Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman Turkish (Osmanlıca or tr ''Osmanlı Türkçesi'' Ottoman Turkish ota-Latn ''lisân-ı Osmânî'' is the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the A confessional community is a group of people with similar Religious beliefs In the Ottoman Empire, this allowed people to be grouped by religious confession The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish In the 19th century, with the Tanzimat reforms, the term started to refer to legally protected religious minority groups, other than the ruling Sunni. The Tanzimat ( Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Millet comes from the Arabic word millah (ملة). Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The Millet system of Ottoman Islamic law is considered an early example of pre-modern democratic religious pluralism. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Religious pluralism (rel Comparative religion) is a loosely defined expression concerning acceptance of different Religions and is used in a number of related ^[1]

	Social structure of the Ottoman Empire
Millet (Ottoman Empire) Jews - Armenians - Greeks
Rise of nationalism - Ottomanism
Lifestyle - Ottoman court
See also	Slavery – Devşirme

Contents 1 Concept 2 Millets (until Reformation Era) 2.1 Muslims 2.2 Christians 2.2.1 Orthodox Christians 2.2.2 Armenians 2.2.3 Syriac Orthodox 2.3 Jews 3 History 3.1 Establishment 3.2 19th Century (Reformation Era) 3.2.1 Reformulation into Ottomanism 3.2.2 Effect of Protectorate of missions 3.2.3 Effect of nationalism 3.3 Modern Use 3.3.1 Current meaning of the word 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading

Concept

The millet concept has a similarity to autonomous territories that has long been the European norm for dealing with minority groups. There is considerable controversy regarding social structure in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Jews {ref|name|§}} have lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) for more than 2400 years The Ottoman rule of Armenia or Ottoman Armenia begins with the initial accession of Mehmed II, and the Ottoman support to initiate the Armenian Greeks in Turkey (Rumlar are Greek -speaking Eastern Orthodox Christians who mostly live in Istanbul and on the two The rise of the Western notion of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire eventually caused the break-down of the Ottoman millet Ottomanism ( Osmanlılık or Osmanlıcılık) was a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. Life in the Ottoman Empire was a mixture of western and eastern life Ottoman court or the culture that evolved around the court of the Ottoman Empire was known as the "Ottoman Way". Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society As late as 1908 women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. Devşirme or devshirme (derived from devşirme meaning "collection gathering" was the systematic collection of non-Muslim children An autonomous area is an area of a Country that has a degree of Autonomy, or freedom from an external authority The millet system has a long history in the Middle East, and is closely linked to Islamic rules on the treatment of non−Muslim minorities (dhimmi). For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish The Ottoman term specifically refers to the separate legal courts pertaining to personal law under which minorities were allowed to rule themselves (in cases not involving any Muslim) with fairly little interference from the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire developed a highly advanced organisation of state over the centuries

People were bound to their millets by their religious affiliations (or their confessional communities), rather than their ethnic origins, according to the millet concept. A confessional community is a group of people with similar Religious beliefs In the Ottoman Empire, this allowed people to be grouped by religious confession ^[2] The head of a millet, most often a religious hierarch such as the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople, reported directly to the Ottoman Sultan. "Patriarch of Constantinople" redirects here For the institutional church itself see Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) ( Turkish: Osmanlı Hanedanı) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1299 to 1922 beginning with The millets had a great deal of power — they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. All that was insisted was loyalty to the Empire. When a member of one millet committed a crime against a member of another, the law of the injured party applied, but the ruling Islamic majority being paramount, any dispute involving a Muslim fell under their sharia−based law. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law.

Later, the perception of the millet concept was altered in the 19th century by the rise of nationalism within the Ottoman Empire.

Millets (until Reformation Era)

See also: Tanzimat

Until the 19th century (Reformation Era) beside the Muslim millet, the main millets were the Greek Orthodox, Jewish, Armenian and Syrian Orthodox. The Tanzimat ( Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large The Syriac Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church based in the Middle East with members spread throughout the world ^[3] Armenians formed more than one (actually three) millets under the Ottoman rule. ^[4] A wide array of other groups such as Catholics, Karaites and Samaritans were also represented. Karaite Judaism or Karaism (ˈkærəˌaɪt ˈkærəˌɪzəm) is a Jewish movement NOTE The word sect should not be used without defining it first and

Muslims

See also: Ottoman Caliphate

Muslim communities prospered under the Ottoman Empire, as the Sultan was also the Caliph. The Ottoman Caliphate was the self-declared " Caliphate " under the Ottoman Dynasty of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Caliphate was the self-declared " Caliphate " under the Ottoman Dynasty of the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman law did not recognize such notions as ethnicity or citizenship, thus, a Muslim of any ethnic background enjoyed precisely the same rights and privileges. It was claimed that under such conditions, Muslim Arabs came to view the empire as a revived Islamic empire. However, even if Caliphate played a significant role, the real existence of these feelings is questionable long before the Arab Revolt and the subsequent dissolution of the empire in 20th century. The Arab Revolt (1916&ndash1918 ( الثورة العربية Al-Thawra al-`Arabīya) was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn Ali with the aim of securing The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908-1922 began with the watershed event of Young Turk Revolution and ended with the partitioning of the Empire By the 17th century, the Maghreb regencies were only nominally under the Ottoman control and Egypt was almost independent by the beginning of the 19th century. The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset

Creeds which were seen as deviant forms of the Caliphal dynasty's Sunni Islam, such as Shi'as, Alawis, Alevis and Yezidis, had no official status and were considered to be part of the Muslim millet—only the syncretic Druze of the Djebel Druze and Mount Lebanon enjoyed feudal−type autonomy. For the Alaouite dynasty of Morocco see Alaouite Dynasty, for the former state now in Yemen see Alawi (sheikhdom The Alawites Alevis (Aleviler Elewî are a religious sub-ethnic and cultural community in Turkey, numbering in the millions The Yazidi (also Yezidi, Kurdish: ئزیدی or Êzidî, Arabic: يزيدي or ايزدي Assyrian/Syriac: ܓ̰ܠܟܝܐ is a Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs often while melding practices of various schools of thought The Druze ( Arabic: درزي derzī or durzī, plural دروز durūz) are a religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon Jabal ad-Duruz ( جبل الدروز) also known as Jabal al-Arab (Arabic جبل العرب) is an elevated volcanic region in southern Syria Mount Lebanon ( Arabic: جبل لبنان as a geographic designation is the Lebanese mountain range known as the Western Mountain Range of Lebanon These groups were spread across the empire with significant minorities in most of the major cities. Autonomy for these groups was thus impossible to base on a territorial region.

Christians

Orthodox Christians

Main article: Orthodox Christianity

Even though it was named after Greek subjects of the Ottoman Empire, all Orthodox Christians were included in the millet-i Rûm. The term Orthodox Christianity may refer to The Eastern Orthodox Church: the Eastern Christian churches of Byzantine Therefore, Orthodox Greeks, Bulgarians, Arabs, Albanians, Vlachs, Romanians and Serbs were all considered part of the same millet despite their differences in ethnicity and language and despite the fact that the religious hierarchy was Greek dominated. The Bulgarians (българи balgari) are a South Slavic people generally associated with the Republic of Bulgaria and the Bulgarian language The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding } Albanians (Shqiptarët are an Ethnic group and a Nation, in the sense of sharing a common Albanian culture speaking the Albanian language Vlachs is a blanket term covering several modern Latin peoples descending from the Latinised population in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe The Romanians (dated Rumanians or Roumanians; Romanian: români or historically and today rather seldom and only regional rumâni Serbs ( Serbian: Срби Srbi) are a South Slavic people living in the Balkans and Central Europe, mainly in Serbia,

Armenians

Main article: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire‎

Until the nineteenth century, there was a single Armenian millet which served all ethnic Armenians irrespective of whether they belonged to the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Armenian Catholic Church or the Armenian Protestant Church (which was formed in the 19th century). The Ottoman rule of Armenia or Ottoman Armenia begins with the initial accession of Mehmed II, and the Ottoman support to initiate the Armenian The Armenian Apostolic Church (Հայաստանեայց Առաքելական Եկեղեցի Hayasdaneaytz Arakelagan (Refer to List of Armenian Catholic Patriarchs of Cilicia) The Armenian Catholic Church is an Eastern Catholic church Sui juris within The Armenian Evangelical Church ( Armenian: Հայաստանեայց Աւետարանական Եկեղեցի was established on July 1 1846 by thirty-seven men and three women ^[2] Only later did a separate Catholic millet emerge. Non-Armenians from churches which were theologically linked to the Armenian Church (by virtue of being non-Chalcedonians) were under the authority of the Armenian Patriarchate, although they maintained a separate hierarchy with their own Patriarchs. The Council of Chalcedon was the fourth Ecumenical council. It was held from 8 October to 1 November 451 at Chalcedon (a city of These groups included the Syriac Orthodox and the Copts. The Syriac Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church based in the Middle East with members spread throughout the world A Copt ( Coptic: ouRemenkīmi enEkhristianos, literally Egyptian Christian) is a native Egyptian Christian.

Syriac Orthodox

Main article: Assyrians and Syriacs in Turkey

The Syriac Orthodox started out under the Armenian patriarchate but petitioned the Sublime Porte for separate status, mainly as western contacts allowed them a voice of their own. Ottoman Assyrians/Syriacs The Ottoman Empire, before it began to decay had an elaborate system of administering the non-Muslim " People of the Book. The Syriac Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church based in the Middle East with members spread throughout the world Ottoman Porte (also Sublime Porte, High Porte, or in Ottoman Turkish, Bab-ı Ali) used to refer to the Divan (court Thus the Syriac Apostolic Church of Antioch and all the East (Jacobite, later changed to Syrian) received recognition as a separate community "millet" as did the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syrian Catholic and the Church of the East (referred to, often erroneously, as Nestorian). The Syriac Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church based in the Middle East with members spread throughout the world The Chaldean Catholic Church or the Chaldean Church of Babylon (الكنيسة الكلدانية) is an Eastern particular church of the The Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East (ܥܕܬܐ ܩܕܝܫܬܐ ܘܫܠܝܚܝܬܐ ܩܬܘܠܝܩܝ ܕܡܕܢܚܐ ܕܐܬܘܪ̈ܝܐ ‘Ittā Qaddishtā wa-Shlikhāitā Qattoliqi The last was the most remote of the Churches in distance from the Porte (in Istanbul). Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey ^[5]

Jews

Main article: History of the Jews in Turkey

The Ottoman Jews enjoyed similar privileges to those of the Orthodox, and came to enjoy some of the most extensive freedoms in Jewish history. Jews {ref|name|§}} have lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) for more than 2400 years The city of Thessaloniki, for instance, received a great influx of Jews in the 15th century and soon flourished economically to such an extent that, during the 18th century, it was the largest and possibly the most prosperous Jewish city in the world. Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia By the early 20th century, Ottoman Jews —together with Armenian and Greeks— dominated commerce within the Empire.

History

Establishment

19th Century (Reformation Era)

New millets were created in the 19th century for several uniate and protestant Christian communities, then for the separate Eastern Orthodox Bulgarian Church, recognized as a millet by an Ottoman firman in 1870 and excommunicated two years later by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate as adherents of phyletism (national or ethnic principle in church organization)^[3]. This article refers to Eastern Churches in full communion with the Holy See Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church (Българска православна църква Bălgarska pravoslavna cărkva) is an Autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Church A firman is a royal mandate or decree issued by a sovereign in certain historical Islamic states including the Ottoman Empire, Mughal Empire, and Iran Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common "Patriarch of Constantinople" redirects here For the institutional church itself see Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. In the period before World War I there were seventeen millets within the Empire. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All

Reformulation into Ottomanism

Further information: Tanzimat, Ottomanism

Before the turn of the 19th century, the millets had a great deal of power — they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. The Tanzimat ( Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 Ottomanism ( Osmanlılık or Osmanlıcılık) was a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. Tanzimat reforms aimed to encourage Ottomanism among the secessionist subject nations and stop the rise of nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire, but failed to succeed despite trying to integrate non−Muslims and non−Turks more thoroughly into the Ottoman society with new laws and regulations. The Tanzimat ( Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 Ottomanism ( Osmanlılık or Osmanlıcılık) was a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. With the Tanzimat era the regulation called "Regulation of the Armenian Nation" (Turkish:"Nizâmnâme−i Millet−i Ermeniyân") was introduced on March 29, 1863 over the Millet organization, which granted extensive privileges and autonomy concerning self−governance. The Tanzimat ( Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Year 1863 ( MDCCCLXIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Armenian Nation, "Millet−i Ermeniyân", which is considered here, is the Armenian Orthodox Gregorian nation (millet) of that time. The Armenian Apostolic Church (Հայաստանեայց Առաքելական Եկեղեցի Hayasdaneaytz Arakelagan In a very short time, Ottoman Empire passed another regulation over "Nizâmnâme−i Millet−i Ermeniyân" developed by the Patriarchate Assemblies of Armenians, which was named as the Islahat Fermâni (Firman of the Reforms). "Firman of the Reforms" gave immense privileges to the Armenians, which formed a "governance in governance" to eliminate the aristocratic dominance of the Armenian nobles by development of the political strata in the society^[6]. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime These two reforms, which were theoretically perfect examples of social change by law, brought serious stress over Ottoman political and administrative structure.

Effect of Protectorate of missions

See also: Protectorate of missions and Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman System lost the mechanisms of its existence from the assignment of protection of citizen rights of their subjects to other states. Protectorate of Missions is a term for the right of protection exercised by a Christian power in an 'infidel' (e Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire were contracts between the Ottoman Empire and European powers particularly France. People were not citizens of the Ottoman Empire anymore but of other states, due to the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire to European powers, protecting the rights of their citizens within the Empire. Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire were contracts between the Ottoman Empire and European powers particularly France. The Russians became formal Protectors of Eastern Orthodox groups, the French of Roman Catholics and the British of Jews and other groups. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Protectorate of Missions is a term for the right of protection exercised by a Christian power in an 'infidel' (e The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located

Russia and England competed for the Armenians; the Eastern Orthodox perceived American Protestants, who had over 100 missionaries established in Anatolia by World War I, as weakening their own teaching. A missionary is a member of a Religion who works to convert those who do not share the missionary's faith someone who proselytizes. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All

These religious activities, subsidized by the governments of western nations, were not devoid of political goals, such in the case of candlestick wars of 1847. Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Tension began among the Catholic and Orthodox monks in Palestine with France channeling resources to increase its influence in the region from 1840. Year 1840 ( MDCCCXL) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Repairs to shrines were important for the sects as they were linked to the possession of keys to the temples. Notes were given by the protectorates, including the French, to the Ottoman capital about the governor; he was condemned as he had to defend the Church of the Holy Sepulchre by placing soldiers inside the temple because of the candlestick wars, eliminating the change of keys. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Sanctum Sepulchrum also called the Church of the Resurrection, ( Greek: Ναός της Αναστάσεως Naos tis Anastaseos Successive Ottoman governments had issued edicts granting primacy of access to different Christian groups which vied for control of Jerusalem's holy sites. ^[7]

Effect of nationalism

See also: French revolution and Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire

Under the original design, the multi faced structure of the millet system was unified under the house of Osman. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The rise of the Western notion of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire eventually caused the break-down of the Ottoman millet House of Osman is the name to the administrative structure of the Ottoman Dynasty, which is part of State organization of the Ottoman Empire, however directly linked The rise of nationalism in Europe under the influence of the French revolution had extended to the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Each millet became increasingly independent with the establishment of their own schools, churches, hospitals and other facilities. These activities effectively moved the Christian population outside the framework of the Ottoman political system.

The Ottoman millet system (citizenship) began to degrade with the continuous identification of the religious creed with ethnic nationality. The interaction of ideas of French revolution with the Ottoman Millet system created a breed of thought (a new form of personal identification) which turned the concept of nationalism synonymous with religion under the Ottoman flag. It was impossible to hold the system or prevent Clash of Civilizations) when the Armenian national liberation movement expressed itself within the Armenian church. The Clash of Civilizations is a Theory, proposed by Political scientist Samuel P Armenian national movement, also known as the " Armenian revolutionary movement " and Armenian national liberation movement was the Armenian national Patriarch Nerses Varjabedyan expresses his position on Ottoman Armenians to British Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lord Salisbury on April 13, 1878^[8]. Originally a patriarch was a man who exercised autocratic authority as a Pater familias over an extended family "Lord Salisbury" redirects here For other holders of the title see Marquess of Salisbury. Events 1111 - Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 1204 - The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople Year 1878 ( MDCCCLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common

It is no longer possible for the Armenians and the Turks to live together. Only a Christian administration can provide the equality, justice and the freedom of conscience. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth A Christian administration should replace the Muslim administration. Armenia (Eastern Anatolia) and Kilikya, are the regions, where the Christian administration should be founded… The Turkish Armenians want this… That is, a Christian administration is demanded in Turkish Armenia, as in Lebanon. ^[8]

Modern Use

Today the millet system is still used at varying degrees in some post−Ottoman countries like Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, the Palestinian Authority and Egypt. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. It is also in use in states like Iran, Pakistan and Bangladesh which observe the principle of separate personal courts and/or laws for every recognized religious community and reserved seats in the parliament. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially

In Egypt for instance the application of family law, including marriage, divorce, alimony, child custody, inheritance and burial, is based on an individual's reiligous beliefs. Family law is an area of the Law that deals with family-related issues and Domestic relations including but not limited to the nature of NOTICE TO WOULD-BE ROMEOS ************** Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the termination of a Marriage. Alimony, maintenance or spousal support is an obligation established by Law in many countries that is based on the premise that both spouses have an absolute "Heir" and "Heiress" redirect here For the men and women fragrances endorsed by Paris Hilton see Heiress (fragrance. Burial, also called interment and inhumation, is the act of placing a person or object into the ground In the practice of family law, the State recognizes only the three "heavenly religions": Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. This article is about the theological concept in Islam. For the novel by Geraldine Brooks see People of the Book (novel. Muslim families are subject to the Personal Status Law, which draws on Sharia. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Christian families are subject to canon law, and Jewish families are subject to Jewish law. Canon law is internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches and the Anglican Communion of churches Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law In cases of family law disputes involving a marriage between a Christian woman and a Muslim man, the courts apply the Personal Status Law (see: Egypt — International Religious Freedom Report Released by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 2001).

Current meaning of the word

Today, the term "millet" means the word "nation" in Turkish. It also retains its use as a religious and ethnic classification; it can also be used as a slang to classify people belonging to a particular group (not necessarily religious or ethnic), such as dolmuşçu milleti ("those who belong to the commercial minivan drivers group") or kadın milleti ("all the women"). Types of vehicle Share taxis come in various Vehicle types including Minibuses Midibuses covered Pickup trucks Station wagons

See also

• Culture of the Ottoman Empire
• Devşirme system
• Dhimmi
• Jizyah

References

Sources

• Ottoman empire site, German full original version

Further reading

• Josef Matuz, Das Osmanische Reich. Grundlinien seiner Geschichte, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1985.
• Bernard Lewis, Die Juden in der islamischen Welt. Vom frühen Mittelalter bis ins 20. Jahrhundert, München: Beck, 1987, passim.
• Henry Blount, A Voyage into the Levant (1636), Amsterdam 1977. Originally titled: A Voyage into the Levant. A Briefe Relation of a Journey. Lately performed by Master H. B. Gentleman, from England by the way of Venice, into Dalmatia, Sclavonia, Bosnah, Hungary, Macedonia, Thessaly, Thrace, Rhodes and Egypt, unto Gran Cairo: With particular observations concerning the moderne condition of the Turkes, and other people under that Empire. London, 1636.
• Michael Ursinus, Zur Diskussion um „millet“ im Osmanischen Reich, in: Südost−Forschungen 48 (1989), pp. 195–207
• Benjamin Braude und Bernard Lewis (ed. ), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire. The Functioning of a Plural Society, 2 vol. , New York und London 1982.
• Irwin Cemil Schick, Osmanlılar, Azınlıklar ve Yahudiler [Osmanen, Minoritäten und Juden], in: Tarih ve Toplum 29 (Mayıs 1986), 34–42.
• Elizabeth A. Zachariadou, Co−Existence and Religion, in: Archivum Ottomanicum 15 (1997), 119–29.
• Bat Yeór, The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians under Islam, Cranbury, NJ, 1985.
• Youssef Courbage and Philippe Fargues, Christians and Jews under Islam, translated by Judy Mabro, London−New York 1997.
• Karl Binswanger, Untersuchungen zum Status der Nichtmuslime im Osmanischen Reich des 16. Jahrhunderts mit einer Neudefinition des Begriffes "Dhimma", München 1977.
• Yavuz Ercan, Osmanlı Yönetiminde Gayrimüslimler. Kuruluştan Tanzimat´a kadar Sosyal, Ekonomik ve Hukuki Durumları [Die Nichtmuslime in der osmanischen Verwaltung. Soziale, wirtschaftliche und rechtliche Lage von der Gründung bis zur Tanzimat], Ankara 2001.
• Paret, Rudi: Toleranz und Intoleranz im Islam, in: Saeculum 21 (1970), 344–65.
• Bilal Eryılmaz, Osmanlı Devletinde Gayrimüslim Teb´anın Yönetimi [Die Verwaltung der nichtmuslimischen Untertanen im Osmanischen Reich], İstanbul 1990, pp. 215–18.
• Fikret Adanır, Der Zerfall des Osmanischen Reiches, in: Das Ende der Weltreiche: von den Persern bis zur Sowjetunion, hrsg. von Alexander Demant, München 1997, S. 108–28.
• Ramsaur, Ernest Edmondson Jr. , The Young Turks. Prelude to the Revolution of 1908, 2. ed. , İstanbul 1982, pp. 40–1, Anm. 30: ”Meşveret”, Paris, 3. Dezember 1895.
• Fikret Adanır, Die Makedonische Frage, ihre Entstehung und Entwicklung bis 1908, Wiesbaden 1979, p. 93.
• Johannes Lepsius, & others (ed. ), Die Große Politik der europäischen Kabinette 1871–1914. Sammlung der diplomatischen Akten des Auswärtigen Amtes, Berlin 1923–29, vol. 18, Teil I, p. 169.
• Fatma Müge Göçek, Burjuvazinin Yükselişi, İmparatorluğun Çöküşü. Osmanlı Batılılaşması ve Toplumsal Değişme [Rise of the Bourgeoisie, decline of the empires. Ottoman westernisation and social change], Ankara 1999, pp. 307–09
• Çağlar Keyder, Bureaucracy and Bourgeoisie: Reform and Revolution in the Age of Imperialism, in: Review, XI, 2, Spring 1988, pp. 151–65.
• Roderic H. Davison, Turkish Attitudes Concerning Christian−Muslim Equality in the Nineteenth Century, in: American Historical Review 59 (1953−54), pp. 844–864.
• Bernard Lewis, Der Untergang des Morgenlandes. Warum die islamische Welt ihre Vormacht verlor, Bonn 2002, p. 99.
• Bernard Lewis, Stern, Kreuz und Halbmond. 2000 Jahre Geschichte des Nahen Ostens, München, Zürich 1995, p. 302.
• Ortaylı, İlber. Son İmparatorluk Osmanlı (The Last Empire: Ottoman Empire), İstanbul, Timaş Yayınları (Timaş Press), 2006. ISBN 975-263-490-7
• Ortaylı, İlber. Osmanlı Barışı (Ottoman Peace), İstanbul, Timaş Yayınları (Timaş Press), 2007. ISBN 978-975-263-516-6

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