Chuquicamata, the second largest open pit copper mine in the world, Chile. Chuquicamata, or "Chuqui" as it is more familiarly known is a big open pit Copper mine in the north of Chile, 215 km northeast Open-pit mining, also known as opencast mining and open-cut mining and strip mining, refers to a method of extracting rock or Minerals Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the

Break time underground, Colorado, ca. The State of Colorado ( or chiefly by nonresidents) is a state located in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States of America. 1900

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, usually (but not always) from an ore body, vein or (coal) seam. The economic value of a good or service has puzzled economists since the beginning of the discipline A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit An ore is a volume of rock containing components or Minerals in a mode of occurrence that renders it valuable for mining In Geology, a vein is a finite volume within a rock, having a distinct shape filled with Crystals of one or more Minerals which were precipitated Materials recovered by mining include bauxite, coal, copper, gold, silver, diamonds, iron, precious metals, lead, limestone, magnesite, nickel, phosphate, oil shale, rock salt, tin, uranium and molybdenum. Bauxite is the most important Aluminium Ore. It consists largely of the minerals Gibbsite Al(OH3 Boehmite γ-AlO(OH and Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Precious Metal is the eighteenth episode in the of the popular American Crime drama, which is set in Las Vegas, Nevada. Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Limestone is a Sedimentary rock composed largely of the Mineral Calcite ( Calcium carbonate: CaCO3 Magnesite is not to be confused with Magnetite or Magnemite. Magnesite is Magnesium carbonate, Mg[[carbon Nickel (ˈnɪkəl is a metallic Chemical element with the symbol Ni and Atomic number 28 A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. For sodium chloride in the diet see Salt. Sodium chloride, also known as common salt, table salt, or Halite, is a Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Uranium (jʊˈreɪniəm is a silvery-gray Metallic Chemical element in the Molybdenum (məˈlɪbdənəm from the Greek word for the metal " Lead " is a Group 6 Chemical element with the symbol Mo Any material that cannot be grown from agricultural processes, or created artificially in a laboratory or factory, is usually mined. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture In Chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of Chemical reactions in order to get a product, or several products A laboratory (informally lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific Research, Experiments and A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial Building where workers manufacture goods Mining in a wider sense comprises extraction of any non-renewable resource (e. g. , petroleum, natural gas, or even water). Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Fossil water or paleowater is Groundwater that has remained in an Aquifer for millennia

History

Since the beginning of civilization people have used stone, ceramics and, later, metals found on or close to the Earth's surface. In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικός ( keramikos) The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 These were used to manufacture early tools and weapons. A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other A weapon is a Tool used either in Hunting, or attack or defence in Combat for the purpose of subduing enemy personnel or to destroy enemy weapons For example, high quality flint found in northern France and southern England were used to set fire and break rock. Flint (or flintstone) is a hard sedimentary Cryptocrystalline form of the Mineral Quartz, categorized as a variety of Chert This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Fire is the heat and light energy released during a Chemical reaction, in particular a combustion reaction. ^[1] Flint mines have been found in chalk areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts and galleries. Chalk (ʧɔːk is a soft white porous Sedimentary rock, a form of Limestone composed of the Mineral Calcite. The mines at Grimes Graves are especially famous, and like most other flint mines, are Neolithic in origin (ca 4000 BC-ca 3000 BC). Grimes Graves is a large Neolithic Flint mining complex near Brandon in England close to the border between Norfolk and The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos Other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The Langdale axe industry is the name given by archaeologists to the centre of a specialised Stone tool manufacturing at Great Langdale in England 's The Lake District, also known as The Lakes or Lakeland, is a rural area in North West England.

The oldest known mine on archaeological record is the "Lion Cave" in Swaziland. The Kingdom of Swaziland is a country located in Southern Africa centred at approximately 26o49'S 31o38'E At this site, which by radiocarbon dating the mine dates around 4,100 BC, paleolithic humans mined mineral hematite, which contained iron and was ground to produce the red pigment ochre. Radiocarbon dating is a Radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring Radioisotope Carbon-14 (14C to determine the age of The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" Hematite, also spelt hæmatite, is the Mineral form of Iron(III oxide (Fe2O3 one of several Iron oxides Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 For the drug referred to as "pigment" see Black tar heroin. Ochre or Ocher (pronounced /'əʊkə(r/ from the Greek ὠχρός yellow is a Color, usually described as golden - Yellow ^[2][3] Mines of a similar age in Hungary and are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons and tools. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from Flint (or flintstone) is a hard sedimentary Cryptocrystalline form of the Mineral Quartz, categorized as a variety of Chert

Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Malachite is a carbonate mineral normally known as "copper carbonate" with the formula Cu 2 CO3[[hydroxide Maadi (معادي el-Ma‛adi) is a wealthy Suburb south of Cairo, Egypt. ^[4] At first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group Later, between 2,613 and 2,494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghara in order "to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. "^[5] Quarries for turqoise and copper were also found at "Wadi Hamamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites"^[6] on the Sinai Peninsula and at Timna. Turquoise is an opaque blue-to-green Mineral that is a hydrous Phosphate of Copper and Aluminium, with the Chemical Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 The Sinai Peninsula or Sinai ( Coptic: sina; Egyptian Arabic: sina سينا Arabic, sina'a سيناء Timna ( Arabic, تمنة) is an ancient city in Yemen, the capital of the Qataban kingdom it is distinct from a city in Southern Israel Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, and the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt, and are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus. Mining in Egypt has had a long history that goes back to predynastic times. "Gold mine" redirects here See Goldmine for other uses of the term This article is about the region in Africa for other uses see Nubia (disambiguation. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now He mentions that fire-setting was one method used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. A method of mining fires were set against a rock face to break the rock by Thermal shock after dousing with water One of the complexes is shown in one of earliest known maps. They crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79

Europe

Agricola, author of De Re Metallica

Drainage wheel from Rio Tinto mines

Mining in Europe has a very long pedigree, examples including the silver mines of Laurium, which helped the establishment of the Greek city state, especially Athens. Laurion redirects here For the Moth Genus, see Laurion (moth. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's However, it is the Romans who developed large scale mining methods, especially the use of large volumes of water brought to the minehead by numerous aqueducts. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC An aqueduct is an artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another The water was used for a variety of purposes, and included using it to remove overburden and rock debris, as well as washing comminuted or crushed ores, and driving simple machinery. Spain was one of the most important mining regions, but all regions of the Roman Empire were exploited. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial They used reverse overshot water-wheels for dewatering their deep mines such as those at Rio Tinto. Frequently used in mines and probably elsewhere the reverse overshot Water wheel was a Roman innovation to help remove water from the lowest levels of underground workings The Celts, for example, who were native to Britain, had mined minerals for centuries,^[7] but when the Romans came, the scale of the operations changed dramatically. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands Mining was one of the most prosperous activities in Roman Britain. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Romans needed what Britain possessed, especially gold, silver, tin and lead. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Mining in the Medieval period is best known through the work De Re Metallica (1556) of Georg Agricola, who described many different mining methods then used in German or Saxon mines. De re metallica ( Latin for On the Nature of Metals (Minerals) is a book cataloging the state of the art of Mining, refining and Smelting Georgius Agricola ( March 24, 1494 – November 21, 1555) was a German scholar and scientist Use of water power in the form of water mills was extensive, and were employed in crushing ore, raising ore from shafts and ventilating galleries by giant bellows. This article is about a type of structure For other locational uses see Milldam. A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized Air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location

Black powder was first used in mining in Banská Štiavnica, Kingdom of Hungary present-day Slovakia in 1627. Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes Banská Štiavnica ( Schemnitz Selmecbánya is a town in central Slovakia, in the middle of an immense Caldera created by the collapse of an ancient volcano The Kingdom of Hungary (short form Hungary) was a considerable state in Central Europe that existed from 1001 to 1918 then from 1919 to 1946 Slovakia (long form Slovak Republic; Slovak:, long form, is a Landlocked country in Central Europe with a population of over five million ^[8] In 1762, the world's first mining academy was established in the same town.

Britain

Britain's gold mines were located in Wales at Dolgellau and Dolaucothi. Dolgellau (pronounced /dɔl'gɛɬaɨ/ occasionally /-gɛɬi/ is a Market town in Gwynedd, north-west Wales, lying on the River Wnion, The Dolaucothi Gold Mines ( also known as the Ogofau Gold Mine, are Roman surface and deep mines located in the valley of the River Cothi, Romans discovered the Dolaucothi vein after the invasion, in about 74 AD, and a settlement was soon set up in the Cothi Valley protected by a fort. In Geology, a vein is a finite volume within a rock, having a distinct shape filled with Crystals of one or more Minerals which were precipitated This page refers to the conquest begun in AD 43 For other Roman invasions see Caesar's invasions of Britain and Carausian Revolt. Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for They used hydraulic mining methods on a large scale to prospect for the veins of ore, especially a now redundant form of mining known as hushing. Hydraulic mining, or hydraulicking, is a form of Mining that employs Water to dislodge rock material or move sediment Hushing is an ancient Mining method using a flood or torrent of water to reveal mineral veins It involved building numerous aqueducts to supply water to the minehead where it was stored in large reservoirs and tanks. An aqueduct is an artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another A reservoir is most broadly a place or hollow vessel where Fluid is kept in Reserve, for later use When a full tank was opened, the wave of water sluiced away the overburden to expose the bedrock underneath and any gold veins. The rock was attacked by fire-setting to heat the rock, which would then be quenched with a stream of water. A method of mining fires were set against a rock face to break the rock by Thermal shock after dousing with water The thermal shock cracked the rock, enabling it to be removed, aided by further streams of water from the overhead tanks. Thermal shock is the name given to cracking as a result of rapid temperature change They used similar methods to work cassiterite deposits in Cornwall and lead ore in the Pennines. Cassiterite is a Tin Oxide Mineral, SnO2. It is generally opaque but is translucent in thin crystals Cornwall ( Kernow ˈkɛɹnɔʊ is the most southwesterly county of England, on the Peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly The Pennines are a low-rising Mountain range in Northern England and southern Scotland. The methods had been developed by the Romans in Spain in 25 AD to exploit large alluvial gold deposits, the largest site being at Las Medulas, where seven long aqueducts were built to tap local rivers and to sluice the deposits. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Alluvium (from the Latin, alluvius, from alluere, "to wash against" is Soil or Sediments deposited by a river or other running Las Médulas, located near the town of Ponferrada in León province, Spain, used to be the most important Gold mine in the Roman

The Dolaucothi Golden Wheel

They followed the ore veins underground once opencast mining was no longer feasible. At Dolaucothi they stoped out the veins, and drove adits through barren rock to drain the stopes. The Dolaucothi Gold Mines ( also known as the Ogofau Gold Mine, are Roman surface and deep mines located in the valley of the River Cothi, An adit is a type of entrance to an Underground mine which is horizontal or nearly horizontal Alternatively, the veins may have been trenched, keeping the upper part open to the air. At deeper levels, stoping will have been necessary. Stoping is a process accommodating the ascent of magmatic bodies from their sources in the Mantle (geology or lower crust to the surface The same adits were also used to ventilate the workings, especially important when fire-setting was used. A method of mining fires were set against a rock face to break the rock by Thermal shock after dousing with water At other parts of the site, they penetrated the water table and dewatered the mines using several kinds of machine, especially reverse overshot water-wheels. The water table is the level at which the ground water pressure is equal to Atmospheric pressure. Frequently used in mines and probably elsewhere the reverse overshot Water wheel was a Roman innovation to help remove water from the lowest levels of underground workings They were used extensively in the copper mines at Rio Tinto in Spain, where one sequence comprised 16 such wheels arranged in pairs, and lifting water about 80 feet (24 m). Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 They were worked as treadmills with miners standing on the top slats. Many examples of such devices have been found in old Roman mines and some examples are now preserved in the British Museum and the National Museum of Wales. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. National Museum Cardiff (Amgueddfa Genedlaethol Caerdydd is a Museum and Art gallery in Cardiff, Wales

Lead and silver were widely exploited during the Roman period, in Wales, the Mendips and Pennines. Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen The Pennines are a low-rising Mountain range in Northern England and southern Scotland. A lead-silver mine at Charterhouse, Somerset for example, was guarded by a small fort and was next to the mine workings and settlement for the miners. Charterhouse, also known as Charterhouse-on-Mendip, is a small hamlet in the Mendip Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB in the Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for Lead pigs have been found at several localities in Britain, and mining was so successful, that the Spanish complained about over-production depressing the market. The silver was valuable bullion, while the lead found numerous applications, especially in roofing and plumbing.

There were many iron mines in Roman Britain. Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 The index to the Ordnance Survey Map of Roman Britain lists 33 iron mines: 67% of these are in the Weald and 15% in the Forest of Dean. The Weald (wɪəld is the name given to a physiographic area in south-east England situated between the parallel Chalk Escarpments of the North The Forest of Dean is a geographical historical and cultural region in the western part of the County of Gloucestershire, England The majority of mine workers were slaves. Slavery as an institution in Mediterranean cultures of the ancient world comprised a mixture of Debt-slavery, slavery as a punishment for crime and The work conditions were poor, and up to 12% of miners died every year. ^[9]

North America

In North America there are ancient, prehistoric copper mines along Lake Superior. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Lake Superior is the largest of the five Great Lakes of North America. ^[10][11] "Indians availed themselves of this copper starting at least 5000 years ago,"^[12] and copper tools, arrowheads, and other artifacts that were part of an extensive native trade network have been discovered. A cultural artifact is a human-made object which gives information about the Culture of its creator and users In addition, obsidian, flint, and other minerals were mined, worked, and traded. Obsidian is a naturally occurring Glass formed as an extrusive Igneous rock. Flint (or flintstone) is a hard sedimentary Cryptocrystalline form of the Mineral Quartz, categorized as a variety of Chert ^[13] While the early French explorers that encountered the sites made no use of the metals due to the difficulties in transporting it,^[14] the copper was eventually traded throughout the continent along major river routes. In Manitoba, Canada, there also are ancient quartz mines near Waddy Lake and surrounding regions. Manitoba (English ˌmænɨˈtoʊbə French /manitoba/ is a province of Canada, spanning 647797 square kilometres (250116  sq mi of North America ^[15]

In the early colonial history of the Americas, "native gold and silver was quickly expropriated and sent back to Spain in fleets of gold- and silver-laden galleons. "^[16] Turquoise dated at 700 A. Turquoise is an opaque blue-to-green Mineral that is a hydrous Phosphate of Copper and Aluminium, with the Chemical D. was mined in pre-Columbian America; in the Cerillos Mining District in New Mexico, estimates are that "about 15,000 tons of rock had been removed from Mt Chalchihuitl using stone tools before 1700. The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences New Mexico ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. "^[17][18]

Miners at the Tamarack Mine in Copper Country, Michigan, USA in 1905. The Copper Country is an area in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan in the United States, including all of Keweenaw County Michigan and most of Houghton

Mining in the United States became prevalent in the 19th century. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the As with the California Gold Rush in the mid 1800s, mining for minerals and precious metals alongside ranching was very important in the Westward Expansion to the Pacific coast. The California Gold Rush (1848&ndash1855 began on January 24 1848 when Gold was discovered by James Marshall at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California A ranch is an area of landscape including various structures given primarily to the practice of ranching the practice of raising grazing livestock such as Cattle This is a simplified list of United States territorial acquisitions, beginning with American independence. With the exploration of the West, mining camps were established and "expressed a distinctive spirit, an enduring legacy to the new nation;" Gold Rushers would experience the same problems as the Land Rushers of the transient West that preceded them. ^[19] Aided by railroads, many traveled West for work opportunities in mining. Western cities such as Denver and Sacramento originated as mining towns. The City and County of Denver (pronounced /ˈdɛnvɚ/ is the Capital and the most populous city of Colorado, in the United States

Procedure

Steps of process

1. Prospecting or Exploration to find and then define the extent and value of ore where it is located ("ore body")
2. Conduct resource estimation to mathematically estimate the size and grade of the deposit
3. Conduct a pre-feasibility study to determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit. Prospecting is the physical search for Minerals Fossils precious metals or mineral specimens and is also known as Fossicking. Mineral exploration is the process undertaken by companies partnerships or corporations in the endeavour of finding Ore (commercially viable concentrations of minerals to An ore is a volume of rock containing components or Minerals in a mode of occurrence that renders it valuable for mining Mineral resource classification is the systematic organization of information on Ores and other mineral deposits which contain economic value This identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work.
4. Conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the financial viability, technical and financial risks and robustness of the project and make a decision as whether to develop or walk away from a proposed mine project. " Feasibility Study " is also the title of an episode from The Outer Limits television show This includes mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the deposit, the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and payability of the ore concentrates, engineering, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements and a cradle to grave analysis of the possible mine, from the initial excavation all the way through to reclamation. Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their
5. Development to create access to an ore body and building of mine plant and equipment
6. The operation of the mine in an active sense
7. Reclamation to make land where a mine had been suitable for future use

Techniques

A minecart toilet, used in Bisbee, Arizona. Land rehabilitation is the process of returning the land in a given area to some degree of its former state after some process ( Industry, Natural disasters etc Bisbee is a city in Cochise County, Arizona, United States, 82 miles (132 km southeast of Tucson.

Mining techniques can be divided into two basic excavation types:

In-situ leach is a particular mining technique that is used to mine minerals (potash, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium sulfate and uranium oxide) which dissolve in water. Drift mining is a method of accessing valuable geological material such as Coal, by cutting into the side of the earth rather than tunneling straight downwards (see Shaft Slope mining is a method of accessing valuable geological material such as Coal. Shaft mining or Shaft sinking refers to the method of excavating a vertical or near-vertical tunnel from the top down where there is initially no access to the bottom Underground hard rock Mining refers to various underground mining techniques used to excavate hard minerals such as those containing metals like Gold, Shrinkage stope is a generic term used in Mining to describe the process of mining upwards from a lower to a high horizon leaving broken rock in the excavation created Room and pillar is a Mining system in which the mined material is extracted across a horizontal plane while leaving "pillars" of untouched material to support Longwall mining is a form of underground Coal mining where a long wall (typically about 250-400 m long of coal is mined in a single slice (typically 1-2 m thick Retreat mining is a term used to reference the final phase of an underground Mining technique known as Room and pillar mining In-situ leaching (ISL also called in-situ recovery (ISR or solution mining, is a process of recovering minerals such as Copper and Uranium Potash (or carbonate of potash) is an impure form of Potassium carbonate ( K 2 CO3) The Chemical compound potassium chloride (KCl is a Metal Halide salt composed of Potassium and Chlorine. For sodium chloride in the diet see Salt. Sodium chloride, also known as common salt, table salt, or Halite, is a Sodium sulfate is the Sodium salt of Sulfuric acid Uranium oxide is an Oxide of the element Uranium. The metal uranium forms several oxides Uranium dioxide or uranium(IV oxide (UO2

Extractive metallurgy

The science of extractive metallurgy is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the extraction of valuable metals and minerals from their ores, especially through chemical or mechanical means. Extractive Metallurgy is the practice of extracting Metal from Ore, purifying it and recycling it Mineral processing (or mineral dressing) is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the mechanical means of crushing, grinding, and washing that enable the separation (extractive metallurgy) of valuable metals or minerals from their gangue (waste material). Mineral processing, otherwise known as mineral dressing is the practice of beneficiating valuable minerals from their Ores Industrial mineral treatment processes usually combine Tailings (also known as slimes, gangue, tailings pile, tails, leach residue, or slickens) are the materials left over

See also: biomineralization

Environmental effects

House in Gladbeck, Germany, with fissures caused by gravity erosion due to mining

Environmental issues can include erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of groundwaters and surface water by chemicals from the mining process and products. Biomineralisation is the process by which living organisms produce minerals often to harden or stiffen existing tissues Gladbeck (ˈglatbɛk is a City in the district of Recklinghausen in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind A sinkhole, also known as a sink, shake hole, swallow hole, swallet, doline or Cenote, is a natural depression Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations

Modern mining companies in some countries are required to follow environmental and rehabilitation codes, ensuring the area mined is returned to close to its original state. In some countries with pristine environments, such as large parts of Australia, this is impossible despite the best intentions. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Some mining methods have devastating environmental and public health effects.

Mining can have adverse effects on surrounding surface and ground water if protection measures are not exercised. The result can be unnaturally high concentrations of some chemical elements, notably arsenic and sulfuric acid, over a significantly large area of surface or subsurface. Coal mining releases approximately twenty toxic chemicals, of which 85% is said to be managed on site. Combined with the effects of water and the new 'channels' created for water to travel through, collect in, and contact with these chemicals, a situation is created in which massive contamination can occur. In well-regulated mines, hydrologists and geologists take careful measures to mitigate any type of water contamination that could be caused by mines. In modern American mining, operations must, under federal and state law, meet standards for protecting surface and ground waters from contamination, including acid mine drainage (AMD). Acid mine drainage ( AMD) or acid rock drainage ( ARD) refers to the outflow of Acidic water from (usually abandoned Metal mines To mitigate these problems water is continuously monitored at coal mines. The five principal technologies used to control water flow at mine sites are: diversion systems, containment ponds, groundwater pumping systems, subsurface drainage systems, and subsurface barriers. In the case of AMD, contaminated water is generally pumped to a treatment facility that neutralizes the contaminants. ^[20]

Iron hydroxide precipitate stains a stream receiving acid drainage from surface coal mining.

Some examples of environmental problems associated with mining operations are:

Ashio Copper Mine, Ashio, Japan was the site of substantial pollution at end of the nineteenth century

Acid mine drainage, exemplified by the cases of the Berkeley Lake Mine, and the Wheal Jane Mine

Dissolution and transport of dissolved metals and heavy metals by run-off and ground waters, an example being the Britannia Mine, a former copper mine near Vancouver, British Columbia. The Ashio Copper Mine, Ashio, Tochigi prefecture, Japan which became very significant from the end of the nineteenth century to the Ashio (足尾町 was a town located in Kamitsuga District, Tochigi, Japan. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Acid mine drainage ( AMD) or acid rock drainage ( ARD) refers to the outflow of Acidic water from (usually abandoned Metal mines The Berkeley Pit is a former Open pit Copper mine located in Butte Montana, USA, about a mile and a half wide and about deep Wheal Jane was a Tin mine near Baldhu and Chacewater in West Cornwall. Britannia Beach is a small unincorporated community in the Squamish-Lillooet Regional District located approximately 30 kilometers north of Vancouver, Tar Creek, an abandoned mining area in Picher, Oklahoma that is now an Environmental Protection Agency superfund site. Picher is a city in Ottawa County, Oklahoma, United States. It was formerly a center of Lead and Zinc mining Superfund is the common name for the United States environmental policy officially known as the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act Water in the mine has leaked through into local groundwater, contaminating it with metals such as lead and cadmium. Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Cadmium (ˈkædmiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Cd and Atomic number 48 ^[21]

Long-term storage of tailings and dust, which can be easily blown off site by wind, an example being Scouriotissa, an abandoned copper mine in Cyprus. Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía

Erosion of exposed hillsides, mine dumps, tailings dams and resultant siltation of drainages, creeks and rivers, the prime example being the giant Ok Tedi Mine in Papua New Guinea. Silt is Soil or rock derived Granular material of a Grain size between sand and clay The Ok Tedi Mine is located near the headwaters of the Ok Tedi River, in the Star Mountains Rural LLG of the North Fly District of the Western Province Papua New Guinea (or ˈpæpjuːə in Tok Pisin: Papua Niugini) officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania

In areas of wilderness mining may cause habitat destruction and destruction or disturbance of ecosystems, and in areas of farming it may disturb or destroy productive grazing and cropping lands. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( In urbanised environments mining may produce noise pollution, dust pollution and visual pollution. Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human- or machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life

Although such issues have been associated with some mining operations in the past, modern mining practices have improved significantly and are subject to close environmental scrutiny. Modern mining practises aim to lessen environmental impacts from mining, and the ultimate aim is to return the local environment to as close to pristine as is possible. In many cases, the most significant environmental impact longer-term is visual, with pits and mine dumps prominent landscape features.

To ensure completion of reclamation (restoring mine land) most governments and regulatory authorities around the world require that mining companies post a bond to be held in escrow until productivity of reclaimed land has been convincingly demonstrated. See Reclaim for other uses Reclamation is the process of reclaiming something from loss or from a less useful condition Since 1978 the mining industry has reclaimed more than 2 million acres (8,000 km²) of land in the United States alone. This reclaimed land has renewed vegetation and wildlife in previous mining lands and can even be used for farming and ranching.

For further reading on reclamation of former mining sites, please see Restoration ecology. Restoration ecology is the study of renewing a degraded damaged or destroyed Ecosystem through active human intervention

Mining industry

Overview

While exploration and mining can sometimes be conducted by individual entrepreneurs or small business, most modern-day mines are large enterprises requiring large amounts of capital to establish. Consequently, the mining sector of the industry is dominated by large, often multinational, mostly publicly-listed companies. See Category:Mining companies for a list. However, what is referred to as the 'mining industry' is actually two sectors, one specializing in exploration for new resources, the other specializing in mining those resources. The exploration sector is typically made up of individuals and small mineral resource companies dependent on public investment. The mining sector is typically large and multi-national companies sustained by mineral production from their mining operations.

Employment

United States

Miners today do more than just dig in the Earth's subsurface. There are many different jobs, direct and indirect, in the mining industry, ranging from engineers and lab technicians to geologists and environmental specialists. Beyond employment directly linked to mine-site activity, the modern mining industry also employs many other professionals, including accountants, lawyers, sales representatives, public relations specialists, not to mention thousands of men and women involved who manufacture the machines and equipment necessary to mine minerals.

Employment in the mining industry offers highly competitive wages and benefits, especially in rural or remote areas. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), wages for coal miners are 30% higher than the wage earned by the average American. The Bureau of Labor Statistics ( BLS) a unit of the United States Department of Labor, is the principal fact-finding agency for the U Employees possessing at least a bachelor's degree in mining or geological engineering can earn a median pay of over $80,000 annually.

The US Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that 675,000 are employed in the natural resources and mining sector. Estimated employment by selected specific commodity (including mine, mill, smelter, and quarry workers) listed below is from US Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Surveys:

• Crushed Stone - 79,700 workers
• Copper - 7,000
• Cement - 18,000
• Sand and Gravel - 38,300
• Gold - 7,600
• Aluminum - 56,000
• Iron Ore - 4,400
• Platinum Group Metals - 1,600
• Salt - 4,100
• Phosphate Rock - 2,900

The mining industry has an experienced but aging workforce with a mean average age of 50 years and median of 46 years. Indeed, while the industry will require new employees to meet future demand, the largest dilemma currently facing mine operators is finding employees to fill vacancies left by a generation of miners, mine engineers, senior managers, technical experts and others who are set to retire between 2005 and 2015. However, the industry is struggling to meet that demand due to current low enrollment levels in mining education programs at American colleges and universities.

Mining is regulated under a comprehensive federal safety law (Federal Mine Safety and Health Act) that is administered by the Department of Labor's Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). Currently under federal law, and enforced by MSHA each U. S. miner must have an approved worker training program in health and safety issues, including at least 40 hours of basic safety training for new underground miners with no experience; 24 hours for new miners at surface mines with no experience; plus eight hours of annual refresher training for all miners.

Safety

United States

Safety has long been a controversial issue in the mining business especially with sub-surface mining. While mining today is substantially safer than it was in the previous decades, mining accidents are often very high profile, such as the Quecreek Mine Rescue saving 9 trapped Pennsylvania coal miners in 2002. A mining accident is an Accident that occurs in the process of Mining minerals The Quecreek Mine Rescue took place when nine miners were trapped underground for over 78 hours July 24&ndash28 2002

Mining ventilation is often seen to be a safety concern for many miners and their families. Poor ventilation of the mines causes exposure to harmful gases, heat and dust inside sub-surface mines. These can cause harmful physiological effects, even death. The concentration of methane and other airborne contaminants underground can generally be controlled by dilution (ventilation), capture before entering the host air stream (methane drainage), or isolation (seals and stoppings). ^[22]

Methane gas is a common source of ignition for explosions in coal mines and can propagate into the more violent coal dust explosions. Coal dust is a fine powdered form of Coal, which is created by the crushing grinding or pulverizing of coal Explosions can be prevented or mitigated by eliminating ignition sources, minimizing methane concentrations and coal dust accumulations, generalized rock dusting, and by using passive and active barriers to suppress propagating explosions. ^[22] High temperatures and humidity may result in heat-related illnesses, including heat stroke which can be fatal. Dusts can cause lung problems, including silicosis, asbestosis and pneumoconiosis (also known as miners lung or black lung disease). Silicosis (also known as Grinder's disease and Potter's rot) is a form of Occupational lung disease caused by inhalation of crystalline Silica Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the Parenchymal tissue of the Lungs It occurs after long-term heavy exposure Pneumoconiosis is an Occupational lung disease caused by the Inhalation of dust Black Lung is an electronic and Industrial music project by Australian musician David Thrussell also known for his industrial bands Snog and

A ventilation system is set up to course a stream of air through the working areas of the mine. The air circulation necessary for the effective ventilation of a mine is generated by one or more large mine fans, usually located above ground. In the United States, the main fans at coal mines are required to be above ground. Air flows in one direction only, making circuits through the mine such that each main work area receives a supply of fresh air.

Mining is regulated under the federal Mine Safety and Health Act by MSHA, which employs nearly one safety inspector for every four coal mines. Underground coal mines are thoroughly inspected at least four times annually by MSHA inspectors. In addition, miners can report violations, and request additional inspections. Miners with such concerns for their work safety cannot be penalized with any threat to the loss of employment.

Immediately reportable accidents and injuries are:

1. A death of an individual at a mine;
2. An injury to an individual at a mine which has a reasonable potential to cause death;
3. An entrapment of an individual for more than thirty minutes;
4. An unplanned inundation of a mine by a liquid or gas;
5. An unplanned ignition or explosion of gas or dust;
6. An unplanned mine fire not extinguished within 30 minutes of discovery;
7. An unplanned ignition or explosion of a blasting agent or an explosive;
8. An unplanned roof fall at or above the anchorage zone in active workings where roof bolts are in use; or, an unplanned roof or rib fall in active workings that impairs ventilation or impedes passage;
9. A coal or rock outburst that causes withdrawal of miners or which disrupts regular mining activity for more than one hour;
10. An unstable condition at an impoundment, refuse pile, or culm bank which requires emergency action in order to prevent failure, or which causes individuals to evacuate an area; or, failure of an impoundment, refuse pile or culm bank;
11. Damage to hoisting equipment in a shaft or slope which endangers an individual or which interferes with use of the equipment for more than thirty minutes; and
12. An event at a mine which causes death or bodily injury to an individual not at the mine at the time the event occurs.

Additionally, the Mine Safety and Health Act authorizes the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention under the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to develop recommendations for mine health standards for the Mine Safety and Health Administration; administer a medical surveillance program for miners, including chest X-rays to detect pneumoconiosos (black lung disease) in coal miners; conduct on-site investigations in mines; and test and certify personal protective equipment and hazard-measurement instruments. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (or NIOSH) is the United States federal agency responsible for conducting research and making recommendations The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated The United States Department of Health and Human Services ( HHS) is a Cabinet department of the United States government with the goal of protecting ^[23]

Statistical analyses performed by the U.S. Department of Labor's Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) show that between 1990 and 2004, the industry cut the rate of injuries (a measure comparing the rate of incidents to overall number of employees or hours worked) by more than half and fatalities by two-thirds following three prior decades of steady improvement. The United States Department of Labor is a Cabinet department of the United States government responsible for occupational safety wage and hour standards The Mine Safety and Health Administration ( MSHA) is an agency of the United States Department of Labor which administers the provisions of the Federal Mine

Machinery

Heavy machinery is needed in mining for exploration and development, to remove and stockpile overburden, to break and remove rocks of diverse hardness and toughness, and to process the ore as well as for reclamation. Bulldozers, drills, explosives and trucks are important for digging into the land, especially in surface mining.

Underground mining, like continuous mining, tends to be more technologically sophisticated because of the dangers and expense of subsurface tunneling.

Trams are used to transport miners, minerals and waste. A tram, tramcar, trolley, trolley car, or streetcar is a railborne vehicle, of lighter weight and construction than a Train

Mining machinery manufacturers include Atlas Copco, Joy Mining Machinery, Bucyrus International, Caterpillar, Komatsu, Volvo, Hitachi, Terex, Dresser Industries, Kawasaki, Eimco Elecon India Limited, and Liebherr. Atlas Copco is a Swedish industrial company that was founded in 1873. Joy Mining Machinery is a manufacturer of surface and underground Mining Machinery based in Warrendale Pennsylvania, American. Bucyrus International Inc is a manufacturer of heavy mining equipment Caterpillar Inc ( is a United States -based Corporation headquartered in Peoria Illinois. For the city called Komatsu in Ishikawa prefecture Japan see Komatsu Ishikawa. This article is about Volvo Group - AB Volvo Volvo Cars is the passenger vehicle maker owned by Ford Motor Company, using the Volvo Trademark Hitachi Construction Machinery (Europe NV is a subsidiary of Hitachi Construction Machinery Group Terex Corporation is a diversified global manufacturer of a broad range of Heavy equipment for a variety of industries including construction infrastructure quarrying Dresser Industries was a Multinational corporation headquartered in Dallas, Texas, which provided a wide range of technology products and services used ( is an international corporation based in Japan. It has headquarters in both Chūō-ku, Kobe and Minato Tokyo. The Liebherr Group is a German manufacturer established in 1949 by Hans Liebherr headquartered in Biberach an der Riss, Baden-Württemberg.

Alaskan Placer Mining Trommel and Excavator at the Blue Ribbon Mine.

Placer mining is a type of surface mining, usually for gold, tin, and other metals, and gemstones. Placer mining (pronounced "plass-er" refers to the mining of alluvial deposits for Minerals This may be done by open-pit (also called open-cast Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 This article is about a music album For information about the minerals see Gemstone. Ore, typically unconsolidated gravels (alluvium), is fed into machinery that may consist of a hopper, shaking screen or trommel which frees the minerals from the gravels. Alluvium (from the Latin, alluvius, from alluere, "to wash against" is Soil or Sediments deposited by a river or other running Trommel is also used in music to refer to a Drum. A trommel (from the Dutch word for drum "trommel" is a screened cylinder The target minerals are then concentrated using sluices or jigs. A sluice is a water channel that is controlled at its head by a gate

Abandoned mines

Danger sign at an old Arizona mine.

The number of abandoned mines in the United States remains an unknown, ranging "from the National Park Service's tally of 2,500 on its lands, to the Mineral Policy Center's assessment of 560,000 abandoned mines on public and privately owned lands. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The National Park Service ( NPS) is the United States federal agency that manages all National Parks, many National Monuments, and other conservation " ^{[24] [25]} Many of these abandoned mines are associated with abandoned neighboring towns often referred to as ghost towns. A ghost town is a Town or City that has been abandoned usually because the economic activity that supported it has failed or due to natural or human-caused Experts strongly warn against entering or exploring old or abandoned mines.

In the U. S. , the estimation is that approximately 25% of the abandoned mine lands (AML) sites pose physical safety hazards. ^[26] Old mines are often dangerous and can contain deadly gases, snakes and other dangerous animals. A snake is an elongate Reptile of the suborder Serpentes Like all reptiles snakes are covered in scales. Since weather may have eroded the earth/rock surrounding it, the entrance to an old mine in particular can be very dangerous. Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Old mine workings, caves, etc. are commonly hazardous simply due to the lack of oxygen in the air (a condition in mines known as blackdamp). Blackdamp (also known as stythe or choke damp) is a mixture of unbreathable gases formed when oxygen is removed from an enclosed Atmosphere and largely Blackdamp is a deadly killer which provides no warning to any individual or group of individuals entering such an environment.

Every year, dozens are injured or killed in recreational accidents on mine property. It is only fair to note, however, that the majority of the deaths are unrelated to mine exploration. Drownings in open quarries and ATV accidents on abandoned mine properties are the main cause of accidental death. The U. S. Department of Labor notes that since 1999, "more than 200 people have died in recreational accidents at surface and underground active and abandoned operations across the country. " ^[27] Due to these circumstances, MSHA (Mine Safety and Health Administration) launched the "Stay Out – Stay Alive" campaign, which is a national public awareness campaign aimed at warning and educating children and adults about the dangers of exploring and playing on active and abandoned mine sites. The Mine Safety and Health Administration ( MSHA) is an agency of the United States Department of Labor which administers the provisions of the Federal Mine

In the U. S. , the Abandoned Mine Land Initiative, launched by the Western Governor's Association and the National Mining Association is also an effort focusing on reporting the number of high-priority AML sites. The National Mining Association (NMA is a trade organization that lists itself as the voice of the mining industry in Washington D ^[28] The initiative identifies, measures and reports on the progress of current reclamation cleanup programs on an annual basis. In the Americas region, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Chilean Copper Commission (COHILCO) co-hosted a workshop to address the problem of abandoned or "orphaned" mines. The UN Environment Programme (or UNEP) coordinates United Nations environmental activities assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies ^[29] Including a representative from the UN, ten countries were represented from North, Central and South America with an eleventh participant being Japan.

Records

• The deepest mine in the world: Savuka Mine in the North West Province, South Africa at 3,774 meters^[30]
  • East Rand Mine in Boksburg, South Africa briefly held the record at 3,585 meters
  • The first mine declared the deepest in the world was TauTona in Carletonville, South Africa at 3,581 meters. North West is a province of South Africa. Its capital is Mafikeng. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa East Rand Proprietary Mines (ERPM is a 100-year-old underground gold mining operation on the Witwatersrand Basin at Boksburg, to the east of Johannesburg Boksburg is a city on the East Rand of Gauteng, South Africa. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa TauTona is a Gold mine in South Africa. At some 36 kilometers deep it is currently home to the world's deepest mining operations Carletonville is a gold-mining town in western Gauteng, South Africa. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Plans exist to extend TauTona to a depth of 3,902 meters by July 2008, which will make it the deepest again. ^[30]
• The deepest open pit mine in the world: Bingham Canyon Mine in Bingham Canyon, Utah, USA at over 1,200 meters
• The largest and second deepest open pit copper mine in the world: Chuquicamata in Chuquicamata, Chile at 900 meters, 940. The Bingham Canyon Mine is an Open-pit mining operation extracting a large Porphyry copper deposit southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah, USA The Bingham Canyon Mine is an Open-pit mining operation extracting a large Porphyry copper deposit southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah, USA The State of Utah (ˈjuːtɔː or) is a western state of the United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Chuquicamata, or "Chuqui" as it is more familiarly known is a big open pit Copper mine in the north of Chile, 215 km northeast Chuquicamata, or "Chuqui" as it is more familiarly known is a big open pit Copper mine in the north of Chile, 215 km northeast Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the 600 Tons of fine copper and 17. 700 Tons of molybdenum
• The largest underground mine: El Teniente, in Rancagua, Chile, 2400 kilometers of underground drifts, 418. CODELCO ( Co rporación Nacional del Co bre de Chile or in English the National Copper Corporation of Chile is the Chilean State owned copper mining Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the 000 Tons of copper yearly
• The deepest mine in Europe: Pyhäsalmi Mine in Pyhäjärvi, Finland at 1,444 meters
• The second deepest mine in Europe: Boulby Mine England at 1,400 meters (shaft depth 1,100 meters)
• Sweden's largest underground mine: Kirunavaara mine in Kiruna, Sweden, 450 kilometers of roads, 40 million tonnes of ore produced yearly, depth 1270 meters. Pyhäsalmi Mine, the deepest metal mine in Europe (having depth of 1444 meters is located at the Pyhäjärvi municipality in the south of Oulu province Pyhäjärvi is a municipality in the south of Oulu province Finland. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Boulby Mine is a 200ha site run by Cleveland Potash located just south east of the village of Boulby, on the North East Coast of the North Yorkshire Moors in Cleveland England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Kiruna is the northernmost city of Sweden, situated in Lappland province with roughly inhabitants "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation.
• The deepest borehole in the world: Kola Superdeep Borehole at 12,262 meters. The Kola Superdeep Borehole (Кольская сверхглубокая скважина was the result of a Scientific drilling project of the former USSR. This, however, is not a matter of mining but rather related to scientific drilling. Scientific drilling is a way to probe down into the Earth allowing scientists and students to obtain samples of sediments crust and upper mantle

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

• Ali, Saleem H. (2003). Mining, the Environment and Indigenous Development Conflicts. Tucson AZ: University of Arizona Press.
• Bhattacharya Jayanta (2003) Principles of Mine Planning, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, India. 454 pages
• Morrison, Tom (1992) Hardrock Gold: A Miner's Tale (ISBN 0-8061-2442-3)
• Even-Zohar, Chaim (2007) From Mine to Mistress: Corporate Strategies and Government Policies in the International Diamond Industry (ISBN 0953733610)
• Geobacter Project: Gold mines may owe their origins to bacteria (in PDF format)
• Garrett, Dennis Alaska Placer Mining

External links

• Mining 101
• Glossary of terms
• Introduction to Mining
• What is mining?
• Mining