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Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility The history of antisemitism, hostile actions or discrimination against Jews as a religious or ethnic group goes back many centuries Jewish political movements refer to the organized efforts of Jews to build their own political parties or otherwise represent their interest in politics outside of History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the Labor Zionism ( Labour Zionism, ציונות סוציאליסטית tsionut sotsialistit) can be described as the major stream of the Left wing of the Revisionist Zionism is a nationalist faction within the Zionist movement Religious Zionism, or the Religious Zionist Movement (a branch of which is also called Mizrachi) is an ideology that combines Zionism and religious The General Zionists (ציונים כלליים Tzionim Klalim) were centrists within the Zionist movement and a political party in Israel World Agudath Israel (The World Jewish Union usually known as the Aguda, was established in the early twentieth century as the political arm of Ashkenazi Torah Judaism Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious legal and social status of women within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience Politics of Israel takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic Republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Israel is minhagim) is an accepted tradition or group of traditions in Judaism. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut A related concept, Nusach (Hebrew: נוסח), refers to the traditional order and form of the prayers. Nusach ( Hebrew: נוּסַח nosaħ, modern pronunciation nósakh or núsakh) is a concept in Judaism that has two distinct meanings Jewish services ( Hebrew: תפלה, tefillah; plural תפלות, tefillos or tefillot; Yinglish: davening
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Origin of word
The Hebrew root N-H-G (נ-ה-ג) means primarily "to drive" or, by extension, "to conduct (oneself)".
The actual word minhag appears twice in the Hebrew Bible, both times in the verse:
- And the watchman told, saying: 'He came even unto them, and cometh not back; and the driving (minhag) is like the driving (minhag) of Jehu the son of Nimshi; for he driveth furiously. The term Hebrew Bible is a generic reference to those books of the Bible originally written in Biblical Hebrew (and the related Biblical Aramaic ' (II Kings 9:20)
Homiletically, one could argue that the use of the word minhag in Jewish law reflects its Biblical Hebrew origins as "the (manner of) driving (a chariot)". Biblical Hebrew, also called Classical Hebrew, is an archaic form of the Hebrew language in which the Hebrew Bible and various Israelite inscriptions Whereas Halakha (law), from the word for walking-path, means the path or road set for the journey, minhag (custom), from the word for driving, means the manner people have developed themselves to travel down that path more quickly.
The present use of minhag for custom may have been influenced by the Arabic minhaj, though in current Islamic usage this term is used for the intellectual methodology of a scholar or school of thought (cf. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Hebrew derech) rather than for the customs of a local or ethnic community.
Minhag and Jewish law
Orthodox Jews consider Halakha, Jewish law as derived from the Talmud, binding upon all Jews. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history However, in addition to these halakhot, there have always been local customs and prohibitions. Some customs were eventually adopted universally (e. g. wearing a head covering) or almost universally (e. "Kipa" redirects here For the supermarket please see Kipa (supermarket. g. monogamy). Monogamy is the custom or condition of having only one mate in a Relationship, thus forming a Couple. Others are observed by some major segments of Jewry but not by others (e. g. , not eating rice on Passover). Kitniyot, qit'niyyoth (קִטְנִיּוֹת,קטניות, קיטניות (literally little things) are a category of foods defined by Jewish law and tradition Passover ( Hebrew, Yiddish: פֶּסַח Pesach, Tiberian: pɛsaħ Israeli: Pesah, Pesakh, Yiddish These Minhagim exist in various forms:
- Ancient minhagim go back to the time of the Talmud and earlier. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Today they are generally regarded as universally binding. The oldest recorded minhag is that of 'beating the Aravot' (Willow Branches) on Hoshanah Rabbah, and dates back to the era of the Prophets. Aravah ( Hebrew: ערבה pl aravot - ערבות is a leafy branch of the Willow tree Willows, sallows and osiers form the Genus Salix, around 400 species of Deciduous Trees and Shrubs found primarily The seventh day of the Jewish holiday of Sukkot, 21st day of Tishrei, is known as Hoshana Rabbah ( Aramaic: הוֹשַׁעְנָא רַבָּא In Religion, a prophet (or prophetess) is a person who has encountered the Supernatural or the divine and serves as an intermediary
- Later minhagim are followed by specific groups.
- Jews whose ancestors continued to live in the Middle East and Africa, until the establishment of the State of Israel, regardless of where they live now tend to follow a variety of customs such as Mizrahi-Sephardi or Temani. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Mizrahi Jews or Mizrahim, ( also referred to as Edot HaMizrach (Communities of the East are Jews descended Sephardic Judaism is the practice of Judaism as observed by the Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews, so far as it is peculiar to themselves and not shared with other Jewish Yemenite Jews ( Hebrew: תֵּימָנִים, Standard Temanim Tiberian Têmānîm By like token, Jews whose ancestors lived in Central Europe in the Middle Ages (regardless of where they live now) tend to follow Ashkenazic customs, while those whose families originated in the Iberian peninsula generally follow Sephardic customs. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing Sephardic Judaism is the practice of Judaism as observed by the Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews, so far as it is peculiar to themselves and not shared with other Jewish (The Talmud gives detailed rules for people who visit or move to a locale where the custom differs from their own. ) Hasidim tend to follow their own Minhagim. Hasidic Judaism (also Chasidic, etc from the Hebrew: he '''''חסידות''''', Chassidus, meaning "piety" from the Hebrew
- Within these broad categories there are also sub-groups by origin (e. g. Lithuanian or Polish or German customs), by location (e. Lithuanian Jews (known in Yiddish and Yeshivish as Litvish (adjective or Litvaks (noun are Ashkenazi Jews with roots in the The history of the Jews in Poland dates back over a Millennium. Jews have lived in Germany, or " Ashkenaz " at least since the early 4th century, through both periods of tolerance and spasms of g. "minhag Yerushalayim") or by branch (e. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the g. Skverrer Hasidim follow different customs than Chabad Hasidim). Skver (also Skvir or Skwere; סקווירא) is the name of a Hasidic dynasty founded by Rebbe Yitzchok Twerski in the city of Hasidic Judaism (also Chasidic, etc from the Hebrew: he '''''חסידות''''', Chassidus, meaning "piety" from the Hebrew Chabad-Lubavitch is one of the largest Hasidic movements in Orthodox Judaism, and is based in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn Hasidic Judaism (also Chasidic, etc from the Hebrew: he '''''חסידות''''', Chassidus, meaning "piety" from the Hebrew
- Families and even individuals may adhere to specific minhagim not followed by others.
Discussion in Rabbinic literature
Various sources in Rabbinic literature stress the importance of a long-held tradition, culminating in the statement "the minhag of our fathers is [equivalent to] Torah" (e. Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense can mean the entire spectrum of Rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history g. Tosafot to Menahot 20b s. The Tosafot or Tosafos (תוספות are Mediæval commentaries on the Talmud. This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name v. nifsal). Custom can thus determine halachic practice in cases of disagreement among rabbinic authorities. In numerous instances, Rabbi Moses Isserles warns that one should not abolish long-held customs. Rabbi (pronunciation, although in English usually) in Judaism, means a religious ‘teacher’ or more literally ‘my great one’ when addressing any master Moses Isserles is commonly known as "the Rema" ( Hebrew: רמ"א (Isserles' gloss on the Shulchan Aruch was, in fact, written so as to delineate Ashkenazi Minhagim alongside Sephardi practices in the same code of law. This article is about the literary term For other uses see Gloss (disambiguation. The Shulchan Aruch (שולחן ערוך literally " Set Table " (also Shulhan Aruch or Shulchan Arukh) is a Codification Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing Sephardi Jews ( Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Səfardi Tiberian Səp̄arədî; plural Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law )
Despite the above, a minhag does not override clear biblical or talmudic enactments, and one may not transgress the latter for the sake of the former. In fact, any minhag that intrinsically involves an element of halakha violation is considered null and void (see Or Zarua 1:7). Isaac ben Moses of Vienna (also called Isaac Or Zarua or the Riaz; Hebrew: Yitzchak ben Moshe) was one of the greatest Rabbis of the
The Talmud (Pesachim 50) rules that a valid minhag accepted by previous generations of a family or community is binding upon all later generations. The Rosh (Makom Shenahagu, 3) states that the Talmud's ruling fundamentally applies to practices undertaken by learned individuals; innovations by the unlearned need only be followed publicly. Asher ben Jehiel ( Hebrew, אשר בן יחיאל, or Asher ben Yechiel sometimes Asheri) (1250 or 1259 &ndash 1328 was an eminent Rabbi and Other halakhic authorities hold that the Talmud's ruling applies to all valid practices initiated by either learned or unlearned individuals (for discussion of this point see Bach and Beit Yosef to Yoreh Deah 214; Shach, ibid. Yoel Sirkis, (1561-1640 also known as the Bach - an abbreviation of his magnum opus Bayit Chadash - was a prominent Jewish Posek and halakhist Yosef ben Ephraim Caro (sometimes Joseph Caro) (1488 ( Portugal) - March 24, 1575 ( Safed, Ottoman Empire) was one of the Yoreh De'ah is a section of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher 's compilation of Halakha (Jewish law Arba'ah Turim. , 214:7).
In most cases, personal acceptance of a new minhag is tantamount to vowing performance of that minhag. A vow ( Lat votum, vow promise see Vote) is a promise or Oath. Consequently, abandonment of such a minhag typically requires hatarat nedarim or sh'eilat chakham, halakhic procedures for absolving oneself from oaths. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law This was often necessary when, for example, an Ashkenazi Jew moved to the Ottoman Empire and wished to join the local Sephardi community. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish
Changing minhagim
Jewish law provides for a number of mechanisms to change or remove a custom when it is held to be mistaken or illogical. (See Tosafot on Talmud Pesachim 51a; Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Issurei Biah; Be'er Heitev, Orach Chaim 182 in Hilchot Birkat Ha'mazon, Orach Chaim 653 in Hilchot Lulav, Orach Chaim 551:4 in Hilchot Tisha B'av. The Tosafot or Tosafos (תוספות are Mediæval commentaries on the Talmud. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and The Mishneh Torah ( Hebrew: משנה תורה subtitled Sefer Yad ha-Chazaka (יד החזקה is a code of Jewish Religious law Orach Chayim is a section of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher 's compilation of Halakha (Jewish law Arba'ah Turim. ) Orthodox rabbi and historian of Jewish law Menachem Elon writes:
- Custom, because of its spontaneous and undirected nature, sometimes call for a measure of supervision and control. Menachem Elon (born 1923 an Israeli jurist who served as a justice on the Israeli Supreme Court (1977-1993 and its Deputy President (1988-1993 At times a custom may be founded on error, or develop unreasonably or illogically in a certain direction, or may even be in conflict with substantive and fundamental principles of Jewish law in a manner leaving no room for its integration into the system. From time to time the halakhic scholars exercised such control in order to contain or discredit entirely a particular custom.
- ("The Principles of Jewish Law", single volume English edition)
Present day
The acute displacement brought about by World War II and the Holocaust, and the large-scale immigration to the United States, various European countries, and especially the State of Israel, have led to a "liberal mixing" of various minhagim, and arguably the falling into disuse of certain customs. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as Immigration refers to the movement of people among countries While the movement of people has existed throughout human history at various levels modern immigration implies long-term The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. In addition, the baal teshuva movement has created a large group who have no clear tradition from their parents. See also Repentance in Judaism Baal teshuva ( Hebrew: he בעל תשובה; for a woman he בעלת תשובה baalat/baalas teshuva; In response to these phenomena, certain scholars have focused on the minhagim, and attempts have been made to revive minhagim that have fallen into disuse. Posek ( Hebrew פוסק po·ˈseq pl Poskim, פוסקים is the term in Jewish law for "decider"—a legal scholar who decides the
Nusach
Nusach (properly nósach) primarily means "text" or "version", in other words the correct wording of a religious text. Nusach ( Hebrew: נוּסַח nosaħ, modern pronunciation nósakh or núsakh) is a concept in Judaism that has two distinct meanings Thus the nusach tefillah is the text of the prayers, either generally or as used by a particular community. In common use nusach has come to signify the entire liturgical tradition of the community, including the musical rendition. It is narrower than minhag, which can refer to custom in any field, not necessarily that of communal prayer.
Both nusach and minhag can thus be used for liturgic rite or liturgic tradition, though sometimes a nusach appears to be a subdivision of a minhag or vice versa; see Different Jewish rites and Popular siddurim under Siddur. A siddur ( Hebrew: סידור plural siddurim) is a Jewish Prayer book, containing a set order of daily prayers. A siddur ( Hebrew: סידור plural siddurim) is a Jewish Prayer book, containing a set order of daily prayers. A siddur ( Hebrew: סידור plural siddurim) is a Jewish Prayer book, containing a set order of daily prayers. In general one must pray according to one's "nusach of origin", unless one has formally joined a different community and accepted its minhag. (Perisha rules that if one abandons a nusach that has been accepted universally by the wider Jewish community, his prayer is disqualified and must be repeated using the accepted nusach: Arba'ah Turim, Orach Chayim, 120 ad loc). Drisha redirects here For the center for advanced Talmudic studies for women see the Drisha Institute. Arba'ah Turim (ארבעה טורים often called simply the Tur, is an important Halakhic code, composed by Yaakov ben Asher Orach Chayim is a section of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher 's compilation of Halakha (Jewish law Arba'ah Turim.
The main segments of traditional Judaism, as differentiated by nusach (broadly and narrowly), are:
- Minhag Sefarad: in general refers to the various Sephardi liturgies, but also to obligation/permissibility of Kabbalistic elements within the rite. Sephardic Judaism is the practice of Judaism as observed by the Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews, so far as it is peculiar to themselves and not shared with other Jewish Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. Versions of this are:
- The rite of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews
- Nusach Morocco (Moroccan rite: there are differences between the Spanish-Moroccan and the Arab-Moroccan customs)
- Nusach ha-Chida (The Chida's rite, named after Rabbi Chaim Joseph David Azulai: often used by North African Jews)
- Nusach Livorno (Sephardic rite from nineteenth-century editions printed in Italy, often used by North African Jews)
- Minhag Edot hamizrach: often used to mean the Baghdadi rite, is more or less influenced by the Sephardi minhag. Spanish and Portuguese Jews are a distinctive sub-group of Sephardim who have their main ethnic origins within the crypto-Jewish communities of the Iberian Rabbi Chaim Joseph David ben Isaac Zerachia Azulai (1724 &ndash 21 March 1807) ( Hebrew: חיים יוסף דוד אזולאי Sephardic Judaism is the practice of Judaism as observed by the Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews, so far as it is peculiar to themselves and not shared with other Jewish
- Nusach Teiman (see Yemenite Jews): can be subdivided into:
- Minhag Italiani, see Bené Roma
- Minhag Romania, the rite of the Romaniotes, that is the original Greek Jewish community as distinct from the Sephardim
- Nusach Ashkenaz: the general Ashkenazi rite of non-Chasidim. Yemenite Jews ( Hebrew: תֵּימָנִים, Standard Temanim Tiberian Têmānîm Yemenite Jews ( Hebrew: תֵּימָנִים, Standard Temanim Tiberian Têmānîm Yemenite Jews ( Hebrew: תֵּימָנִים, Standard Temanim Tiberian Têmānîm The Romaniotes ( Greek: Ρωμανιώτες, Rōmaniōtes are a Jewish population who have lived in the territory of today's Greece and Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing Hasidic Judaism (also Chasidic, etc from the Hebrew: he '''''חסידות''''', Chassidus, meaning "piety" from the Hebrew Can be subdivided into:
- Minhag Ashkenaz (German rite)
- Minhag Polin/Lita (Polish/Lithuanian/Prague rite)
- Nusach Sefard or Nusach Ari (Ashkenazi Chasidic rite, heavily influenced by the teachings of Sephardi Kabbalists)
External links and resources
- References
- Custom, jewishencyclopedia. Nusach Sefard is the name for various forms of the Jewish Siddur, designed to reconcile Ashkenazi customs (Hebrew מנהג "Custom" pl Nusach Ari means in a general sense any prayer rite following the usages of Rabbi Isaac Luria, the AriZal, in the 16th century, and more particularly Hasidic Judaism (also Chasidic, etc from the Hebrew: he '''''חסידות''''', Chassidus, meaning "piety" from the Hebrew Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. com
- The Rules of Halacha, Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan
- Minhag: A Custom with the Status of Law, jewfaq. Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan (1934-January 281983 was a noted American Orthodox Rabbi and author with a background in both Physics and Judaism org
- Customs (Minhagim), nishmat. net
- Resources
- Rabbinic literature
- Minhagei Maharil, Rabbi Yaakov ben Moshe Levi Moelin (Maharil), 1556. Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense can mean the entire spectrum of Rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history Jacob b Moses Moelin (יעקב בן משה מולין c 1365 &ndash 1427 was a Talmudist and Posek (authority on Jewish law) best known for
- "Sefer HaMinhagim" (Hebrew Fulltext, PDF) Rabbi Isaac Tyrnau, 1566. Isaac Tyrnau was an Austrian (or Hungarian) Rabbi, active in the late 14th century he is most famous for his Sefer haMinhagim (Book of Customs
- "Ta'amei HaMinhagim", Rabbi A. I. Sperling, 1896; translation: "Reasons for Jewish customs and traditions". Bloch Pub. Co 1968. ISBN 0-8197-0184-X
- "Likutei Maharich". Rabbi Yisroel Chaim Freedman of Rachov.
- "Sefer HaMinhagim", Rabbis M. Greenglass and Y. Groner, 1966; translation: “The Book of Chabad-Lubavitch Customs”. Sichos In English Pub. 1998. ISBN 0-8266-0555-9 [1]
- "Otzar Ta'amei ha-Minhagim", Rabbi Shmuel Gelbard, 1995; translation: "Rite and Reason" Feldheim Pub. 1997 ISBN 0-87306-889-0
- General
- "The Biblical and Historical Background of Jewish Customs and Ceremonies", Rabbi Abraham Bloch. Ktav 1980. ISBN 0-87068-658-5
- "The Minhagim: The Customs and Ceremonies of Judaism, Their Origins and Rationale", Rabbi Abraham Chill. Sepher Hermon 1978. ISBN 0-87203-077-6
- "To Be a Jew: A Guide to Jewish Observance in Contemporary Life", Rabbi Hayim Donin. Basic Books 1991. ISBN 0-465-08632-2
- "Jewish Book of Why", Rabbi Alfred Kolatch. Jonathan David 1995. ISBN 0-8246-0314-1
- "Minhagei Yisrael: Origins and History", Rabbi Daniel Sperber. Rabbi Dr Daniel Sperber is a professor of Talmud at Bar-Ilan University in Israel, and an expert in Classical philology, history of Jewish Mossad Harav Kook, 1998.
- "The Complete Book of Jewish Observance", Rabbi Leo Trepp. Behrman House Publishing 1980. ISBN 0-671-41797-5
- "Jewish Spiritual Practices", Yitzhak Buxbaum. Jason Aronson Inc. 1994. ISBN 0-87668-832-6 (hardcover) ISBN 1-56821-206-2 (paperback)
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