Newt lung cell undergoing mitosis

Mitosis is the process by which a cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus, into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei. A newt is an Amphibian of the Salamandridae family order Urodela or Caudata, found in North America, Europe, and A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and Protein that is found in cells. In Cell biology, the nucleus (pl nuclei; from Latin la ''nucleus'' or la ''nuculeus'' "little nut" or kernel is a membrane-enclosed ^[1] It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two daughter cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Cytokinesis is the process whereby the Cytoplasm of a single Eukaryotic cell is divided to form two daughter cells The cytoplasm is the contents of a cell that is enclosed within the Plasma membrane. In Cell biology, an organelle (pronunciation /ɔː(rgəˡnɛl/ is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function and is usually separately enclosed The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma, or "phospholipid bilayer" is a Selectively permeable Lipid bilayer Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle - the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a eukaryotic cell leading to its replication Cell division is a process by which a cell, called the parent cell divides into two or more cells called daughter cells.

Mitosis divides the chromosomes in a cell nucleus. A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and Protein that is found in cells. In Cell biology, the nucleus (pl nuclei; from Latin la ''nucleus'' or la ''nuculeus'' "little nut" or kernel is a membrane-enclosed

Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex For example, animals undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. The nuclear envelope (NE(also known as the perinuclear envelope, nuclear membrane, nucleolemma or karyotheca) is a double lipid bilayer that A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Aspergillus nidulans (also called Emericella nidulans) is one of many species of filamentous Fungi in the phylum Ascomycota. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a Species of Budding Yeast. It is perhaps the most useful Yeast owing to its use since ancient times Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described In Cell biology, the nucleus (pl nuclei; from Latin la ''nucleus'' or la ''nuculeus'' "little nut" or kernel is a membrane-enclosed ^[2] Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary fission. The prokaryotes (proʊˈkærioʊts singular prokaryote /proʊˈkæriət/ are a group of Organisms that lack a Cell nucleus (= karyon or any other Binary fission is the form of Asexual reproduction and Cell division used by Prokaryotic organisms (such as Bacteria or Archea)

The process of mitosis is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and Protein that is found in cells. Sister chromatids are identical copies of a chromosome connected by a Centromere. The cell then divides in cytokinesis, to produce two identical daughter cells. Cytokinesis is the process whereby the Cytoplasm of a single Eukaryotic cell is divided to form two daughter cells ^[3]

Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, "mitosis" is often used interchangeably with "mitotic phase". However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds, but is found in various different groups. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Slime Mold is a broad term referring to amoeba-like organisms hence the name slime which feed on microorganisms in decaying vegetable matter hence the name Molds Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development. Drosophila melanogaster (from the Greek for black-bellied dew-lover) is a two-winged insect that belongs to the Diptera, the order ^[4] Errors in mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer. In biology mutations are changes to the Nucleotide sequence of the Genetic material of an organism Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled

Overview

The primary result of mitosis is the division of the parent cell's genome into two daughter cells. The genome is composed of a number of chromosomes, complexes of tightly-coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function. A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and Protein that is found in cells. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule Because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis. Molecular cloning refers to the procedure of isolating a defined DNA sequence and obtaining multiple copies of it In vivo. This occurs during S phase, in interphase, the period that precedes the mitotic phase in the cell cycle where preparation for mitosis occurs. Interphase is the phase of the Cell cycle in which the cell spends the majority of its time and performs the majority of its purposes including preparation for Cell ^[5]

Each new chromosome now contains two identical copies of itself, called sister chromatids, attached together in a specialized region of the chromosome known as the centromere. A chromatid is one of two identical copies of DNA making up a replicated Chromosome, which are joined at their Centromeres for the process of Cell division A centromere is a region of DNA typically found near the middle of a Chromosome where two Sister chromatids come in contact Each sister chromatid is not considered a chromosome in itself, and a chromosome does not always contain two sister chromatids.

In most eukaryotes, the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the cytoplasm disassembles. Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex The nuclear envelope (NE(also known as the perinuclear envelope, nuclear membrane, nucleolemma or karyotheca) is a double lipid bilayer that The cytoplasm is the contents of a cell that is enclosed within the Plasma membrane. The chromosomes align themselves in a line spanning the cell. Microtubules, essentially miniature strings, splay out from opposite ends of the cell and shorten, pulling apart the sister chromatids of each chromosome. Microtubules are one of the components of the Cytoskeleton. They have a diameter of 25 nm and length varying from 200 nanometers to 25 micrometers ^[6] As a matter of convention, each sister chromatid is now considered a chromosome, so they are renamed to sister chromosomes. As the cell elongates, corresponding sister chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends. A new nuclear envelope forms around the separated sister chromosomes.

As mitosis completes cytokinesis is well underway. In animal cells, the cell pinches inward where the imaginary line used to be, (the pinching of the cell membrane to form the two daughter cells is called cleavage furrow) separating the two developing nuclei. Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex In plant cells, the daughter cells will construct a new dividing cell wall between each other. Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that differ in several key respects from the cells of other eukaryotic Organisms Their distinctive features Eventually, the mother cell will be split in half, giving rise to two daughter cells, each with an equivalent and complete copy of the original genome.

Prokaryotic cells undergo a process similar to mitosis called binary fission. However, prokaryotes cannot be properly said to undergo mitosis because they lack a nucleus and only have a single chromosome with no centromere. ^[7]

Mnemonic devices

The steps of mitosis can easily be remembered by a mnemonic device such as 'PMAT' or 'Please Make A Taco'. A mnemonic device (nəˈmɒnɪk is a Memory aid Commonly met mnemonics are often verbal something such as a very short poem or a special word used to help a person remember Each letter is the first letter of each step: 'P' for prophase, 'M' for metaphase, 'A' for anaphase, and 'T' for telophase. Prophase is a stage of Mitosis in which the Chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called a Chromosome Metaphase from the Ancient Greek μετά (after and φάσις (stage is a stage of Mitosis in the eukaryotic Cell cycle in which Anaphase, from the Ancient Greek ἀνά (up and φάσις (stage is the stage of Mitosis when Chromosomes Telophase (sometimes spelled telephase) from the Ancient Greek "τελος" (end and "φασις" (stage is a stage in either Meiosis Another mnemonic device for memorizing the steps of mitosis including interphase and cytokinesis is 'I Party More At The Club', or 'IPMATC'. Interphase is the phase of the Cell cycle in which the cell spends the majority of its time and performs the majority of its purposes including preparation for Cell Cytokinesis is the process whereby the Cytoplasm of a single Eukaryotic cell is divided to form two daughter cells Another way of remembering it is: 'In Paris Many Artists Teach': Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

Phases of cell cycle and mitosis

Interphase

Main article: Interphase

The cell cycle

The mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. Interphase is the phase of the Cell cycle in which the cell spends the majority of its time and performs the majority of its purposes including preparation for Cell The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a eukaryotic cell leading to its replication It alternates with the much longer interphase, where the cell prepares itself for cell division. Interphase is the phase of the Cell cycle in which the cell spends the majority of its time and performs the majority of its purposes including preparation for Cell Interphase is divided into three phases, G₁ (first gap), S (synthesis), and G₂ (second gap). During all three phases, the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. However, chromosomes are replicated only during the S phase. The S phase, short for synthesis phase, is a period in the Cell cycle during Interphase, between G1 phase and the G2 phase. Thus, a cell grows (G₁), continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes (S), grows more and prepares for mitosis (G₂), and divides (M). ^[5]

Preprophase

Main article: Preprophase

In plant cells only, prophase is preceded by a pre-prophase stage. Preprophase is an additional phase during Mitosis in Plant cells that does not occur in other Eukaryotes such as Animals or fungi In highly vacuolated plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin. This is achieved through the formation of a phragmosome, a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division. The phragmosome is a sheet of cytoplasm forming in highly vacuolated Plant cells in preparation for Mitosis. In addition to phragmosome formation, preprophase is characterized by the formation of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments (called preprophase band) underneath the plasmamembrane around the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle and predicting the position of cell plate fusion during telophase. The preprophase band is a Microtubule array found in Plant cells that are about to undergo cell division and enter the Preprophase stage of the plant Telophase (sometimes spelled telephase) from the Ancient Greek "τελος" (end and "φασις" (stage is a stage in either Meiosis The cells of higher plants (such as the flowering plants) lack centrioles. A Centriole is a barrel shaped Organelle found in most animal Eukaryotic cells though absent in Higher plants and Fungi. Instead, spindle microtubules aggregate on the surface of the nuclear envelope during prophase. The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope disassembly and spindle formation in prometaphase. ^[8]

Prophase

Prophase: The two round objects above the nucleus are the centrosomes. The chromatin has condensed.

Main article: Prophase

Normally, the genetic material in the nucleus is in a loosely bundled coil called chromatin. Prophase is a stage of Mitosis in which the Chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called a Chromosome Chromatin is the complex basis of DNA and protein that makes up Chromosomes It is found inside the nuclei of eukaryotic cells, and within the At the onset of prophase, chromatin condenses together into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome. Since the genetic material has already been duplicated earlier in S phase, the replicated chromosomes have two sister chromatids, bound together at the centromere by the cohesion complex. A centromere is a region of DNA typically found near the middle of a Chromosome where two Sister chromatids come in contact Chromosomes are visible at high magnification through a light microscope.

Close to the nucleus are two centrosomes. In Cell biology, the centrosome is an Organelle that serves as the main Microtubule organizing center (MTOC of the animal cell as well Each centrosome, which was replicated earlier independent of mitosis, acts as a coordinating center for the cell's microtubules. Microtubules are one of the components of the Cytoskeleton. They have a diameter of 25 nm and length varying from 200 nanometers to 25 micrometers The two centrosomes nucleate microtubules (which may be thought of as cellular ropes or poles) by polymerizing soluble tubulin present in the cytoplasm. A Tubulin is one of several members of a small family of globular Proteins The most common members of the tubulin family are α-tubulin and β-tubulin the proteins that Molecular motor proteins create repulsive forces that will push the centrosomes to opposite side of the nucleus. Molecular motors are biological Molecular machines that are the essential agents of movement in living organisms The centrosomes are only present in animals. In plants the microtubules form independently.

Some centrosomes contain a pair of centrioles that may help organize microtubule assembly, but they are not essential to formation of the mitotic spindle. A Centriole is a barrel shaped Organelle found in most animal Eukaryotic cells though absent in Higher plants and Fungi. ^[9]

Prometaphase

Micrograph showing condensed chromosomes in blue and the mitotic spindle in green during prometaphase of mitosis

Prometaphase: The nuclear membrane has degraded, and microtubules have invaded the nuclear space. A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and Protein that is found in cells. Prometaphase is the phase of Mitosis following Prophase and preceding Metaphase, in eukaryotic Somatic cells The nuclear These microtubules can attach to kinetochores or they can interact with opposing microtubules.

Main article: Prometaphase

The nuclear envelope disassembles and microtubules invade the nuclear space. Prometaphase is the phase of Mitosis following Prophase and preceding Metaphase, in eukaryotic Somatic cells The nuclear This is called open mitosis, and it occurs in most multicellular organisms. Fungi and some protists, such as algae or trichomonads, undergo a variation called closed mitosis where the spindle forms inside the nucleus or its microtubules are able to penetrate an intact nuclear envelope. Protists (ˈproʊtɨst are a diverse group of eukaryotic Microorganisms Historically protists were treated as the kingdom Protista but this Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms The trichomonads are an order of anaerobic Protists included with the Parabasalids Most are either Parasites or other Endosymbionts of animals ^[10][11]

Each chromosome forms two kinetochores at the centromere, one attached at each chromatid. The kinetochore (pronounced kin et' o core is the protein structure on Chromosomes where the Spindle fibers attach during division to pull the chromosomes apart A kinetochore is a complex protein structure that is analogous to a ring for the microtubule hook; it is the point where microtubules attach themselves to the chromosome. ^[12] Although the kinetochore structure and function are not fully understood, it is known that it contains some form of molecular motor. This is a list of gene families or Gene complexes, that is sets of genes which occur across a number of different Species which often serve ^[13] When a microtubule connects with the kinetochore, the motor activates, using energy from ATP to "crawl" up the tube toward the originating centrosome. Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy This motor activity, coupled with polymerisation and depolymerisation of microtubules, provides the pulling force necessary to later separate the chromosome's two chromatids. ^[13]

When the spindle grows to sufficient length, kinetochore microtubules begin searching for kinetochores to attach to. A number of nonkinetochore microtubules find and interact with corresponding nonkinetochore microtubules from the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle. ^[14] Prometaphase is sometimes considered part of prophase.

Metaphase

A cell in late metaphase. Metaphase from the Ancient Greek μετά (after and φάσις (stage is a stage of Mitosis in the eukaryotic Cell cycle in which All chromosomes (blue) but one have arrived at the metaphase plate.

Metaphase: The chromosomes have aligned at the metaphase plate.

Main article: Metaphase

As microtubules find and attach to kinetochores in prometaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes convene along the metaphase plate or equatorial plane, an imaginary line that is equidistant from the two centrosome poles. Metaphase from the Ancient Greek μετά (after and φάσις (stage is a stage of Mitosis in the eukaryotic Cell cycle in which ^[14] This even alignment is due to the counterbalance of the pulling powers generated by the opposing kinetochores, analogous to a tug-of-war between equally strong people. In certain types of cells, chromosomes do not line up at the metaphase plate and instead move back and forth between the poles randomly, only roughly lining up along the midline. Metaphase comes from the Greek μετα meaning "after. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly "

Because proper chromosome separation requires that every kinetochore be attached to a bundle of microtubules (spindle fibres) , it is thought that unattached kinetochores generate a signal to prevent premature progression to anaphase[1] without all chromosomes being aligned. Anaphase, from the Ancient Greek ἀνά (up and φάσις (stage is the stage of Mitosis when Chromosomes The signal creates the mitotic spindle checkpoint. The spindle checkpoint blocks the entry of a cell undergoing mitosis into anaphase until all chromosomes are properly attached to the meiotic or Mitotic ^[15]

Anaphase

Early anaphase: Kinetochore microtubules shorten

Main article: Anaphase

When every kinetochore is attached to a cluster of microtubules and the chromosomes have lined up along the metaphase plate, the cell proceeds to anaphase (from the Greek ανα meaning “up,” “against,” “back,” or “re-”). Anaphase, from the Ancient Greek ἀνά (up and φάσις (stage is the stage of Mitosis when Chromosomes Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly

Two events then occur; First, the proteins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved, allowing them to separate. These sister chromatids turned sister chromosomes are pulled apart by shortening kinetochore microtubules and move toward the respective centrosomes to which they are attached. Next, the nonkinetochore microtubules elongate, pushing the centrosomes (and the set of chromosomes to which they are attached) apart to opposite ends of the cell. The force that causes the centrosomes to move towards the ends of the cell is still unknown, although there is a theory that suggests that the rapid assembly and breakdown of microtubules may cause this movement. Microtubules are one of the components of the Cytoskeleton. They have a diameter of 25 nm and length varying from 200 nanometers to 25 micrometers ^[16]

These two stages are sometimes called early and late anaphase. Early anaphase is usually defined as the separation of the sister chromatids, while late anaphase is the elongation of the microtubules and the microtubules being pulled farther apart. At the end of anaphase, the cell has succeeded in separating identical copies of the genetic material into two distinct populations.

Telophase

Telophase: The decondensing chromosomes are surrounded by nuclear membranes. Note cytokinesis has already begun, the pinching is known as the cleavage furrow.

Main article: Telophase

Telophase (from the Greek τελος meaning "end") is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events. Telophase (sometimes spelled telephase) from the Ancient Greek "τελος" (end and "φασις" (stage is a stage in either Meiosis Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly It "cleans up" the after effects of mitosis. At telophase, the nonkinetochore microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more. Corresponding sister chromosomes attach at opposite ends of the cell. A new nuclear envelope, using fragments of the parent cell's nuclear membrane, forms around each set of separated sister chromosomes. Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclei, unfold back into chromatin. Mitosis is complete, but cell division is not yet complete.

Cytokinesis

Main article: Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is often mistakenly thought to be the final part of telophase, however cytokinesis is a separate process that begins at the same time as telophase. Cytokinesis is the process whereby the Cytoplasm of a single Eukaryotic cell is divided to form two daughter cells Cytokinesis is technically not even a phase of mitosis, but rather a separate process, necessary for completing cell division. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow (pinch) containing a contractile ring develops where the metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the separated nuclei. In Cell biology, the cleavage furrow is the indentation that begins the process of cleavage, by which Animal and some algal cells ^[17] In both animal and plant cells, cell division is also driven by vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus, which move along microtubules to the middle of the cell. The Golgi apparatus (also called the ^[18] In plants this structure coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the phragmoplast and develops into a cell wall, separating the two nuclei. The phragmoplast is a Plant cell specific structure that forms during late Cytokinesis. The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants, whereas some green algae use a phycoplast microtubule array during cytokinesis. The phycoplast is a Microtubule structure observed during Cytokinesis in members of the Chlorophyceae, the largest class of green Algae ^[19] Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-phase.

Significance

The importance of mitosis is the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each cell formed receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell. Transcription is generally believed to cease during mitosis, but epigenetic mechanisms such as bookmarking function during this stage of the cell cycle to ensure that the "memory" of which genes were active prior to entry into mitosis are transmitted to the daughter cells. In Biology, the term epigenetics refers to changes in Gene expression caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence In Genetics and Epigenetics, bookmarking is a biological phenomenon believed to function as an epigenetic mechanism for transmitting Cellular memory of ^[20]

Consequences of errors

Although errors in mitosis are rare, the process may go wrong, especially during early cellular divisions in the zygote. For other meanings see Zygote (disambiguation. A zygote (from Greek ζυγωτός zugōtos "joined" or "yoked" Mitotic errors can be especially dangerous to the organism because future offspring from this parent cell will carry the same disorder.

In non-disjunction, a chromosome may fail to separate during anaphase. One daughter cell will receive both sister chromosomes and the other will receive none. This results in the former cell having three chromosomes coding for the same thing (two sisters and a homologue), a condition known as trisomy, and the latter cell having only one chromosome (the homologous chromosome), a condition known as monosomy. These cells are considered aneuploidic cells and these abnormal cells can cause cancer. Aneuploidy is defined as an abnormal number of Chromosomes Syndromes caused by an extra or missing chromosome are among the most widely recognized Genetic disorders Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled ^[21]

Mitosis is a traumatic process. The cell goes through dramatic changes in ultrastructure, its organelles disintegrate and reform in a matter of hours, and chromosomes are jostled constantly by probing microtubules. Occasionally, chromosomes may become damaged. An arm of the chromosome may be broken and the fragment lost, causing deletion. In Genetics, a deletion (also called gene deletion, deficiency, or deletion mutation) is a Mutation (a genetic aberration The fragment may incorrectly reattach to another, non-homologous chromosome, causing translocation. In Genetics, a chromosome translocation is a Chromosome abnormality caused by rearrangement of parts between nonhomologous Chromosomes. It may reattach to the original chromosome, but in reverse orientation, causing inversion. An inversion is a Chromosome rearrangement in which a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end Or, it may be treated erroneously as a separate chromosome, causing chromosomal duplication. Gene duplication (or chromosomal duplication) is any duplication of a region of DNA that contains a Gene; it may occur as an error in Homologous The effect of these genetic abnormalities depend on the specific nature of the error. It may range from no noticeable effect, cancer induction, or organism death.

Endomitosis

Endomitosis is a variant of mitosis without nuclear or cellular division, resulting in cells with many copies of the same chromosome occupying a single nucleus. This process may also be referred to as endoreduplication and the cells as endoploid. Endoreduplication is the duplication of the Genome without Mitosis. "Haplo" redirects here For the fictional character see The Death Gate Cycle. ^[4] An example of a cell that goes through endomitosis is the megakaryocyte. The megakaryocyte is a Bone marrow cell responsible for the production of blood Platelets necessary for normal blood Clotting Megakaryocytes normally ^[22]

Timeline in pictures

Real mitotic cells can be visualized through the microscope by staining them with fluorescent antibodies and dyes. Staining is an auxiliary Technique used in Microscopy to enhance contrast in the microscopic image Fluorescence is a Luminescence that is mostly found as an A dye can generally be described as a Colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied These light micrographs are included below.

Early prometaphase: The nuclear membrane has just degraded, allowing the microtubules to quickly interact with the kinetochores on the chromosomes, which have just condensed.

Late metaphase: The centrosomes have moved to the poles of the cell and have established the mitotic spindle. The chromosomes, in light blue, have all assembled at the metaphase plate, except for one.

Anaphase: Lengthening nonkinetochore microtubules push the two sets of chromosomes further apart.

See also

• Meiosis
• Cytoskeleton
• Motor protein
• Aneuploidy
• Chromosomal disorder
• Binary fission

References

Further reading

• Morgan DO (2007) "The Cell Cycle: Principles of Control" London: New Science Press.
• Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, and Walter P (2002). Mitosis. Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Science. Retrieved on 2006-01-22. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 565 - Eutychius is deposed as Patriarch of Constantinople by John Scholasticus.
• Campbell, N. and Reece, J. (December 2001). "The Cell Cycle", Biology, 6th ed. , San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings/Addison-Wesley, pp. 217-224. ISBN 0-8053-6624-5.  
• Cooper, G. (2000). The Events of M Phase. The Cell: A Molecular Approach. Sinaeur Associates, Inc. Retrieved on 2006-01-22. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 565 - Eutychius is deposed as Patriarch of Constantinople by John Scholasticus.
• Freeman, S (2002). "Cell Division", Biological Science. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, pp. 155-174. ISBN 0-13-081923-9.  
• Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky L, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D, Darnell J (2000). Overview of the Cell Cycle and Its Control. Molecular Cell Biology. W. H. Freeman. Retrieved on 2006-01-22. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 565 - Eutychius is deposed as Patriarch of Constantinople by John Scholasticus.
• Maton, Anthea; Hopkins, Jean Johnson, Susan LaHart, David, Quon Warner, David, Wright, Jill D (1997). Cells: Building Blocks of Life. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 70-74. ISBN 0-13423476-6.  

External links

• Science aid: Mitosis and meiosis: A simple account of the mitotic and meiotic processes.
• Mitosis Animation.
• Video of a live amphibian lung cell undergoing mitosis.
• A Flash animation comparing Mitosis and Meiosis
• Studying Mitosis in Cultured Mammalian Cells
• CCO The Cell-Cycle Ontology

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