds or social Amoebae When food (normally bacteria is readily available they take the form of individual amoebae Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is In classical genetics the genome of a Diploid Organism including Eukarya refers to a full set of chromosomes or genes in a Gamete, thereby Cell signaling is part of a Complex system of Communication that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions Programmed cell-death ( PCD) is death of a cell in any form mediated by an intracellular program
  • Tetrahymena thermophila - a free living freshwater ciliate protozoan. Tetrahymena are free-living Ciliate Protozoa that can also switch from commensalistic to Pathogenic modes of survival The ciliates are one of the most important groups of Protists common almost everywhere there is water — lakes ponds oceans rivers and soils with many ectosymbiotic Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals" are unicellular Eukaryotes (singular
  • Emiliania huxleyi - a unicellular marine coccolithophore alga, extensively studied as a model phytoplankton species. Emiliania huxleyi, often abbreviated to simply "EHUX" is a species of Coccolithophore with a global distribution from the tropics to subarctic waters Coccolithophores (also called coccolithophorids) are single-celled Algae, Protists and Phytoplankton belonging to the Division Phytoplankton are the Autotrophic component of the Plankton community

Fungi

Budding yeast tomography
Budding yeast tomography

Plants

Arabidopsis thaliana
Arabidopsis thaliana
  • Arabidopsis thaliana, currently the most popular model plant. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Aspergillus nidulans (also called Emericella nidulans) is one of many species of filamentous Fungi in the phylum Ascomycota. Neurospora crassa is a type of red bread mold of the phylum Ascomycota. WikipediaManual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English --> Molds (or History and Significance Ashbya gossypii is a filamentous Fungus or Mold closely related to yeast but growing exclusively in a filamentous Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a Species of Budding Yeast. It is perhaps the most useful Yeast owing to its use since ancient times Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Schizosaccharomyces pombe, also called "fission yeast" is a Species of Yeast. Arabidopsis thaliana ( A-ra-bi-dóp-sis tha-li-á-na; thale cress, mouse-ear cress or Arabidopsis) is a small Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Arabidopsis thaliana ( A-ra-bi-dóp-sis tha-li-á-na; thale cress, mouse-ear cress or Arabidopsis) is a small This herbaceous dicot is a crucifer, a member of the mustard family. Dicotyledons, or "dicots", is a name for a group of Flowering plants whose Seed typically has two embryonic leaves or Cotyledons There A crucifer is in some Christian churches (particularly the Roman Catholic Church, the United Methodist Church and the Anglican Communion, as well as on For the prepared condiment see Mustard (condiment. For other uses of the term "mustard" see Mustard. Its small stature and short generation time facilitates genetic studies, [7] and many phenotypic and biochemical mutants have been mapped. [7] Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced. In classical genetics the genome of a Diploid Organism including Eukarya refers to a full set of chromosomes or genes in a Gamete, thereby The term DNA sequencing encompasses biochemical methods for determining the order of the Nucleotide bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine [7] Its genome sequence, along with a wide range of information concerning Arabidopsis, is maintained by the TAIR database. [7]
    (Plant physiology, Developmental biology, Molecular genetics, Population genetics, Cytology, Molecular biology)
  • Selaginella moellendorffii is a remnant of an ancient lineage of vascular plants and key to understanding the evolution of land plants. Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of Botany concerned with the function or Physiology, of Plants Closely related fields include Plant morphology Developmental Biology is the official journal of the Society for Developmental Biology. Molecular genetics is the field of Biology which studies the structure and function of Genes at a molecular level Population genetics is the study of the Allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four evolutionary forces Natural selection, Genetic Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Selaginella moellendorffii is a Lycophyte that is an important Model organism, especially in Comparative genomics. It has the smallest genome size of any plant reported (~110Mb) and its sequence will be released by the Joint Genome Institute in early 2008. (Evolutionary biology, Molecular biology)
  • Brachypodium distachyon is an emerging experimental model grass that has many attributes that make it an excellent model for temperate cereals. Evolutionary biology is a sub-field of Biology concerned with the origin of Species from a Common descent, and Descent of species Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Brachypodium distachyon, commonly called purple false brome, is a grass Species native to southern Europe, northern Africa (Agronomy, Molecular biology, Genetics)
  • Lotus japonicus a model legume used to study the symbiosis responsible for nitrogen fixation. Agronomy is the science and technology of using plants for food fuel feed and fiber Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is See Lotus for other uses including several other plant taxa bearing this name A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants Nitrogen fixation is the process by which Nitrogen is taken from its natural relatively inert molecular form (N2 in the atmosphere and converted into (Agronomy, Molecular biology)
    Lemna gibba
    Lemna gibba
  • Lemna gibba is a rapidly-growing aquatic monocot, one of the smallest flowering plants. Agronomy is the science and technology of using plants for food fuel feed and fiber Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Lemna is a genus of free-floating Aquatic plants from the Duckweed family Lemna is a genus of free-floating Aquatic plants from the Duckweed family Monocotyledons or monocots are one of two major groups of Flowering plants (angiosperms that are traditionally recognised the other being Dicotyledons Lemna growth assays are used to evaluate the toxicity of chemicals to plants in ecotoxicology. The term ecotoxicology was coined by René Truhaut in 1969 who defined it as "the branch of Toxicology concerned with the study of toxic effects caused by natural Because it can be grown in pure culture, microbial action can be excluded. A microbiological culture, AKA microbial culture, is a method of multiplying microbial organisms by letting them reproduce in predetermined culture media under controlled laboratory Lemna is being used as a recombinant expression system for economical production of complex biopharmaceuticals. Gene expression is the process by which inheritable information from a Gene, such as the DNA sequence, is made into a functional Gene product, such The term Biopharmacology describes a field of research closely related to Pharmacokinetics, sometimes called biopharmacy It is also used in education to demonstrate population growth curves. Exponential growth (including Exponential decay) occurs when the growth rate of a mathematical function is proportional to the function's current value
Zea mays
Zea mays
  • Maize (Zea mays L. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica ) is a cereal grain. It is a diploid monocot with 10 large chromosome pairs, easily studied with the microscope. Its genetic features, including many known and mapped phenotypic mutants and a large number of progeny per cross (typically 100-200) facilitated the discovery of transposons ("jumping genes"). Transposons are sequences of DNA that can move around to different positions within the Genome of a single cell, a process called transposition Many DNA markers have been mapped and the genome is being sequenced. (Genetics, Molecular biology, Agronomy)
  • Medicago truncatula is a model legume, closely related to the common alfalfa. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Agronomy is the science and technology of using plants for food fuel feed and fiber Medicago truncatula ( Barrel Medic or Barrel Medick or Barrel Clover) is a small Legume native to the Mediterranean Alfalfa ( Medicago sativa) is a flowering plant in the pea family Fabaceae cultivated as an important forage crop Its rather small genome is currently being sequenced. It is used to study the symbiosis responsible for nitrogen fixation. (Agronomy, Molecular biology)
  • Tobacco BY-2 cells is suspension cell line from tobacco (Nicotiana tabaccum). Agronomy is the science and technology of using plants for food fuel feed and fiber Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Tobacco BY-2 cells is Cell line of Plant cells, which was established from a callus induced on a Seedling of Nicotiana tabacum Cell culture is the process by which prokaryotic, or eukaryotic cells are grown under controlled conditions Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Useful for general plant physiology studies on cell level. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called Genome of this particular cultivar will be not sequenced (at least in near future), but sequencing of its wild species Nicotiana tabaccum is presently in progress. A cultivar is a cultivated Plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics it is usually distinct from similar In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. (Cytology, Plant physiology, Biotechnology)
  • Rice (Oryza sativa) is used as a model for cereal biology. Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of Botany concerned with the function or Physiology, of Plants Closely related fields include Plant morphology Biotechnology is Technology based on Biology, especially when used in Agriculture, Food science, and Medicine. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many It has one of the smallest genomes of any cereal species, and sequencing of its genome is finished. (Agronomy, Molecular biology)
  • Physcomitrella patens is a moss increasingly used for studies on development and molecular evolution of plants. Agronomy is the science and technology of using plants for food fuel feed and fiber Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Physcomitrella patens is a Moss (Bryophyta used as a Model organism for studies on plant evolution development and physiology Mosses are small soft Plants that are typically 1–10  cm (0 Molecular evolution is the process of evolution at the scale of DNA, RNA, and Proteins Molecular evolution emerged as a scientific field in the 1960s as [8] It is so far the only non-vascular plant (and so the only "primitive" plant) with its genome completely sequenced . Non-vascular plants is a general term for those Plants (including the Green algae) without a vascular system ( Xylem and Phloem Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry [8] (Plant physiology, Evolutionary biology, Molecular genetics, Molecular biology)
  • Populus is a genus used as a model in forest genetics and woody plant studies. Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of Botany concerned with the function or Physiology, of Plants Closely related fields include Plant morphology Evolutionary biology is a sub-field of Biology concerned with the origin of Species from a Common descent, and Descent of species Molecular genetics is the field of Biology which studies the structure and function of Genes at a molecular level Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Populus is a genus of between 25–35 species of Flowering plants in the family Salicaceae, native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. It has a small genome size, grows very rapidly, and is easily transformed. The genome sequence of Poplar (Populus trichocarpa) sequence is publicly available. Populus is a genus of between 25–35 species of Flowering plants in the family Salicaceae, native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. Populus trichocarpa ( black cottonwood; also known as western balsam poplar or California poplar) is a Tree species native to
  • See also Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, above under Protists. A model organism is a Species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological Phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made

Animals

Invertebrates
Caenorhabditis elegans
Caenorhabditis elegans
  • Arbacia punctulata, the purple-spined sea urchin, classical subject of embryological studies
  • Aplysia, a sea slug, whose ink release response serves as a model in neurobiology and whose growth cones serve as a model of cytoskeletal rearrangements. An invertebrate is an Animal lacking a Vertebral column. The group includes 98% of all animal Species — all animals except those in the Chordate Caenorhabditis elegans (ˌsiːnoʊræbˈdaɪtɪs ˈɛlɪgænz is a free-living Nematode (roundworm about 1  mm in length which Sea urchins are small globular spiny sea cat animals composing most of class Echinoidea. Neurobiology is the study of cells of the Nervous system and the organization of these cells into functional circuits that process information and mediate behavior A growth cone is a dynamic Actin -supported extension of a developing Axon seeking its synaptic target cytoskeleton (also CSK is a cellular " Scaffolding " or " Skeleton " contained within the Cytoplasm.
  • Caenorhabditis elegans, a nematode, usually called C. Caenorhabditis elegans (ˌsiːnoʊræbˈdaɪtɪs ˈɛlɪgænz is a free-living Nematode (roundworm about 1  mm in length which The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common elegans[9] - an excellent model for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology. C. elegans was the first multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced
  • Ciona intestinalis, a sea squirt
  • Drosophila, usually the species Drosophila melanogaster - a kind of fruit fly, famous as the subject of genetics experiments by Thomas Hunt Morgan and others. Ciona intestinalis or vase tunicate is a Urochordata (sea squirt whose Genome has been sequenced and which has become over the past decade Drosophila is a Genus of small flies, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called "fruit flies" Drosophila melanogaster (from the Greek for black-bellied dew-lover) is a two-winged insect that belongs to the Diptera, the order Drosophilidae is a diverse cosmopolitan family of flies, including the Genus Drosophila, which includes fruit flies Thomas Hunt Morgan ( September 25, 1866 &ndash December 4, 1945) was an American geneticist and embryologist. Easily raised in lab, rapid generations, mutations easily induced, many observable mutations. Recently, Drosophila has been used for neuropharmacological research[10]. (Molecular genetics, Population genetics, Developmental biology). Molecular genetics is the field of Biology which studies the structure and function of Genes at a molecular level Population genetics is the study of the Allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four evolutionary forces Natural selection, Genetic Developmental Biology is the official journal of the Society for Developmental Biology.
  • Euprymna scolopes, the Hawaiian bobtail squid, model for animal-bacterial symbiosis, bioluminescent vibrios
  • Hydra (genus), a Cnidarian, is the model organism to understand the evolution of bilaterian body plans
  • Loligo pealei, a squid, subject of studies of nerve function because of its giant axon (nearly 1 mm diameter, roughly a thousand times larger than typical mammalian axons)
  • Pristionchus pacificus, a roundworm used in evolutionary developmental biology in comparative analyses with C. The Hawaiian Bobtail Squid ( Euprymna scolopes) is a species of Bobtail squid native to the central Pacific Ocean, where it occurs in shallow coastal waters This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek Bioluminescence' is the production and emission of Light by a living Organism as the result of a chemical reaction during which chemical energy is converted Vibrio is a Genus of Gram-negative Bacteria possessing a curved rod shape Hydra is a Genus of simple fresh-water animals possessing radial symmetry. Cnidaria (naɪˈdɛəriə is a phylum containing some 9000 Species of Animals found exclusively in aquatic mostly marine, environments The Longfin Inshore Squid ( Loligo pealeii) is a species of Squid of the family Loliginidae. elegans
  • Stomatogastric ganglion of various arthropod species; a model for motor pattern generation seen in all repetitive motions
  • Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, the purple sea urchin, widely used in developmental biology
  • Symsagittifera roscoffensis, a flatworm, subject of studies of bilaterian body plan development
  • Tribolium castaneum, the flour beetle - a small, easily kept darkling beetle used especially in behavioural ecology experiments

Vertebrates
Laboratory mice
Laboratory mice
  • Cavia porcellus, the guinea pig, used by Robert Koch and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections, hence a byword for "laboratory animal" even though less commonly used today
  • Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) - used for developmental studies, as it is an amniote and excellent for micromanipulation (e. The Stomatogastric Nervous System is a commonly studied Neural network composed of several ganglia in Arthropods that controls the motion of the gut and Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, or the purple sea urchin, is one of the sharp-spined Sea urchin species Sea urchins are small globular spiny sea cat animals composing most of class Echinoidea. Symsagittifera roscoffensis, formerly called Convoluta roscoffensis, is a free-living acoelomorph worm. The flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes from the Greek πλατύ platy, meaning "flat" and ἕλμινς (root ἑλμινθ- helminth- Darkling beetles (also known as Darkening beetles) are a family of Beetles found worldwide estimated at more than 20000 species. Behavioral ecology is the study of the ecological and evolutionary basis for Animal behavior, and the roles of behavior in enabling an animal to adapt to Vertebrates are members of the Subphylum Vertebrata, Chordates with backbones or spinal columns The grouping sometimes includes The House Mouse ( Mus musculus) is one of the most numerous species of the genus Mus commonly termed a Mouse. The Guinea pig (also commonly called the cavy after its scientific name Cavia porcellus) is a species of Rodent belonging to the family Caviidae The Guinea pig (also commonly called the cavy after its scientific name Cavia porcellus) is a species of Rodent belonging to the family Caviidae Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch ( December 11 1843 – May 27 1910) was a German Physician. The chicken ( Gallus gallus, sometimes G gallus domesticus) is a domesticated Fowl which is traditionally believed to have descended from The amniotes are a group of Tetrapod Vertebrates that include the Synapsida ( Mammals and Mammal-like reptiles and Sauropsida g. tissue grafting) and over-expression of gene products
  • Cat (Felis cattus) - used in neurophysiological research
  • Dog (Canis lupus familiaris) - an important respiratory and cardiovascular model
  • Hamster - first used to study kala-azar (leishmaniasis)
  • Mouse (Mus musculus) - the classic model vertebrate. WikipediaManual of Style (spelling, articles should conform to one overall spelling style of English typically the one most linked to the article topic (if it is geographic The dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated Subspecies of the gray wolf, a Mammal of the Canidae family of the order Hamsters are Rodents belonging to the Subfamily Cricetinae. The subfamily contains about 18 Species, classified in six or seven genera Leishmaniasis is a Disease caused by Protozoan Parasites that belong to the genus Leishmania and is transmitted by the bite of certain The House Mouse ( Mus musculus) is one of the most numerous species of the genus Mus commonly termed a Mouse. Many inbred strains exist, as well as lines selected for particular traits, often of medical interest, e. g. body size, obesity, muscularity. (Quantitative genetics, Molecular evolution, Genomics)
  • Homo sapiens (humans) - used in various clinical studies
  • Lamprey - spinal cord research
  • Oryzias latipes, Medaka (the Japanese ricefish) is an important model in developmental biology, and has the advantage of being much sturdier than the traditional Zebrafish
  • Rat (Rattus norvegicus) - particularly useful as a toxicology model; also particularly useful as a neurological model and source of primary cell cultures, owing to the larger size of organs and suborganellar structures relative to the mouse. Quantitative genetics is the study of continuous traits (such as height or weight and its underlying mechanisms Molecular evolution is the process of evolution at the scale of DNA, RNA, and Proteins Molecular evolution emerged as a scientific field in the 1960s as Genomics is the study of an organism's entire Genome. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale Genetic Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus A lamprey (sometimes also called lamprey eel) is a Jawless fish with a toothed funnel-like sucking mouth The Medaka (as it is known in Japanese or Japanese killifish, Oryzias latipes, is a very small Ricefish, popular as an aquarium fish native to (Molecular evolution, Genomics)
  • Rhesus macaque - used for studies on infectious disease and cognition
  • Sigmodon hispidus - Cotton rat formerly used in polio research
  • Taeniopygia guttata or zebra finch - used in the study of the song system of songbirds and the study of non-mammalian auditory systems
  • Takifugu rubripres, a pufferfish - has a small genome with little junk DNA
  • Xenopus laevis, the African clawed frog - used in developmental biology because of its large embryos and high tolerance for physical and pharmacological manipulation
  • Zebrafish (Danio rerio), a freshwater fish, has a nearly transparent body during early development, which provides unique visual access to the animal's internal anatomy. Molecular evolution is the process of evolution at the scale of DNA, RNA, and Proteins Molecular evolution emerged as a scientific field in the 1960s as Genomics is the study of an organism's entire Genome. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale Genetic The Rhesus Macaque ( Macaca mulatta) often called the Rhesus Monkey, is one of the best known species of Old World monkeys Adult males measure An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought A cotton rat is any member of the Sigmodon genus of Rodents. They are called cotton rats because they build their Nests out of Cotton The Zebra Finch, Taeniopygia guttata is the most common and familiar Estrildid finch of Central Australia and ranges over most of the continent avoiding A song system, also known as a song control system, is a series of discrete brain synapse that memorize the songs and choirs in Songbirds It was first observed by SongBird is a Dutch Record label owned by Tijs Verwest and Arny Bink The auditory system is the Sensory system for the sense of hearing. is the Japanese word for Pufferfish and is also a Japanese dish prepared from the meat of Pufferfish (normally species of Takifugu, Lagocephalus Tetraodontidae is a family of primarily marine and estuarine fish In Molecular biology, junk DNA is a provisional label for the portions of the DNA sequence of a Chromosome or a Genome for which no The African clawed frog ( Xenopus laevis, also known as platanna) is a species of South African aquatic Frog of the genus Xenopus This article is about the block cipher algorithm For the ultrafast laser pulse measurement technique see Frequency-resolved optical gating. An embryo (from Greek:, plural, lit "that which grows" from en- "in" + bryein "to swell be full" is a multicellular The zebrafish or zebra danio, Danio rerio, a Tropical Freshwater Fish belonging to the minnow family ( Cyprinidae) Zebrafish are used to study development, toxicology and toxicopathology[11], specific gene function and roles of signaling pathways.

Model organisms used for specific research objectives

Sexual selection and sexual conflict

Hybrid zones

Ecological genomics

References

  1. ^ Fox, Michael Allen (1986). Daphnia are small Planktonic Crustaceans between.2 and 5  mm in length The Case for Animal Experimention: An Evolutionary and Ethical Perspective. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05501-2.  
  2. ^ What are model organisms?
  3. ^ http://www.nih.gov/science/models/ NIH model organisms
  4. ^ Chlamydomonas reinhardtii resources at the Joint Genome Institute
  5. ^ Chlamydomonas genome sequenced published in Science, October 12, 2007
  6. ^ Rowland H. Davis: Neurospora. Contributions of a Model Organism. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000. ISBN 0-19-512236-4.
  7. ^ a b c d About Arabidopsis on the The Arabidopsis Information Resource page (TAIR)
  8. ^ a b Rensing, S. A. , Lang, D. , Zimmer, A. D. , Terry, A. , Salamov, A. , Shapiro, H. et al. (2008). The physcomitrella genome reveals evolutionary insights into the conquest of land by plants. Science, 319(5859), 64-69.
  9. ^ Riddle, Donald L. ; Blumenthal, Thomas; Meyer, Barbara J. ; and Priess, James R. (Eds. ). (1997). C. ELEGANS II. Woodbury, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Press. ISBN 0-87969-532-3. Full text available on-line.
  10. ^ Manev H, Dimitrijevic N, Dzitoyeva S. (2003). "Techniques: fruit flies as models for neuropharmacological research.". Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 24 (1): 41-43. doi:10.1016/S0165-6147(02)00004-4. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  11. ^ Spitsbergen J. M. and Kent M. L. (2003). The state of the art of the zebrafish model for toxicology and toxicologic pathology research--advantages and current limitations. Toxicol Pathol. 31 (Supplement), 62-87. PubMed Abstract Link => PMID 12597434.

See also

External links

Dictionary

model organism

-noun

  1. (biology) Any organism (e.g. the fruit fly) that has been extensively studied as an example of many others, and from which general principles may be established
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