Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the Sciences related to the planet Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties In Mineralogy and Crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal. Optical mineralogy is the study of Minerals by measuring their optical properties A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization.

Contents 1 History 1.1 Europe and the Middle East 1.1.1 Pliny the Elder 1.1.2 Georgius Agricola, 'Father of Mineralogy' 1.2 China and the Far East 1.2.1 Theories of Shen Kuo 2 Modern mineralogy 2.1 Physical mineralogy 2.2 Chemical mineralogy 2.3 Biomineralogy 2.4 Optical mineralogy 2.5 Crystal structure 2.6 Formation environments 2.7 Uses 2.8 Descriptive mineralogy 2.9 Determinative mineralogy 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links

History

Early speculation, study, and theory of mineralogy was written of in ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and noted in the prana of Sanskrit texts from ancient India. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital In modern Olympic and amateur Wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical ^[1] They included the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder which not only described many different minerals but also explained many of their properties. Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-Renaissance Europe. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere ^[2] The credible study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of crystallography and microscopic study of rock sections with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of Atoms in Solids In older usage it is the scientific study of Crystals The Microscopic is a term used to describe objects smaller than those that can easily be seen by the naked Eye and which require a lens or Microscope to see A microscope ( Greek: ( micron) = small + ( skopein) = to look or see is an instrument for viewing objects that are ^[2]

Europe and the Middle East

The ancient Greek writers Aristotle (384–322 BC) and Theophrastus (370-285 BC) were the first in the Western tradition to write of minerals and their properties, as well as metaphysical explanations for them. Theophrastus ( Greek:; 371 – c 287 BC a Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Events By place Greece Lysias, the Athenian orator on the occasion of the Olympiad, rebukes the Greeks for allowing Events By place Macedonian Empire In Babylon, the struggle for the succession to Alexander the Great develops Theophrastus ( Greek:; 371 – c 287 BC a Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic Events By place Greece Cleomenes II succeeds his brother Agesipolis II as Agiad king of Sparta. Events By place Egypt June 26 - Egypt's Ptolemy I Soter abdicates Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote his Meteorologica, and in it theorized that all the known substances were composed of water, air, earth, and fire, with the properties of dryness, dampness, heat, and cold. Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Meteorology (or "Meteorologica" is a text by Aristotle which contains his theories about the earth sciences ^[3] The Greek philosopher and botanist Theophrastus wrote his De Mineralibus, which accepted Aristotle's view, and divided minerals into two categories: those affected by heat and those affected by dampness. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life ^[3]

The metaphysical emanation and exhalation (anathumiaseis) theory of the Greek philosopher Aristotle included early speculation on earth sciences including mineralogy. According to his theory, while metals were supposed to be congealed by means of moist exhalation, dry gaseous exhalation (pneumatodestera) was the efficient material cause of minerals found in the earth's soil. ^[4] He postulated these ideas by using the examples of moisture on the surface of the earth (a moist vapor 'potentially like water'), while the other was from the earth itself, pertaining to the attributes of hot, dry, smoky, and highly combustible ('potentially like fire'). ^[4] Aristotle's metaphysical theory from times of antiquity had wide-ranging influence on similar theory found in later medieval Europe, as the historian Berthelot notes:

The theory of exhalations was the point of departure for later ideas on the generation of metals in the earth, which we meet with Proclus, and which reigned throughout the middle ages. Proclus Lycaeus ( February 8, c 411 &ndash April 17, 485) called "The Successor" or "Diadochos" ( Greek Próklos ^[1]

With philosophers such as Proclus, the theory of Neoplatonism also spread to the Islamic world during the Middle Ages, providing a basis for metaphyiscal ideas on mineralogy in the medieval Middle East as well. Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The medieval Islamic scientists expanded upon this as well, including the Persian scientist Ibn Sina (ابوعلى سينا/پورسينا‎) (980-1037 AD), who rejected alchemy and the earlier notion of Greek metaphysics that metallic and other elements could be transformed into one another. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Events By Place Europe Otto II renounces his claim to Lorraine. Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of ^[1] However, what was largely accurate of the ancient Greek and medieval metaphysical ideas on mineralogy was the slow chemical change in composition of the earth's crust. ^[1] There was also the Islamic scientist Jabir ibn Hayyan (721-815 AD), who was the first to bring experimental method into alchemy. For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Former Byzantine emperor Anastasius II leads a revolt against emperor Leo III. For the area code see Area code 815. For the fictional airline flight see Oceanic Flight 815. Aided by Greek pythagorean mathematics, he discovered the syntheses for hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, distillation, and crystallization (the latter two being essential for the understanding of modern mineralogy). Hydrochloric acid is the Solution of Hydrogen chloride ( H[[Chlorine Cl]] in water Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Crystallization is the (natural or artificial process of formation of solid Crystals precipitating from a homogeneous --> identical Solution

Ancient Greek terminology of minerals has also stuck through the ages with widespread usage in modern times. Muscovite (also known as Common Mica, Isinglass, or Potash mica) is a phyllosilicate Mineral of Aluminium For example, the Greek word asbestos (meaning 'inextinguishable', or 'unquenchable'), for the unusual mineral known today containing fibrous structure. Asbestos is a group of Minerals with long thin fibrous Crystals The word "asbestos" (῾ἀσβεστος is derived from a Greek adjective Fiber or fibre is a class of Materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces similar to lengths of thread. ^[5] The ancient historians Strabo (63 BC-19 AD) and Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) both wrote of asbestos, its qualities, and its origins, with the Hellenistic belief that it was of a type of vegetable. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Year 63 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Pompey conquers Phonecia, Coele-Syria Year 19 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author This article is about the year AD 23 For other uses see 23 (number, 23 (numerology, or 23 (disambiguation. Year 79 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however ^[5] Pliny the Elder listed it as a mineral common in India, while the historian Yu Huan (239-265 AD) of China listed this 'fireproof cloth' as a product of ancient Rome or Arabia (Chinese: Daqin). Yu Huan (fl 3rd century) was a Chinese Scholar and Author from the Cao Wei. Events By Place Asia In the Chinese Kingdom of Wei, Wei Qi Wang succeeds Wei Ming Di. Events By Place Roman Empire Gallienus repels the invasion of the Goths in the Balkans. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) Daqin ( is the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire and the Near East. ^[5] Although documentation of these minerals in ancient times does not fit the manner of modern scientific classification, there was nonetheless extensive written work on early mineralogy.

Pliny the Elder

For example, Pliny devoted 5 entire volumes of his work Naturalis Historia (77 AD) to the classification of "earths, metals, stones, and gems". The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder. ^[6] He not only describes many minerals not known to Theophrastus, but discusses their applications and properties. Theophrastus ( Greek:; 371 – c 287 BC a Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic He is the first to correctly recognise the origin of amber for example, as the fossilized remnant of tree resin from the observation of insects trapped in some samples. Amber is Fossil tree Resin, which is appreciated for its color and beauty He laid the basis of crystallography by discussing crystal habit, especially the octahedral shape of diamond. Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of Atoms in Solids In older usage it is the scientific study of Crystals The In Mineralogy, shape and size give rise to descriptive terms applied to the typical appearance or habit of Crystals The many terms used by mineralogists An octahedron (plural octahedra is a Polyhedron with eight faces In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in His discussion of mining methods is unrivalled in the ancient world, and includes, for example, an eye-witness account of gold mining in northern Spain, an account which is fully confirmed by modern research. A witness is someone who has firsthand knowledge about a Crime or dramatic event through their Senses (e "Gold mine" redirects here See Goldmine for other uses of the term Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.

However, before the more definitive foundational works on mineralogy in the 16th century, the ancients recognized no more than roughly 350 minerals to list and describe. ^[7]

Georgius Agricola, 'Father of Mineralogy'

In the early 16th century AD, the writings of the German scientist Georg Bauer, pen-name Georgius Agricola (1494-1555 AD), in his Bermannus, sive de re metallica dialogus (1530) is considered to be the official establishment of mineralogy in the modern sense of its study. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Georgius Agricola ( March 24, 1494 – November 21, 1555) was a German scholar and scientist He wrote the treatise while working as a town physician and making observations in Joachimsthal, which was then a center for mining and metallurgic smelting industries. For other places called Joachimsthal see Joachimsthal (disambiguation Jáchymov (ˈjaxɪmof in German originally Thal, later Sankt Joachimsthal Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their Chemical reduction, or smelting, is a form of Extractive metallurgy. In 1544, he published his written work De ortu et causis subterraneorum, which is considered to be the foundational work of modern physical geology. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit In it (much like Ibn Sina) he heavily criticized the theories laid out by the ancient Greeks such as Aristotle. His work on mineralogy and metallurgy continued with the publication of De veteribus et novis metallis in 1546, and culminated in his best known works, the De re metallica of 1556. De re metallica ( Latin for On the Nature of Metals (Minerals) is a book cataloging the state of the art of Mining, refining and Smelting It was an impressive work outlining applications of mining, refining, and smelting metals, alongside discussions on geology of ore bodies, surveying, mine construction, and ventilation. Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body Chemical reduction, or smelting, is a form of Extractive metallurgy. Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between He praises Pliny the Elder for his pioneering work Naturalis Historia and makes extensive references to his discussion of minerals and mining methods. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder. For the next two centuries this written work remained the authoritative text on mining in Europe.

Agricola had many various theories on mineralogy based on empirical observation, including understanding of the concept of ore channels that were formed by the circulation of ground waters ('succi') in fissures subsequent to the deposition of the surrounding rocks. An ore is a volume of rock containing components or Minerals in a mode of occurrence that renders it valuable for mining In Anatomy, fissure ( Latin fissura, Plural fissurae) is a groove natural division deep furrow cleft or tear in various parts of ^[8] As will be noted below, the medieval Chinese previously had conceptions of this as well.

For his works, Agricola is posthumously known as the "Father of Mineralogy".

After the foundational work written by Agricola, it is widely agreed by the scientific community that the Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia of Anselmus de Boodt (1550-1632) of Bruges is the first definitive work of modern mineralogy. Anselmus de Boodt (also Anselmus Boëtius de Boodt) ( Bruges, 1550 - Bruges, 21 June 1632) was a Belgian Mineralogist Bruges (Brugge is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders in the Flemish Region of Belgium. ^[7] The German mining chemist J. A chemist is a Scientist trained in the Science of Chemistry. F. Henckel wrote his Flora Saturnisans of 1760, which was the first treatise in Europe to deal with geobotanical minerals, although the Chinese had mentioned this in earlier treatises of 1421 and 1664. ^[9] In addition, the Chinese writer Du Wan made clear references to weathering and erosion processes in his Yun Lin Shi Pu of 1133, long before Agricola's work of 1546. ^[10]

China and the Far East

In ancient China, the oldest literary listing of minerals dates back to at least the 4th century BC, with the Ji Ni Zi book listing twenty four of them. ^[11] Chinese ideas of metaphysical mineralogy span back to at least the ancient Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD). Events By place Carthage Accused of treason by the Carthaginians after being defeated by the Romans at the Battle of the Events By Place Roman Empire The Goths invade Asia Minor and the Balkans. From the 2nd century BC text of the Huai Nan Zi, the Chinese used ideological Taoist terms to describe meteorology, precipitation, different types of minerals, metallurgy, and alchemy. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary In Meteorology, precipitation (also known as one class of hydrometeors, which are atmospheric water phenomena is any product of the condensation of atmospheric ^[12] Although the understanding of these concepts in Han times was Taoist in nature, the theories proposed were similar to the Aristotelian theory of mineralogical exhalations (noted above). ^[12] By 122 BC, the Chinese had thus formulated the theory for metamorphosis of minerals, although it is noted by historians such as Dubs that the tradition of alchemical-mineralogical Chinese doctrine stems back to the School of Naturalists headed by the philosopher Zou Yan (305 BC-240 BC). Zou Yan ( 305 BC - 240 BC was the representative thinker of the School of Yin-Yang (or School of Naturalists during the Hundred Schools of Thought era in Chinese Events By place Seleucid Empire Seleucus establishes Seleucia on the Tigris River as his capital Events By place Carthage Two of Carthage 's Mercenary commanders — Spendius and Mathos — convince the ^[13] Within the broad categories of rocks and stones (shi) and metals and alloys (jin), by Han times the Chinese had hundreds (if not thousands) of listed types of stones and minerals, along with theories for how they were formed. ^[13][14]

In the 5th century AD, Prince Qian Ping Wang of the Liu Song Dynasty wrote in the encyclopedia Tai-ping Yu Lan (circa 444 AD, from the lost book Dian Shu, or Management of all Techniques):

The most precious things in the world are stored in the innermost regions of all. The Song Dynasty (宋朝 Pinyin: Sòng cháo Wade-Giles: Sung ( 420 – 479) was first of the four Southern Dynasties in China For example, there is orpiment. Orpiment, As2S3, is a common Monoclinic Arsenic Sulfide mineral After a thousand years it changes into realgar. Realgar, α -As4S4 is an Arsenic Sulfide mineral It is a soft sectile mineral occurring in Monoclinic crystals or in After another thousand years the realgar becomes transformed into yellow gold. ^[15]

In ancient and medieval China, mineralogy became firmly tied to empirical observations in pharmaceutics and medicine. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the For example, the famous horologist and mechanical engineer Su Song (1020-1101 AD) of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) wrote of mineralogy and pharmacology in his Ben Cao Tu Jing of 1070. Horology (from Greek ώρα, "hour time" and λόγος Logos, "study speech" lit An engineer is a person professionally engaged in a field of Engineering. Su Song ( style name: Zirong 子容 (1020&ndash1101 AD was a renowned Chinese statesman, astronomer, cartographer, The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Events By Place Europe Edgar the Peaceable is crowned King of England. Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs In it he created a systematic approach to listing various different minerals and their use in medicinal concoctions, such as all the variously known forms of mica that could be used to cure various ills through digestion. The word "mica" is thought to be derived from the Latin word la micare, "glitteren" in reference to the brilliant appearance of this mineral (especially Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed ^[16] Su Song also wrote of the subconchoidal fracture of native cinnabar, signs of ore beds, and provided description on crystal form. Cinnabar, sometimes written cinnabarite, is a name applied to red Mercury(II sulfide ( Hg[[sulfide S]] or native Vermilion, the common ^[8] Similar to the ore channels formed by circulation of ground water mentioned above with the German scientist Agricola, Su Song made similar statements concerning copper carbonate, as did the earlier Ri Hua Ben Cao of 970 AD with copper sulfate. Copper(II carbonate (often called copper carbonate or cupric carbonate) is a blue-green compound (chemical formula CuCO3 forming part of the ^[8]

The Yuan Dynasty scientist Zhang Si-xiao (died 1332 AD) provided a groundbreaking treatise on the conception of ore beds from the circulation of ground waters and rock fissures, two centuries before Georgius Agricola would come to similar conclusions. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai ^[17] In his Suo-Nan Wen Ji, he applies this theory in describing the deposition of minerals by evaporation of (or precipitation from) ground waters in ore channels. Evaporation is the process by which Molecules in a Liquid state (e ^[14]

In addition to alchemical theory posed above, later Chinese writers such as the Ming Dynasty physician Li Shizhen (1518-1593 AD) wrote of mineralogy in similar terms of Aristotle's metaphysical theory, as the latter wrote in his pharmaceutical treatise Běncǎo Gāngmù (本草綱目, Compendium of Materia Medica, 1596). The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Li Shizhen ( 1518–1593 Courtesy name Dongbi (东璧 was one of the greatest Physicians and Pharmacologists in Chinese history Bencao Gangmu ( also known as Compendium of Materia Medica, is a Chinese materia medica work written by Li Shizhen in Ming ^[1] Another figure from the Ming era, the famous geographer Xu Xiake (1587-1641) wrote of mineral beds and mica schists in his treatise. A geographer is a Scientist whose area of study is Geography, the study of Earth 's physical environment and Human habitat Xu Xiake ( January 5 1587 — March 8 1641) born Xu Hongzu (徐弘祖 Courtesy name Zhenzhi (振之 ^[18] However, while European literature on mineralogy became wide and varied, the writers of the Ming and Qing dynasties wrote little of the subject (even compared to Chinese of the earlier Song era). Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China The only other works from these two eras worth mentioning were the Shi Pin (Hierarchy of Stones) of Yu Jun in 1617, the Guai Shi Lu (Strange Rocks) of Song Luo in 1665, and the Guan Shi Lu (On Looking at Stones) in 1668. ^[18] However, one figure from the Song era that is worth mentioning above all is Shen Kuo.

Theories of Shen Kuo

The medieval Chinese Song Dynasty statesman and scientist Shen Kuo (1031-1095 AD) wrote of his land formation theory involving concepts of mineralogy. Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese In his Meng Xi Bi Tan (梦溪笔谈; Dream Pool Essays, 1088), Shen formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation (geomorphology); based on his observation of marine fossil shells in a geological stratum in the Taihang Mountains hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean. The Dream Pool Essays ( Pinyin: Meng Xi Bi Tan; Wade-Giles: Meng Ch'i Pi T'an Chinese: 夢溪筆談／梦溪笔谈 Geomorphology (from Greek: γη ge, "earth" μορφή morfé, "form" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" Marine is an Umbrella term. As an adjective it is usually applicable to things relating to the Sea or Ocean, such as Marine biology, Marine FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. The Taihang Mountains ( are a Chinese Mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Henan, Shanxi and Hebei The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions ^[19] He inferred that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt, and described soil erosion, sedimentation and uplift. Silt is Soil or rock derived Granular material of a Grain size between sand and clay Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Sedimentation describes the motion of Molecules in Solutions or particles in suspensions in response to an external force such as gravity ^[20] In an earlier work of his (circa 1080), he wrote of a curious fossil of a sea-orientated creature found far inland. ^[21] It is also of interest to note that the contemporary author of the Xi Chi Cong Yu attributed the idea of particular places under the sea where serpents and crabs were petrified to one Wang Jinchen. With Shen Kuo's writing of the discovery of fossils, he formulated a hypothesis for the shifting of geographical climates throughout time. Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences ^[22] This was due to hundreds of petrified bamboos found underground in the dry climate of northern China, once an enormous landslide upon the bank of a river revealed them. In Geology, petrifaction or petrification is the process by which Organic material is converted into stone or a similar substance without Bamboo is a group of Woody perennial Evergreen Plants in the True grass family Poaceae, subfamily ^[22] Shen theorized that in pre-historic times, the climate of Yanzhou must have been very rainy and humid like southern China, where bamboos are suitable to grow. ^[22]

In a similar way, the historian Joseph Needham likened Shen's account with the Scottish scientist Roderick Murchison (1792-1871), who was inspired to become a geologist after observing a providential landslide. Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham, CH, FRS, FBA ( December 9, 1900 – March 24 1995) was a British The Scots people ( Scots Gaelic: Albannaich) are a Nation and an Ethnic group indigenous to Scotland. Sir Roderick Impey Murchison 1st Baronet KCB FRS ( 19 February, 1792 &ndash 22 October, 1871) was an influential Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In addition, Shen's description of sedimentary deposition predated that of James Hutton, who wrote his groundbreaking work in 1802 (considered the foundation of modern geology). James Hutton MD (3 June 1726 OS (14 June 1726 NS) Edinburgh 26 March 1797 was a Scottish Geologist, ^[10] The influential philosopher Zhu Xi (1130-1200) wrote of this curious natural phenomena of fossils as well, and was known to have read the works of Shen Kuo. Zhu Xi or Chu Hsi (朱熹 born October 18, 1130, Yuxi, Fujian province China &ndash died April 23, 1200 ^[23] In comparison, the first mentioning of fossils found in the West was made nearly two centuries later with Louis IX of France in 1253 AD, who discovered fossils of marine animals (as recorded in Joinville's records of 1309 AD). ^[24]

Modern mineralogy

Historically, mineralogy was heavily concerned with taxonomy of the rock-forming minerals; to this end, the International Mineralogical Association is an organization whose members represent mineralogists in individual countries. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos The International Mineralogical Association ( IMA) is an international group of 38 national societies Its activities include managing the naming of minerals (via the Commission of New Minerals and Mineral Names), location of known minerals, etc. As of 2004 there are over 4,000 species of mineral recognized by the IMA. It is currently not possible to have a "complete list of minerals". Of these, perhaps 150 can be called "common," another 50 are "occasional," and the rest are "rare" to "extremely rare. "

More recently, driven by advances in experimental technique (such as neutron diffraction) and available computational power, the latter of which has enabled extremely accurate atomic-scale simulations of the behaviour of crystals, the science has branched out to consider more general problems in the fields of inorganic chemistry and solid-state physics. Neutron diffraction is a crystallographic method for the determination of the atomic and/or magnetic structure of a material Inorganic chemistry is the branch of Chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of Inorganic compounds This field covers all Chemical compounds Solid-state physics, the largest branch of Condensed matter physics, is the study of rigid Matter, or Solids The bulk of solid-state physics theory and It, however, retains a focus on the crystal structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals (such as the perovskites, clay minerals and framework silicates). A perovskite is any material with the same type of Crystal structure as Calcium titanium oxide (CaTiO3 known as the perovskite structure Clay minerals are hydrous Aluminium phyllosilicates, sometimes with variable amounts of Iron, Magnesium, Alkali metals Alkaline The silicate minerals make up the largest and most important class of rock-forming Minerals They are classified based on the structure of their silicate Ion group In particular, the field has made great advances in the understanding of the relationship between the atomic-scale structure of minerals and their function; in nature, prominent examples would be accurate measurement and prediction of the elastic properties of minerals, which has led to new insight into seismological behaviour of rocks and depth-related discontinuities in seismograms of the Earth's mantle. Seismology (from Greek grc σεισμός seismos, "earthquake" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Earthquakes The mantle is a part of an Astronomical object. The interior of the Earth, similar to the other Terrestrial planets, is Chemically divided To this end, in their focus on the connection between atomic-scale phenomena and macroscopic properties, the mineral sciences (as they are now commonly known) display perhaps more of an overlap with materials science than any other discipline. Materials Science or Materials Engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its applications to various areas of Science and

Physical mineralogy

Physical mineralogy is the specific focus on physical attributes of minerals. Description of physical attributes is the simplest way to identify, classify, and categorize minerals, and they include:^[6]

• crystal structure
• crystal habit
• twinning
• cleavage
• luster
• color
• streak
• hardness
• specific gravity

Chemical mineralogy

Chemical mineralogy focuses on the chemical composition of minerals in order to identify, classify, and categorize them, as well as a means to find beneficial uses from them. In Mineralogy and Crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal. In Mineralogy, shape and size give rise to descriptive terms applied to the typical appearance or habit of Crystals The many terms used by mineralogists Crystal twinning occurs when two separate crystals share some of the same Crystal lattice points in a symmetrical manner Cleavage, in Mineralogy, is the tendency of crystalline materials to split along definite planes creating smooth surfaces of which there are several named types Lustre (or luster) is a description of the way light interacts with the surface of a Crystal, rock, or Mineral. The streak (also called powder color) of a Mineral is the Color of the powder produced when it is dragged across an unweathered surface The Mohs scale of mineral hardness characterizes the scratch resistance of various Minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer material Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the Density of a given solid or liquid substance to the density of water at a specific temperature and pressure typically There are a few minerals which are classified as whole elements, including sulfur, copper, silver, and gold, yet the vast majority of minerals are comprised of chemical compounds, some more complex than others. Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 ^[25] In terms of major chemical divisions of minerals, most are placed within the isomorphous groups, which are based on analogous chemical composition and similar crystal forms. In Abstract algebra, an isomorphism ( Greek: ἴσος isos "equal" and μορφή morphe "shape" is a bijective Analogy is both the cognitive process of transferring Information from a particular subject (the analogue or source to another particular subject (the target and A good example of isomorphism classification would be the calcite group, containing the minerals calcite, magnesite, siderite, rhodochrosite, and smithsonite. Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of Calcium carbonate ( Ca[[carbon C]] O 3 Magnesite is not to be confused with Magnetite or Magnemite. Magnesite is Magnesium carbonate, Mg[[carbon Siderite is also the name of a type of Iron Meteorite. ---- Siderite is a Mineral composed of Iron Carbonate Fe[[carbon Rhodochrosite is a Manganese Carbonate Mineral with chemical composition MnCO3. Smithsonite, or zinc spar, is Zinc Carbonate Zn[[carbon C]] O 3 a mineral ore of zinc ^[26]

Biomineralogy

Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy, paleontology and biology. Palaeontology redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Palaeontology (journal. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles It is the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition. ^[27] It uses techniques from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as growth forms in living plants and animals^[28][29] as well as things like the original mineral content of fossils. ^[30]

Optical mineralogy

Main article: Optical mineralogy

Optical mineralogy is a specific focus of mineralogy that applies sources of light as a means to identify and classify minerals. Optical mineralogy is the study of Minerals by measuring their optical properties All minerals which are not part of the cubic system are double refracting, where ordinary light passing through them is broken up into two plane polarized rays that travel at different velocities and refracted at different angles. The cubic crystal system (or isometric) is a Crystal system where the Unit cell is in the shape of a Cube. Refraction is the change in direction of a Wave due to a change in its Speed. Polarization ( ''Brit'' polarisation) is a property of Waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations In Optics, a ray is an idealized narrow Beam of light. Rays are used to model the propagation of Light through an optical system by dividing the real light In Physics, velocity is defined as the rate of change of Position. In Geometry and Trigonometry, an angle (in full plane angle) is the figure formed by two rays sharing a common Endpoint, called Mineral substances belonging to the cubic system pertain only one index of refraction. The refractive index (or index of Refraction) of a medium is a measure for how much the speed of light (or other waves such as sound waves is reduced inside the medium ^[26] Hexagonal and tetragonal mineral substances have two indices, while orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic substances have three indices of refraction. In Crystallography, the hexagonal is one of the 7 Crystal system, it contains 7 Point groups. In Crystallography, the tetragonal Crystal system is one of the 7 lattice Point groups Tetragonal Crystal lattices result from stretching a cubic In Crystallography, the orthorhombic Crystal system is one of the seven Lattice Point groups Orthorhombic lattices result from stretching In Crystallography, the monoclinic Crystal system is one of the 7 lattice Point groups A crystal system is described by three vectors. In Crystallography, the triclinic Crystal system is one of the 7 lattice Point groups A crystal system is described by three basis vectors ^[26] With opaque ore minerals, reflected light from a microscope is needed for identification. Opacity is the measure of impenetrability to electromagnetic or other kinds of radiation especially visible Light. ^[26]

Crystal structure

Main article: Crystallography

X-rays are used to determine the atomic arrangements of minerals and so to identify and classify them. Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of Atoms in Solids In older usage it is the scientific study of Crystals The X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny The arrangements of atoms define the crystal structures of the minerals. Some very fine-grained minerals, such as clays, commonly can be identified most readily by their crystal structures. Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and The structure of a mineral also offers a precise way of establishing isomorphism. ^[26] With knowledge of atomic arrangements and compositions, one may deduce why minerals have specific physical properties ^[26], and one may calculate how those properties change with pressure and temperature.

Formation environments

The environments of mineral formation and growth are highly varied, ranging from slow crystallization at the high temperature and pressures of igneous melts deep within the Earth's crust to the low temperature precipitation from a saline brine at the Earth's surface. Igneous rocks (etymology from Latin ignis, fire are rocks formed by solidification of cooled Magma (molten rock Magma (Plurals magmas and magmata) is molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the Earth (or any other Terrestrial planet In Geology, a crust is the outermost solid shell of a planet or moon

Various possible methods of formation include:^[31]

• sublimation from volcanic gases
• deposition from aqueous solutions and hydrothermal brines
• crystallization from an igneous magma or lava
• recrystallization due to metamorphic processes and metasomatism
• crystallization during diagenesis of sediments
• formation by oxidation and weathering of rocks exposed to the atmosphere or within the soil environment. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the Hydrothermal circulation in its most general sense is the circulation of hot water 'hydros' in the Greek meaning water and 'thermos' meaning heat Brine (lat saltus) is Water saturated or nearly saturated with Salt (NaCl Igneous rocks (etymology from Latin ignis, fire are rocks formed by solidification of cooled Magma (molten rock Magma (Plurals magmas and magmata) is molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the Earth (or any other Terrestrial planet Lava is molten rock expelled by a Volcano during an eruption When first expelled from a volcanic vent it is a Liquid at Temperatures Metamorphism can be defined as the solid state recrystallisation of pre-existing rocks due to changes in heat and/or pressure and/or introduction of fluids i Metasomatism is the chemical alteration of a rock by Hydrothermal and other fluids In Geology and Oceanography, diagenesis is any chemical physical or biological change undergone by a Sediment after its initial deposition and during Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state Weathering is the decomposition of earth rocks, Soils and their Minerals through direct contact with the planet's Atmosphere. Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel

Uses

Minerals are essential to various needs within human society, such as minerals used for bettering health and fitness (such as mineral water or commercially-sold vitamins), essential components of metal products used in various commodities and machinery, essential components to building materials such as limestone, marble, granite, gravel, glass, plaster, cement, plastics, etc. Health is a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity Physical fitness is used in two close meanings general fitness (a state of Health and well-being and specific fitness (a task-oriented definition based on the ability In many places mineral water is often colloquially used to mean Carbonated water (which is usually carbonated mineral water as opposed to tap water A vitamin is an Organic compound required as a Nutrient in tiny amounts by an Organism. A commodity is anything for which there is demand but which is supplied without qualitative differentiation across a market A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity Limestone is a Sedimentary rock composed largely of the Mineral Calcite ( Calcium carbonate: CaCO3 Marble is a nonfoliated Metamorphic rock resulting from the Metamorphism of Limestone, composed mostly of Calcite (a crystalline form of Granite (ˈɡrænɪt is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Felsic, igneous rock. Gravel is rock that is of a specific Particle size range In Geology, gravel is any loose rock that is larger than two millimeters (2mm Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many The term plaster can refer to plaster of Paris Lime plaster, or Cement plaster. In the most general sense of the word a cement is a binder a substance which sets and hardens independently and can bind other materials together Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products ^[32] Minerals are also used in fertilizers to enrich the growth of agricultural crops. Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture

Descriptive mineralogy

Descriptive mineralogy summarizes results of studies performed on mineral substances. It is the scholarly and scientific method of recording the identification, classification, and categorization of minerals, their properties, and their uses. Classifications for descriptive mineralogy includes:^[33][34]

• native elements
• sulfides
• oxides and hydroxides
• halides
• carbonates, nitrates and borates
• sulfates, chromates, molybdates and tungstates
• phosphates, arsenates and vanadates
• silicates
• organic minerals

Determinative mineralogy

Determinative mineralogy is the actual scientific process of identifying minerals, through data gathering and conclusion. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific A sulfide mineral is a Mineral containing Sulfide (S2- as the major Anion. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Carbonate minerals are those Minerals containing the Carbonate Ion: CO32- A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Phosphate minerals are those Minerals that contain the tetrahedrally coordinated Phosphate (PO43- Anion along with the freely substituting The silicate minerals make up the largest and most important class of rock-forming Minerals They are classified based on the structure of their silicate Ion group A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific When new minerals are discovered, a standard procedure of scientific analysis is followed, including measures to identify a mineral's formula, its crystallographic data, its optical data, as well as the general physical attributes determined and listed.

See also

• List of minerals - a simple list concentrating on minerals with Wikipedia articles. This is a List of Minerals for which there are Wikipedia articles
• List of minerals (complete) - a more complete list of IMA-approved minerals, regularly updated. It is currently not possible to have a "complete list of minerals".
• List of mineralogists
• List of publications in mineralogy

Notes

References

• Bandy, Mark Chance and Jean A. Bandy (1955). De Natura Fossilium. New York: George Banta Publishing Company.
• Chan, Alan Kam-leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui-Chieh Loy (2002). Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine. Singapore: Singapore University Press ISBN 9971692597
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
• Ramsdell, Lewis S. (1963). Encyclopedia Americana: International Edition: Volume 19. New York: Americana Corporation.
• Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing.

External links

• International Mineralogical Association
• mindat.org mineralogical database
• Mineralogical Society of America
• Mineralogical Association of Canada
• Virtual Museum of the History of Mineralogy
• Georg Agricola's "Textbook on Mineralogy" on gemstones and minerals Translated from Latin by Mark Bandy. Original title: "De Natura Fossilium".
• The Giant Crystal Project
• The Geological Society of America

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