Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev Михаил Сергеевич Горбачёв
President of the Soviet Union
In office March 15, 1990 – December 25, 1991
Prime Minister	Nikolai Ryzhkov Valentin Pavlov Ivan Silayev
Vice President	Gennady Yanayev
Preceded by	Position created Himself Chairman of Supreme Soviet
Succeeded by	Post abolished Boris Yeltsin as President of the Russian Federation - international successor of the USSR
General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
In office March 11, 1985 – August 24, 1991
Preceded by	Konstantin Chernenko
Succeeded by	Vladimir Ivashko (Acting)
12th Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
In office October 1, 1988 – May 25, 1990
Prime Minister	Nikolai Tikhonov Nikolai Ryzhkov
Preceded by	Andrei Gromyko
Member of Politburo
In office 1980 – 1991
Born	March 2, 1931 (1931-03-02) (age 77) Stavropol, Russian SFSR, USSR
Political party	Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1950–1991) Social Democratic Party of Russia (2001–2004) Union of Social Democrats (2007-present)
Spouse	Raisa Gorbachyova (d. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor The President of the Soviet Union was the Head of State of the USSR from March 15, 1990 to December 25, 1991. Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) Events 274 - Roman Emperor Aurelian Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Nikolai Ivanovich Ryzhkov ( Russian: Николай Иванович Рыжков Nikolaj Ivanovič Ryžkov; born September 28, 1929) was For other uses see Pavlov (disambiguation. Valentin Sergeyevich Pavlov (Валентин Сергеевич Павлов September 26, Ivan Stepanovich Silayev ( Russian: Ива́н Степа́нович Сила́ев born on October 21, 1930 in Baktyzino Nizhny Novgorod Oblast Gennady Ivanovich Yanayev ( Янаев Геннадий Иванович in Russian) (born August 26, 1937) Russian Politician Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin () (1 February 1931 23 April 2007 was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999 The President of Russia (Президент России or the President of the Russian Federation, Президент Российской The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( First Secretary in 1953-1966 was the title synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union after Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty Year 1985 ( MCMLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar) Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar 's General Gaius Scribonius Curio is defeated in the Second Battle of the Bagradas River Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko (Константи́н Усти́нович Черне́нко Konstantin Ustinovič Černenko; 24 September 1911 &ndash 10 March 1985 was Vladimir Antonovich Ivashko (Владимир Антонович Ивашко Володимир Антонович Івашко (1932&ndash1994 was briefly the acting General Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR This position was held by four people at once Events 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela. Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) Nikolai Aleksandrovich Tikhonov ( Russian: Николай Александрович Тихонов Kharkiv, May 14, 1905 Moscow Nikolai Ivanovich Ryzhkov ( Russian: Николай Иванович Рыжков Nikolaj Ivanovič Ryžkov; born September 28, 1929) was Andrei Andreyevich Gromyko (Андре́й Андре́евич Громы́ко Андрэй Андрэевіч Грамыка July 2 1989 was a Soviet politician Politburo, short for Political Bureau, Russian Politicheskoye Buro, is the executive organization for a number of Political parties, most notably Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Events 986 - Louis V becomes King of the Franks. 1127 - Assassination of Charles the Good Year 1931 ( MCMXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Stavropol (Ста́врополь is a city located in south-western Russia and is the administrative center of Stavropol Krai. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Social Democratic Party of Russia ( Russian: Социал-демократическая партия России was a Political party founded in Russia Union of Social Democrats ( Russian: Союз социал-демократов Soyuz sotsial-demkratov) is an all- Russian non-governmental organization Raisa Maksimovna Gorbachyova (Раи́са Макси́мовна Горбачёва born Titarenko (Титаре́нко ( 5 January, 1932 – 1999)
Religion	Russian Orthodox Church (baptised) or Atheist (recent self-description)

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (Russian: Михаи́л Серге́евич Горбачёв (help·info), Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov, Russian pronunciation: [mʲɪxɐˈil sʲɪrˈgʲeɪvʲɪʨ gərbɐˈʨof]; born March 2, 1931 in Privolnoye, Stavropol Krai), is a Russian politician. See also Eastern Orthodox Church Structure and organization The Slavic Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure Atheism Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Events 986 - Louis V becomes King of the Franks. 1127 - Assassination of Charles the Good Year 1931 ( MCMXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Stavropol Krai (Ставропо́льский край Stavropolsky kray) is a federal subject of Russia (a Krai) He was the last General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the last head of state of the USSR, serving from 1985 until its collapse in 1991. The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( First Secretary in 1953-1966 was the title synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union after

Gorbachev's attempts at reform—perestroika and glasnost—as well as summit conferences with United States President Ronald Reagan, contributed to the end of the Cold War, and also ended the political supremacy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union. (Перестройка) is the Russian term (now used in English for the economic reforms introduced in June 1987 by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev (Гла́сность)is literally defined as publicity and sometimes figuratively interpreted as "tipping a vase to let someone see into the vase but not the bottom of the vase" The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Gorbachev is currently the leader of the Union of Social-Democrats,^[1] a political party founded after the official dissolution of the Social Democratic Party of Russia on October 20, 2007. Union of Social Democrats ( Russian: Союз социал-демократов Soyuz sotsial-demkratov) is an all- Russian non-governmental organization The Social Democratic Party of Russia ( Russian: Социал-демократическая партия России was a Political party founded in Russia Events 1740 - Maria Theresa takes the throne of Austria. France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.

Contents 1 Early life 2 Political career 3 General Secretary of the CPSU 3.1 Domestic reforms 3.1.1 1985 3.1.2 1986 3.1.3 1987 3.1.4 1988 3.1.5 1989 3.2 'New Thinking' Abroad 3.3 Collapse of the Soviet Union 3.3.1 Crisis of the Union, 1990-91 3.3.2 The August 1991 coup 3.3.3 Aftermath of the coup and the final collapse 4 Activities after resignation 5 Honours and accolades 6 Religious affiliation 7 Naevus flammeus 8 See also 9 Other meanings 10 References 11 Further reading 11.1 Primary sources 11.2 Secondary sources 12 External links

Early life

Gorbachev faced a very tough childhood under the totalitarian leadership of Joseph Stalin. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party His paternal grandfather was sentenced to nine years in the gulag for withholding grain from the collective's harvest. The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. ^[2] He lived through World War II, during which, starting in August 1942, German troops occupied Stavropol. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Stavropol (Ста́врополь is a city located in south-western Russia and is the administrative center of Stavropol Krai. Although they left by February 1943, the occupation increased the hardship of the community and left a deep impression on the young Gorbachev. ^[3] From 1946 to 1950, he worked during the summers as an assistant combine harvester operator at the collective farms in his area. The combine harvester, or simply combine, also known as a thresher is a machine that combines the Collective farming is an organization of agricultural production in which the holdings of several farmers are run as a joint enterprise ^[3] He would take an increasing part in promoting peasant labour, which he describes as "very hard" because of enforced state quotas and taxes on private plots. Furthermore, as peasants were not issued passports, their only opportunity to leave their peasant existence was through enlisting in 'orgnabour' (organised recruitment) labour projects, which prompted Gorbachev to ask "what difference was there between this life and serfdom?"^[4]

Political career

Despite the hardship of his background, Gorbachev excelled in the fields and in the classroom. He was considered one of the most intelligent in his class ^[2], with a particular interest in history and mathematics. After he left school he helped his father harvest a record crop on his collective farm. Collective farming is an organization of agricultural production in which the holdings of several farmers are run as a joint enterprise As a result, he was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour, at just 16 (1947). History The Red Banner of Labour began as an order of the Russian SFSR on It was rare for someone his age to be given such an honour. It was almost certain that this award, coupled with his intelligence, helped secure his place at Moscow University, where he studied law from September 1950. ^[3] Gorbachev may never have intended to practice law, however he simply may have seen it as preparation for working in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). He became a candidate member of the Party that same year. ^[3] While living in Moscow, he met his future wife, Raisa Maksimovna Titarenko. Raisa Maksimovna Gorbachyova (Раи́са Макси́мовна Горбачёва born Titarenko (Титаре́нко ( 5 January, 1932 – ^[3] They married on 25 September 1953 and moved to Gorbachev's home region of Stavropol in southern Russia when he graduated in June 1955, where he immersed himself in party work. Events 303 - On a voyage preaching the Gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens, France Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Stavropol (Ста́врополь is a city located in south-western Russia and is the administrative center of Stavropol Krai. ^[3] Upon graduating, he briefly worked in the Prokuratura (Soviet State Procuracy) before transferring to the Komsomol, or Communist Union of Youth. A public procurator is an officer of a State charged with both the investigation and prosecution of crime Komsomol (Комсомол is a Syllabic abbreviation word from the Russian Kom munisticheskiy So yuz Mol odiozhi (Коммунистический He served as First Secretary of the Stavropol City Komsomol Committee from September, 1956, later moving up to the Stavropol Krai (regional) Komsomol Committee, where he worked as Second Secretary from April 1958 and as First Secretary from March 1961. Stavropol (Ста́врополь is a city located in south-western Russia and is the administrative center of Stavropol Krai. Krai or kray (край is a term used to refer to nine of Russia 's 83 federal subjects. ^[3] Raisa would give birth to their first child, a daughter named Irina, on 6 January 1957. Events 1066 - Harold Godwinson is crowned King of England. 1205 - Philip of Swabia becomes King Year 1957 ( MCMLVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar) ^[4]

Gorbachev attended the important XXII CPSU Party Congress in October 1961, where Khrushchev announced a plan to move to a Communist society within 20 years and surpass the U. The Congress of the CPSU (Russian съезд КПСС) was the gathering of the delegates of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and its predecessors Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following S. in per capita production. Gorbachev was promoted to Head of the Department of Party Organs in the Stavropol Agricultural Kraikom in 1963. ^[3] By 1966, at age 35, he obtained a correspondence degree as an agronomist-economist from the Agricultural Institute. ^[3] His career moved forward rapidly. In 1970, he was appointed First Party Secretary of the Stavropol Kraikom, becoming one of the youngest provincial party chiefs in the USSR. Stavropol (Ста́врополь is a city located in south-western Russia and is the administrative center of Stavropol Krai. ^[3] In this position he helped to reorganise the collective farms, improve workers' living conditions, expand the size of their private plots, and give them a greater voice in planning. ^[3] His work was evidently effective, because he was made a member of the CPSU Central Committee in 1971. The Central Committee, abbreviated in Russian as ЦК, "Tse-ka" was the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU In 1972, he headed a Soviet delegation to Belgium,^[3] and two years later, in 1974, he was made a Representative to the Supreme Soviet, and Chairman of the Standing Commission on Youth Affairs. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those The Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Верхо́вный Сове́т СССР Verkhóvnyj Sovét SSSR) was the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union in He was subsequently appointed to the Central Committee Secretariat for Agriculture in 1978, replacing Fyodor Kulakov, who had backed his rise to power, after Kulakov died of a heart attack. The Central Committee, abbreviated in Russian as ЦК, "Tse-ka" was the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU ^[3][4]

In 1979, Gorbachev was promoted to the Politburo as a candidate member, and received full membership in 1980. Politburo, short for Political Bureau, Russian Politicheskoye Buro, is the executive organization for a number of Political parties, most notably Gorbachev owed his steady rise to power to the patronage of Mikhail Suslov, the powerful chief ideologist of the CPSU, and Yuri Andropov, head of the KGB and also a native of Stavropol, and was promoted during Andropov's brief time as leader of the Party before Andropov's death in 1984. Mikhail Andreyevich Suslov ( Russian: Михаил Андреевич Суслов; November 21, 1902 - January 25, 1982 Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov (Ю́рий Влади́мирович Андро́пов Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov) ( &ndash 9 February 1984 was a Soviet politician KGB ( Transliteration of "КГБ" is the Russian abbreviation of Committee for State Security ( Komityet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosty Stavropol (Ста́врополь is a city located in south-western Russia and is the administrative center of Stavropol Krai. ^[5] With responsibility over personnel, working together with Andropov, 20% of the top echelon of government ministers and regional governors were replaced, often with younger men. During this time Grigory Romanov, Nikolai Ryzhkov and Yegor Ligachev were elevated, the latter two working closely with Gorbachev, Ryzhkov on economics, Ligachev on personnel. Grigory Vasilyevich Romanov (Григорий Васильевич Романов scientific transliteration Grigorij Vasil'evič Romanov, 7 February 1923 Nikolai Ivanovich Ryzhkov ( Russian: Николай Иванович Рыжков Nikolaj Ivanovič Ryžkov; born September 28, 1929) was Yegor Kuzmich Ligachev (Его́р Кузьми́ч Лигачёв born November 29, 1920) is a Russian Politician, who was a high-ranking He was also close to Konstantin Chernenko, Andropov's successor, serving as Second Secretary. Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko (Константи́н Усти́нович Черне́нко Konstantin Ustinovič Černenko; 24 September 1911 &ndash 10 March 1985 was ^[6]

Gorbachev's positions within the CPSU created more opportunities to travel abroad and this would profoundly affect his political and social views in the future as leader of the country. In 1975, he led a delegation to West Germany, and in 1983 he headed a delegation to Canada to meet with Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and members of the Commons and Senate. West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The Prime Minister of Canada ( French: Premier ministre du Canada) is the primary Minister of the Crown, chairman of the Cabinet, and thus The House of Commons (Chambre des communes is a component of the Parliament of Canada, along with the Sovereign (represented by the Governor General) and The Senate of Canada (Le Sénat du Canada is a component of the Parliament of Canada, along with the sovereign (represented by the governor general In 1984, he travelled to the UK, where he met the British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Margaret Hilda Thatcher Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925

General Secretary of the CPSU

Upon the death of Konstantin Chernenko, Mikhail Gorbachev, at the age of 54, was elected General Secretary of the Communist Party on 11 March 1985. Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko (Константи́н Усти́нович Черне́нко Konstantin Ustinovič Černenko; 24 September 1911 &ndash 10 March 1985 was The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( First Secretary in 1953-1966 was the title synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union after Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty Year 1985 ( MCMLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar)

He became the Party's first leader to have been born after the Revolution. See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them As de facto ruler of the USSR, he tried to reform the stagnating Party and the state economy by introducing glasnost ("openness"), perestroika ("restructuring"), demokratizatsiya ("democratization"), and uskoreniye ("acceleration", of economic development), which were launched at the 27th Congress of the CPSU in February 1986. (Гла́сность)is literally defined as publicity and sometimes figuratively interpreted as "tipping a vase to let someone see into the vase but not the bottom of the vase" (Перестройка) is the Russian term (now used in English for the economic reforms introduced in June 1987 by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev Demokratizatsiya (Демократизация " Democratisation " was a slogan introduced by General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev Uskoreniye (ускорение literally meaning acceleration) was a slogan and a policy announced by Communist Party General Secretary Mikhail

Domestic reforms

Domestically, Gorbachev implemented economic reforms that he hoped would improve living standards and worker productivity as part of his perestroika programme. However, many of his reforms were considered radical at the time by orthodox apparatchiks in the Soviet government. Apparatchik ( Russian: аппара́тчик plural apparatchiki) is a Russian colloquial term for a full-time professional Functionary

1985

In 1985, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet economy was stalled and that reorganization was needed. An economic system is a System that involves the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services between Initially, his reforms were called uskoreniye (acceleration) but later the terms glasnost (liberalisation, opening up) and perestroika (restructuring) became much more popular. Uskoreniye (ускорение literally meaning acceleration) was a slogan and a policy announced by Communist Party General Secretary Mikhail (Гла́сность)is literally defined as publicity and sometimes figuratively interpreted as "tipping a vase to let someone see into the vase but not the bottom of the vase" (Перестройка) is the Russian term (now used in English for the economic reforms introduced in June 1987 by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev

Gorbachev was not operating within a vacuum. Although the Brezhnev era is usually thought of as one of economic stagnation, a number of economic experiments (particularly in the organisation of business enterprises, and partnerships with Western companies) did take place. A number of reformist ideas were discussed by technocratic-minded managers, who often used the facilities of the Young Communist League as discussion forums. Komsomol (Комсомол is a Syllabic abbreviation word from the Russian Kom munisticheskiy So yuz Mol odiozhi (Коммунистический The so-called 'Komsomol Generation' would prove to be Gorbachev's most receptive audience, and the nursery of many post-Communist businessmen and politicians, particularly in the Baltic republics. The Baltic states (Balti riigid Baltijas valstis Baltijos valstybės or Baltic countries are three countries in Northern Europe, all members of the

After becoming General Secretary, Gorbachev proposed a "vague programme of reform", which was adopted at the April Plenum of the Central Committee. The Central Committee, abbreviated in Russian as ЦК, "Tse-ka" was the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU ^[4] He made a speech in May in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) advocating widespread reforms. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River The reforms began in personnel changes; the most notable change was the replacement of Andrei Gromyko with Eduard Shevardnadze as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Andrei Andreyevich Gromyko (Андре́й Андре́евич Громы́ко Андрэй Андрэевіч Грамыка July 2 1989 was a Soviet politician Eduard Amvrosiyevich Shevardnadze (ედუარდ შევარდნაძე ɛduɑrd ʃɛvɑrdnɑdzɛ (born 25 January 1928 in Mamati, Lanchkhuti Gromyko, disparaged as 'Mr. Nyet' in the West, had served for 28 years as Minister of Foreign Affairs and was considered an 'old thinker'. Robert D. English notes that, despite Shevardnadze's diplomatic inexperience, Gorbachev "shared with him an outlook" and experience in managing an agricultural region of the Soviet Union (Georgia), which meant that both had weak links to the powerful military-industrial complex. The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (საქართველოს საბჭოთასოციალისტური რესპუბლიკა A military-industrial complex (MIC is a concept commonly used to refer to Policy relationships between Governments national Armed forces, and industrial ^[7]

The first major reform programme introduced under Gorbachev was the 1985 alcohol reform, which was designed to fight widespread alcoholism in the Soviet Union. Alcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Prices of vodka, wine and beer were raised, and their sales were restricted. Vodka is one of the world's most popular Distilled beverages It is a clear liquid which consists of mostly Water and Ethanol purified by Distillation Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea People who were caught drunk at work or in public were prosecuted. Drinking on long-distance trains and in public places was banned. Many famous wineries were destroyed. Scenes of alcohol consumption were cut out from films. The reform did not have any significant effect on alcoholism in the country, but economically it was a serious blow to the state budget (a loss of approximately 100 billion rubles according to Alexander Yakovlev) after alcohol production migrated to the black market economy. See Alexander Yakovlev for other individuals with the same name Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, Александр Николаевич

1986

Perestroika and its attendant radical reforms were enunciated at the XXVIIth Party Congress between February and March, 1986. (Перестройка) is the Russian term (now used in English for the economic reforms introduced in June 1987 by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev The Congress of the CPSU (Russian съезд КПСС) was the gathering of the delegates of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and its predecessors Nonetheless, many found the pace of reform too slow. Many historians, including Robert D. English, have explained this by the rapid mutual estrangement within the Soviet elite of the 'New Thinkers' and conservatives; conservatives were deliberately blocking the process of change. This was exposed in the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster. The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear reactor accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union. In this incident, as English observes, Gorbachev and his allies were "misinformed by the military-industrial complex" and "betrayed" by conservatives, who blocked information concerning the incident and thus delayed an official response. ^[7] Jack F. Matlock Jr. stresses that at the time Gorbachev demanded the authorities give "full information" but that the "Soviet bureaucracy blocked the flow". Jack Foust Matlock Jr (born 1929 is a former American Ambassador, career Foreign Service Officer, a teacher a Historian, and a linguist ^[8] This situation brought international ire upon the Soviets and many blamed Gorbachev himself. Despite this, English suggests that there was a "positive fallout" to Chernobyl, as Gorbachev and his fellow reformers received an increased domestic and international impetus for reform. The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear reactor accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union. ^[7]

Domestic changes continued apace. In a bombshell speech during Armenian SSR's Central Committee Plenum of the Communist Party the young First Secretary of Armenia's Hrazdan Regional Communist Party, Hayk Kotanjian, criticised rampant corruption in the Armenian Communist Party's highest echelons, implicating Armenian SSR Communist Party First Secretary Karen Demirchian and calling for her resignation. The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (Հայկական ՍովետականՍոցիալիստական Հանրապետություն Haykakan Sovetakan Sotsialistakan Hanrapetutyun Symbolically, intellectual Andrei Sakharov was invited to return to Moscow by Gorbachev in December 1986 after six years of internal exile in Gorky. Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (Андре́й Дми́триевич Са́харов (May 21 1921 – December 14 1989 was an eminent Soviet nuclear Physicist Nizhny Novgorod (Ни́жний Но́вгород Nižnij Novgorod) colloquially shortened as Nizhny, is the fourth largest city in Russia During the same month, however, signs of the nationalities problem that would haunt the later years of the Soviet Union surfaced as riots, named Jeltoqsan, occurred in Kazakhstan after Dinmukhamed Kunayev was replaced as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan. Jeltoqsan ( Желтоқсан; English: December) Riot of 1986 was a spontaneous nationwide In the following days protests spread to Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Dinmukhamed (Dimash Akhmeduly Konayev (Дінмұхаммед (Димаш Ахметұлы Қонаев Динмухаммед Ахмедович Кунаев born in Verny now The Communist Party of Kazakhstan ( Qazaqstan Kommunistik Partiyasi) is a Political party in Kazakhstan.

1987

The Central Committee Plenum in January 1987 would see the crystallisation of Gorbachev's political reforms, including proposals for multi-candidate elections and the appointment of non-Party members to government positions. The Central Committee, abbreviated in Russian as ЦК, "Tse-ka" was the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU He also first raised the idea of expanding co-operatives at the plenum. Later that year, May would be a month of crisis. In an almost incredible incident, a young West German, Mathias Rust, managed to fly a plane into Moscow and land near Red Square without being stopped. West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( Mathias Rust (born 1968 in Wedel) is a German man known for his illegal landing near Red Square in Moscow in 1987 Red Square ( Красная площадь, Krasnaya ploshchad) is the most famous City square in Moscow, and arguably one of the most This massively embarrassed the military and Gorbachev made sweeping personnel changes, beginning at the top, where he appointed Dmitry Yazov as Minister of Defence. Dmitri Timofeyevich Yazov ( Дмитрий Тимофеевич Язов in Russian) (born November 8, 1923, Omsk Oblast) was the last ^[4]

Economic reforms took up much of the rest of 1987, as a new law giving enterprises more independence was passed in June and Gorbachev released a book, Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and the World, in November, elucidating his main ideas for reform. Nevertheless, at the same time, the personal and professional acrimony between Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin increased; after Yeltsin criticised Gorbachev and others at the October Plenum, he was replaced as First Secretary of the Moscow Gorkom Party. Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin () (1 February 1931 23 April 2007 was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999 This move only temporarily removed Yeltsin's influence. ^[4]

In 1987 he rehabilitated many opponents of Stalin, another part of the De-Stalinization, which began 1956, when Lenin's Testament was published as a booklet there. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party The Cold War ensued as the USSR and the United States struggled indirectly for influence around the world

1988

1988 would see Gorbachev's introduction of glasnost, which gave new freedoms to the people, such as a greater freedom of speech. (Гла́сность)is literally defined as publicity and sometimes figuratively interpreted as "tipping a vase to let someone see into the vase but not the bottom of the vase" This was a radical change, as control of speech and suppression of government criticism had previously been a central part of the Soviet system. The press became far less controlled, and thousands of political prisoners and many dissidents were released. Gorbachev's goal in undertaking glasnost was to pressure conservatives within the CPSU who opposed his policies of economic restructuring, and he also hoped that through different ranges of openness, debate and participation, the Soviet people would support his reform initiatives. At the same time, he opened himself and his reforms up for more public criticism, evident in Nina Andreyeva's critical letter in a March edition of Sovetskaya Rossiya. Soviet Russia ( Russian: Советская Россия Sovetskaya Rossiya) is a political Newspaper in Russia. ^[4] Gorbachev acknowledged that his liberalising policies of glasnost and perestroika owed a great deal to Alexander Dubček's "Socialism with a human face". (Гла́сность)is literally defined as publicity and sometimes figuratively interpreted as "tipping a vase to let someone see into the vase but not the bottom of the vase" (Перестройка) is the Russian term (now used in English for the economic reforms introduced in June 1987 by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev Alexander Dubček (November 27 1921 – November 7 1992 was a Slovak politician and briefly leader of Czechoslovakia (1968-1969 famous for his attempt to reform When asked what the difference was between the Prague Spring and his own reforms, Gorbachev replied, "’’Nineteen years’’". The Prague Spring ( Czech: Pražské jaro, Slovak: Pražská jar) was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during ^[9]

The Law on Cooperatives enacted in May 1988 was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the Gorbachev era. The Soviet Law on Cooperatives, enacted in May 1988, was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the Gorbachev era For the first time since Vladimir Lenin's New Economic Policy, the law permitted private ownership of businesses in the services, manufacturing, and foreign-trade sectors. For the Malaysian New Economic Policy see Malaysian New Economic Policy. The law initially imposed high taxes and employment restrictions, but these were later revised to avoid discouraging private-sector activity. Under this provision, cooperative restaurants, shops, and manufacturers became part of the Soviet scene. It should be noted that some of the SSRs ignored these restrictions. In Estonia, for example, cooperatives were permitted to cater to the needs of foreign visitors and forge partnerships with foreign companies. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region The large 'All-Union' industrial organisations started to be restructured. Aeroflot, for example, was split into a number of independent enterprises, some of which became the nucleus for future independent airlines. OJSC "AeroflotRussian Airlines" (ОАО «АэрофлотРоссийские авиалинии» () or Aeroflot (Аэрофлот as the airline is commonly These newly autonomous business organisations were encouraged to seek foreign investment.

In June 1988, at the CPSU's XIXth Party Conference, Gorbachev launched radical reforms meant to reduce party control of the government apparatus. He proposed a new executive in the form of a presidential system, as well as a new legislative element, to be called the Congress of People's Deputies. ^[4]

1989

Elections to the Congress of People's Deputies were held throughout the Soviet Union in March and April 1989. He became Chairman of the Supreme Soviet (head of state) on May 25, 1989. An approximately chronological list of leaders of the Soviet Union (heads of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and President of the Soviet Union) An approximately chronological list of leaders of the Soviet Union (heads of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and President of the Soviet Union) Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) On March 15, 1990, Gorbachev was elected as the first executive President of the Soviet Union^[4] with 59% of the Deputies' votes being an unopposed candidate. Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) The President of the Soviet Union was the Head of State of the USSR from March 15, 1990 to December 25, 1991. The Congress met for the first time on May 25. Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. Their first task was to elect representatives from Congress to sit on the Supreme Soviet. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Верхо́вный Сове́т СССР Verkhóvnyj Sovét SSSR) was the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union in Nonetheless, the Congress posed problems for Gorbachev. Its sessions were televised, airing more criticism and encouraging people to expect evermore rapid reform. In the elections, many Party candidates were defeated. Furthermore, Yeltsin was elected in Moscow and returned to political prominence to become an increasingly vocal critic of Gorbachev. Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin () (1 February 1931 23 April 2007 was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999 ^[4]

The rest of 1989 was taken up by the increasingly problematic nationalities question and the dramatic collapse of the Eastern Bloc. During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were Despite international détente reaching unprecedented levels, with the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan completed in January and U. The Soviet war in Afghanistan, also known as the Soviet-Afghan War or just the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, was a nine-year conflict involving S. -Soviet talks continuing between Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush, domestic reforms were suffering from increasing divergence between reformists, who criticised the pace of change, and conservatives, who criticised the extent of change. George Herbert Walker Bush (born June 12 1924 served as the forty-first President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 Gorbachev states that he tried to find the middle ground between both groups, but this would draw more criticism towards him. ^[4] The story from this point on moves away from reforms and becomes one of the nationalities question and the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union.

On November 9, people in the "German Democratic Republic" (East Germany, GDR) broke down the Berlin Wall after a peaceful protest against the country's dictatorial administration, including a demonstration by some one million people in East Berlin on November 4. The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state The Berlin Wall (Berliner Mauer was a physical barrier separating West Berlin from the German Democratic Republic (GDR ( East Germany) including East Berlin was the name given to the eastern part of Berlin between 1949 and 1990 Unlike earlier riots which were ended by military force with the help of USSR, Gorbachev, who came to be lovingly called "Gorby" in West Germany, now decided not to interfere with the process in Germany. West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( He stated that German reunification was an internal German matter.

'New Thinking' Abroad

In contrast to his controversial domestic reforms, Gorbachev was largely hailed in the West for his 'New Thinking' in foreign affairs. During his tenure, he sought to improve relations and trade with the West by reducing Cold War tensions. He established close relationships with several Western leaders, such as West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, U.S. President Ronald Reagan, and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher - who famously remarked: "I like Mr Gorbachev, we can do business together". West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( Helmut Josef Michael Kohl (born 3 April 1930 is a German conservative politician and statesman The United States of America —commonly referred to as the United Kingdoms is an Experimental album released in 1993 by the British electronic band Ultramarine on Blanco y Negro records Margaret Hilda Thatcher Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925 ^[10]

Gorbachev understood the link between achieving international détente and domestic reform and thus began extending 'New Thinking' abroad immediately. On April 8, 1986, he announced the suspension of the deployment of SS-20s in Europe as a move towards resolving intermediate-range nuclear weapons (INF) issues. Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian Year 1986 ( MCMLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 1986 Gregorian calendar) Later that year, in September, Gorbachev proposed that the Soviets and Americans both cut their nuclear arsenals in half. He went to France on his first trip abroad as Soviet leader in October. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. November saw the Geneva Summit between Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan. The Geneva Summit was first held on July 18th 1955 in Geneva, Switzerland. Though no concrete agreement was made, Gorbachev and Reagan struck a personal relationship and decided to hold further meetings. ^[4]

January 1986 would see Gorbachev make his boldest international move so far, when he announced his proposal for the elimination of intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe and his strategy for eliminating all nuclear weapons by the year 2000 (often referred to as the 'January Proposal'). A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. He also began the process of withdrawing troops from Afghanistan and Mongolia on 28 July. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East ^[4] Nonetheless, many observers, such as Jack F. Matlock Jr. (despite generally praising Gorbachev as well as Reagan), have criticised Gorbachev for taking too long to achieve withdrawal from the Afghanistan War, citing it as an example of lingering elements of 'old thinking' in Gorbachev. Jack Foust Matlock Jr (born 1929 is a former American Ambassador, career Foreign Service Officer, a teacher a Historian, and a linguist The Soviet war in Afghanistan, also known as the Soviet-Afghan War or just the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, was a nine-year conflict involving ^[8]

On October 11, 1986, Gorbachev and Reagan met in Reykjavík, Iceland to discuss reducing intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe. Events 1138 - A massive earthquake struck Aleppo, Syria. 1531 - Huldrych Zwingli is killed Year 1986 ( MCMLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 1986 Gregorian calendar) For the Greater Reykjavík Area see the Greater Reykjavík Area. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( To the immense surprise of both men's advisers, the two agreed in principle to removing INF systems from Europe and to equal global limits of 100 INF missile warheads. They also essentially agreed in principle to eliminate all nuclear weapons in 10 years (by 1996), instead of by the year 2000 as in Gorbachev's original outline. ^[8] Continuing trust issues, particularly over reciprocity and Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), meant that the summit is often regarded as a failure for not producing a concrete agreement immediately, or for leading to a staged elimination of nuclear weapons. The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI was a proposal by US President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983 to use ground and space-based systems to protect In the long term, nevertheless, this would culminate in the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987, after Gorbachev had proposed this elimination on 22 July 1987 (and it was subsequently agreed on in Geneva on 24 November). The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty ( INF) was a 1987 agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union. ^[4]

In February, 1988, Gorbachev announced the full withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan. The withdrawal was completed the following year, although the civil war continued as the Mujahedin pushed to overthrow the pro-Soviet Najibullah regime. A Mujahid (Arabic ar مجاهد, literally "struggler" is a Muslim involved in a Jihad, id est fighting in a war or Najibullah ( Pashto: نجيب الله; born August 1947 killed September 27, 1996) was the fourth and last President of the An estimated 28,000 Soviets were killed between 1979 and 1989 as a result of the Afghanistan War. The Soviet war in Afghanistan, also known as the Soviet-Afghan War or just the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, was a nine-year conflict involving

Also during 1988, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet Union would abandon the Brezhnev Doctrine, and allow the Eastern bloc nations to freely determine their own internal affairs. The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet Foreign policy, first and most clearly outlined by S During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were Jokingly dubbed the "Sinatra Doctrine" by Gorbachev's Foreign Ministry spokesman Gennadi Gerasimov, this policy of non-intervention in the affairs of the other Warsaw Pact states proved to be the most momentous of Gorbachev's foreign policy reforms. "Sinatra Doctrine" was the name that the Soviet government of Mikhail Gorbachev used jokingly to describe its policy of allowing neighboring Warsaw Gennadi (or Gennady) Ivanovich Gerasimov ( Russian, Геннадий Иванович Герасимов, born 1930 in Yelabuga) was The Warsaw Pact (see Nomenclature) was an organization of Communist states in Central and Eastern Europe. In his July 6, 1989 speech arguing for a "common European home" before the Council of Europe in Strasbourg, France, Gorbachev declared: "The social and political order in some countries changed in the past, and it can change in the future too, but this is entirely a matter for each people to decide. Events 1044 - The Battle of Ménfő takes place 1189 - Richard the Lionheart is crowned King of England The " Common European Home " was a concept created and espoused by former Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev. The Council of Europe (Conseil de l'Europe is the oldest International organisation working towards European integration, being founded in 1949 Strasbourg (Strasbourg stʁazbuʁ Alsatian: Strossburi,; Straßburg) is the capital and principal City of the Alsace région This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Any interference in the internal affairs, or any attempt to limit the sovereignty of another state, friend, ally, or another, would be inadmissible. "

Moscow's abandonment of the Brezhnev Doctrine led to a string of revolutions in Eastern Europe throughout 1989, in which Communism collapsed. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. By the end of 1989, mass revolts had spread from one Eastern European capital to another, ousting the regimes imposed on Eastern Europe after World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including With the exception of Romania, the popular upheavals against the pro-Soviet Communist regimes were all peaceful ones. Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania (See Revolutions of 1989) The loosening of Soviet hegemony over Eastern Europe effectively ended the Cold War, and for this, Gorbachev was awarded the Otto Hahn Peace Medal in Gold in 1989 and the Nobel Peace Prize on October 15, 1990. "Fall of Communism" redirects here For the fall of the Soviet Union itself see History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The Otto Hahn Peace Medal in Gold is named after the German nuclear chemist and 1944 Nobel Laureate Otto Hahn, a honorary citizen of Berlin. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Events 533 - Byzantine General Belisarius makes his formal entry into Carthage, having conquered it from the Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar)

Coit D. Blacker wrote in 1990 that the Soviet leadership "appeared to have believed that whatever loss of authority the Soviet Union might suffer in Eastern Europe would be more than offset by a net increase in its influence in Western Europe. Dr Coit Dennis Blacker served as Special Assistant to the President of the United States for National Security Affairs and Senior Director for Russian Ukrainian and Eurasian Affairs at " ^[11] Nevertheless, it is unlikely that Gorbachev ever intended for the complete dismantling of Communism in the Warsaw Pact countries. Rather, Gorbachev assumed that the Communist parties of Eastern Europe could be reformed in a similar way to the reforms he hoped to achieve in the CPSU. Just as perestroika was aimed at making the USSR more efficient economically and politically, Gorbachev believed that the Comecon and Warsaw Pact could be reformed into more effective entities. Alexander Yakovlev, a close advisor to Gorbachev, would later state that it would have been "absurd to keep the system" in Eastern Europe. See Alexander Yakovlev for other individuals with the same name Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, Александр Николаевич In contrast to Gorbachev, Yakovlev had come to the conclusion that the Soviet-dominated Comecon was inherently unworkable and that the Warsaw Pact had "no relevance to real life. " ^[12]

Collapse of the Soviet Union

Main article: Collapse of the Soviet Union

While Gorbachev's political initiatives were positive for freedom and democracy in the Soviet Union and its Eastern bloc allies, the economic policy of his government gradually brought the country close to disaster. The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 Political freedom is the absence of interference with the sovereignty of an individual by the use of coercion or aggression Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were By the end of the 1980s, severe shortages of basic food supplies (meat, sugar) led to the reintroduction of the war-time system of distribution using food cards that limited each citizen to a certain amount of product per month. In modern English usage meat most often refers to Animal tissue used as food mostly Skeletal muscle and associated Fat, but it may also refer Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. Compared to 1985, the state deficit grew from 0 to 109 billion rubles; gold funds decreased from 2,000 to 200 tons; and external debt grew from 0 to 120 billion dollars.

Furthermore, the democratisation of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe had irreparably undermined the power of the CPSU and Gorbachev himself. Demokratizatsiya (Демократизация " Democratisation " was a slogan introduced by General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev The relaxation of censorship and attempts to create more political openness had the unintended effect of re-awakening long-suppressed nationalist and anti-Russian feelings in the Soviet republics. The Republics of the Soviet Union were according to the Article 76 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, Sovereign Soviet Socialist states that had united with other Calls for greater independence from Moscow's rule grew louder, especially in the Baltic republics of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia which had been annexed into the Soviet Union by Stalin in 1940. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Nationalist feeling also took hold in Georgia, Ukraine, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South

In December 1986, the first signs of the nationalities problem that would haunt the later years of the Soviet Union's existence surfaced as riots, named Jeltoqsan, occurred in Alma Ata and other areas of Kazakhstan after Dinmukhamed Kunayev was replaced as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan. Jeltoqsan ( Желтоқсан; English: December) Riot of 1986 was a spontaneous nationwide In the following days protests spread to Almaty ( Алматы; formerly known as Alma-Ata ( Алма-Ата) also Verniy, (Верный is the largest city in Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Dinmukhamed (Dimash Akhmeduly Konayev (Дінмұхаммед (Димаш Ахметұлы Қонаев Динмухаммед Ахмедович Кунаев born in Verny now The Communist Party of Kazakhstan ( Qazaqstan Kommunistik Partiyasi) is a Political party in Kazakhstan. Nationalism would then surface in Russia in May 1987, as 600 members of Pamyat, a nascent Russian nationalist group, demonstrated in Moscow and were becoming increasingly linked to Boris Yeltsin, who received their representatives at a meeting. Pamyat ( Russian language: Память; English translation Memory) is a Russian Ultra-nationalist organization identifying Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin () (1 February 1931 23 April 2007 was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999 ^[4]

Glasnost hastened the development of the nationalities problem. (Гла́сность)is literally defined as publicity and sometimes figuratively interpreted as "tipping a vase to let someone see into the vase but not the bottom of the vase" Violence erupted in Nagorno-Karabakh - an Armenian-populated enclave within Azerbaijan - between February and April, when Armenians living in the area began a new wave of protests over the arbitrary transfer of the historically Armenian region from Armenia to Azerbaijan in 1920 upon Joseph Stalin's decision. For the republic see Nagorno-Karabakh Republic Nagorno-Karabakh is a Region in the South Caucasus. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani ^[13] Gorbachev imposed a temporary solution, but it did not last, as fresh trouble arose in Nagorno-Karabakh between June and July. Turmoil would once again return in December, this time in Armenia itself, when the Leninakan Earthquake hit the region on December 7. The Spitak Earthquake (also called Leninakan Earthquake and Gyumri Earthquake) was a tremor with a Magnitude of 6 Poor local infrastructure magnified the hazard and some 25,000 people died. ^[4] Gorbachev was forced to break off his trip to the U.S. and cancel planned travels to Cuba and Britain. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located ^[4]

Elections to the Congress of People's Deputies, which took place throughout the Soviet Union in March and April 1989, returned many pro-independence republicans, as many CPSU candidates were rejected. The televised Congress debates allowed the dissemination of pro-independence propositions. Indeed, 1989 would see numerous nationalistic expressions protests. Initiated by the Baltic republics in January, laws were passed in most non-Russian republics giving precedence for the republican language over Russian. April 9 would see the crackdown of nationalist demonstrations by Soviet troops in Tbilisi. The April 9 tragedy refers to the events in Tbilisi, Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic on April 9, 1989, when an Anti-Soviet demonstration Tbilisi (ˌtbiˈliːsi in Georgian: თბილისი is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Mt'k'vari There would be further bloody protests in Uzbekistan in June, where Uzbeks and Meskhetian Turks clashed in Fergana. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Apart from this violence, three major events that altered the face of the nationalities issue occurred in 1989. Estonia had declared its sovereignty in November, 1988, to be followed by Lithuania in May 1989 and by Latvia in July (the Communist Party of Lithuania would also declare its independence from the CPSU in December). The Communist Party of Lithuania (Lietuvos komunistų partija was a Communist party in Lithuania, established in early October 1918 This brought the Union and the republics into clear confrontation and would form a precedent for other republics.

Following this, in July, on the eve of the anniversary of the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact, it was formally revealed that the treaty did indeed include a plan for the annexation of the Baltic countries into the USSR (as happened in 1940) and the division of Poland between the two countries. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The unsavory past was exposed and gave impetus to the peoples of the Baltic countries who could now even more legitimately claim that they were subject to oppression. Finally, the Eastern bloc collapsed in the autumn of 1989, raising hopes that Gorbachev would extend his non-interventionist doctrine to the internal workings of the USSR. During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were ^[4]

Crisis of the Union, 1990-91

1990 began with nationalist turmoil in January. Azerbaijanis rioted and troops needed to be sent in to restore order; many Moldavians demonstrated in favour of unification with the newly-democratic Romania; and Lithuanian demonstrations continued. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Moldavia (Moldova is a geographic and historical region and former Principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between Eastern Carpathians Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the The same month, in a hugely significant move, Armenia asserted its right to veto laws coming from the All-Union level, thus intensifying the 'war of laws' between republics and Moscow. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani ^[4]

Soon after, the CPSU, which had already lost much of its control, began to lose even more power as Gorbachev deepened political reform. The February Central Committee Plenum advocated multi-party elections; local elections held between February and March returned a large number of pro-independence candidates. The Congress of People's Deputies then amended the Soviet Constitution in March, removing Article 6, which guaranteed the monopoly of the CPSU. The process of political reform was therefore coming from above and below, and was gaining a momentum that would augment republican nationalism. Soon after the constitutional amendment, Lithuania declared independence and elected Vytautas Landsbergis as President. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Professor Vytautas Landsbergis (born October 18, 1932) is a Lithuanian conservative Politician and Member of the ^[4]

On March 15, Gorbachev himself was elected as the first and only President of the Soviet Union by the Congress of People's Deputies and chose a Presidential Council of 15 politicians. Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, The President of the Soviet Union was the Head of State of the USSR from March 15, 1990 to December 25, 1991. Gorbachev was essentially creating his own political support base independent of CPSU conservatives and radical reformers. The new Executive was designed to be a powerful position to guide the spiraling reform process, and the Supreme Soviet and Congress of People's Deputies had already given Gorbachev increasingly presidential powers in February. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Верхо́вный Сове́т СССР Verkhóvnyj Sovét SSSR) was the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union in This would be again a source of criticism from reformers. Despite the apparent increase in Gorbachev's power, he was unable to stop the process of nationalistic assertion. Further embarrassing facts about Soviet history were revealed in April, when the government admitted that the NKVD had carried out the infamous Katyn Massacre of Polish army officers during World War II; previously, the Soviets had blamed the Nazis. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 More significantly for Gorbachev's position, Boris Yeltsin was reaching a new level of prominence, as he was elected Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR in May, effectively making him the de jure leader of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Problems for Gorbachev would once more come from the Russian parliament in June, when it declared the precedence of Russian laws over All-Union level legislation. ^[4]

Gorbachev's personal position continued changing. At XXVIIIth CPSU Congress in July, Gorbachev was re-elected General Secretary but this position was now completely independent of Soviet government, and the Politburo had no say in the ruling of the country. Gorbachev further reduced Party power in the same month, when he issued a decree abolishing Party control of all areas of the media and broadcasting. At the same time, Gorbachev was working to consolidate his Presidential position, culminating in the Supreme Soviet granting him special powers to rule by decree in September in order to pass a much-needed plan for transition to a market economy. However, the Supreme Soviet could not agree on which programme to adopt. Gorbachev pressed on with political reform, his proposal for setting up a new Soviet government, with a Soviet of the Federation consisting of representatives from all 15 republics, was passed through the Supreme Soviet in November. In December, Gorbachev was once more granted increased executive power by the Supreme Soviet, arguing that such moves were necessary to counter "the dark forces of nationalism". Such moves led to Eduard Shevardnadze's resignation; Gorbachev's former ally warned of an impending dictatorship. Eduard Amvrosiyevich Shevardnadze (ედუარდ შევარდნაძე ɛduɑrd ʃɛvɑrdnɑdzɛ (born 25 January 1928 in Mamati, Lanchkhuti This move was a serious blow to Gorbachev personally and to his efforts for reform. ^[4]

Meanwhile, Gorbachev was losing further ground to nationalists. October 1990 saw the founding of DemoRossiya, the Russian nationalist party; a few days later, both Ukraine and Russia declared their laws completely sovereign over Soviet level laws. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. The 'war of laws' had become an open battle, with the Supreme Soviet refusing to recognise the actions of the two republics. Gorbachev would publish the draft of a new union treaty in November, which envisioned a continued union called the Union of Sovereign Soviet Republics , but, going into 1991, the actions of Gorbachev were steadily being overtaken by the centrifugal secessionist forces. The New Union Treaty (Новый союзный договор was a draft treaty that would have replaced the 1922 Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and thus would have replaced ^[4]

January and February would see a new level of turmoil in the Baltic republics. The Baltic states (Balti riigid Baltijas valstis Baltijos valstybės or Baltic countries are three countries in Northern Europe, all members of the On January 10, 1991 Gorbachev issued an ultimatum-like request addressing the Lithuanian Supreme Council demanding the restoration of the validity of the constitution of the Soviet Union in Lithuania and the revoking of all anti-constitutional laws. Declaration of independence The Soviet became important political battleground when in late 1980s Lithuanians sought independence or at least autonomy from the Soviet Union In his Memoirs, Gorbachev asserts that, on January 12, he convened the Council of the Federation and political measures to prevent bloodshed were agreed, including sending representatives of the Council of the Federation on a "fact-finding mission" to Vilnius. However, before the delegation arrived, the local branches of the KGB and armed forces had worked together to seize the TV tower in Vilnius; Gorbachev asked the heads of the KGB and military if they had approved such action, and there is no evidence that they, or Gorbachev, ever approved this move. KGB ( Transliteration of "КГБ" is the Russian abbreviation of Committee for State Security ( Komityet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosty Gorbachev cites documents found in the RSFSR Prokuratura after the August coup, which only mentioned that "some 'authorities'" had sanctioned the actions. ^[4] A book called Alpha – the KGB's Top Secret Unit also suggests that a "KGB operation co-ordinated with the military" was undertaken by the KGB Alpha Group. KGB ( Transliteration of "КГБ" is the Russian abbreviation of Committee for State Security ( Komityet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosty The Alpha (Alfa Group (also known as Spetsgruppa A) is an elite dedicated Counter-terrorism unit that belongs to OSNAZ (special-purpose forces of ^[14] Archie Brown, in The Gorbachev Factor, uses the memoirs of many people around Gorbachev and in the upper echelons of the Soviet political landscape, to implicate General Valentin Varennikov, a member of the August coup plotters, and General Viktor Achalov, another August coup conspirator and later a putschist against Yeltsin in 1993. Archibald Haworth Brown, commonly known as Archie Brown (born 10 May 1938) is a British political scientist and historian Valentin Ivanovich Varennikov (Валентин Иванович Варенников (born December 15, 1923) is a Soviet/Russian general and politician best known Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin () (1 February 1931 23 April 2007 was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999 These persons were characterised as individuals "who were prepared to remove Gorbachev from his presidential office unconstitutionally" and "were more than capable of using unauthorised violence against nationalist separatists some months earlier". Brown criticises Gorbachev for "a conscious tilt in the direction of the conservative forces he was trying to keep within an increasingly fragile coalition" who would later betray him; he also criticises Gorbachev "for his tougher line and heightened rhetoric against the Lithuanians in the days preceding the attack and for his slowness in condemning the killings" but notes that Gorbachev did not approve any action and was seeking political solutions. Archibald Haworth Brown, commonly known as Archie Brown (born 10 May 1938) is a British political scientist and historian ^[15]

As a result of continued violence, at least 14 civilians were killed and more than 600 injured from January 11–13, 1991 in Vilnius, Lithuania. The strong Western reaction and the actions of Russian democratic forces put the president and government of the Soviet Union into an awkward situation, as news of support for Lithuanians from Western democracies started to appear. Further problems surfaced in Riga, Latvia, on January 20 and 21, where OMON (special Ministry of the Interior) troops killed 4 people. Riga (Rīga riːga) the Capital of Latvia, is situated on the Baltic Sea coast on the mouth of the river Daugava. Archie Brown suggests that Gorbachev's response this time was better, condemning the rogue action, sending his condolences and suggesting that secession could take place if it went through the procedures outlined in the Soviet constitution. According to Gorbachev's aide, Shakhnazarov (quoted by Archie Brown), Gorbachev was finally beginning to accept the inevitability of "losing" the Baltic republics, although he would try all political means to preserve the Union. Brown believes that this put him in "imminent danger" of being overthrown by hard-liners against the secession. ^[15]

Gorbachev thus continued to draw up a new treaty of union which would have created a truly voluntary federation in an increasingly democratised Soviet Union. The new treaty was strongly supported by the Central Asian republics, who needed the economic power and markets of the Soviet Union to prosper. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south However, the more radical reformists, such as Russian SFSR President Boris Yeltsin, were increasingly convinced that a rapid transition to a market economy was required and were more than happy to contemplate the disintegration of the Soviet Union if that was required to achieve their aims. Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin () (1 February 1931 23 April 2007 was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999 Nevertheless, a referendum on the future of the Soviet Union was held in March (with a referendum in Russia on the creation of a presidency), which returned an average of 76. 4% in the 9 republics where it was taken, with a turn-out of 80% of the adult population. ^[15] Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Armenia, Georgia and Moldova did not participate. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (საქართველოს საბჭოთასოციალისტური რესპუბლიკა Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania Following this, an April meeting at Novo-Ogarevo between Gorbachev and the heads of the 9 republics issued a statement on speeding up the creation of a new Union treaty. Novo-Ogaryovo (Ново-Огарёво also Novo-Ogarevo, is an estate in the Krylatskoye district of Moscow to the west of the city Meanwhile, Boris Yeltsin was elected President of the Russian Federation by 57. The President of Russia (Президент России or the President of the Russian Federation, Президент Российской 3% of the vote (with a turnout of 74%). ^[4]

The August 1991 coup

Main article: Soviet coup attempt of 1991

In contrast to the reformers' lukewarm approach to the new treaty, the hard-line apparatchiks, still strong within the CPSU and military establishment, were completely opposed to anything which might lead to the break-up of the Soviet Union. The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt ( August 19 - August 21, 1991) also known as the August Putsch or August Coup was a three-day Apparatchik ( Russian: аппара́тчик plural apparatchiki) is a Russian colloquial term for a full-time professional Functionary On the eve of the treaty's signing, the hardliners struck.

Hardliners in the Soviet leadership, calling themselves the 'State Emergency Committee', launched the August coup in 1991 in an attempt to remove Gorbachev from power and prevent the signing of the new union treaty. The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt ( August 19 - August 21, 1991) also known as the August Putsch or August Coup was a three-day The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt ( August 19 - August 21, 1991) also known as the August Putsch or August Coup was a three-day During this time, Gorbachev spent three days (August 19, 20 and 21) under house arrest at a dacha in the Crimea before being freed and restored to power. Dacha ( is a Russian word for seasonal or year-round second homes located in the Exurbs of Soviet and Russian cities Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым However, upon his return, Gorbachev found that neither union nor Russian power structures heeded his commands as support had swung over to Yeltsin, whose defiance had led to the coup's collapse. Furthermore, Gorbachev was forced to fire large numbers of his Politburo and, in several cases, arrest them. Those arrested for high treason included the "Gang of Eight" that had led the coup, including Kryuchkov, Yazov, Pavlov and Yanayev. The Gang of Eight was a group of eight high level officials withhin the Soviet government the Communist party and KGB. Vladimir Alexandrovich Kryuchkov ( Russian: Владимир Александрович Крючков) ( 29 February 1924 &ndash 23 November Dmitri Timofeyevich Yazov ( Дмитрий Тимофеевич Язов in Russian) (born November 8, 1923, Omsk Oblast) was the last For other uses see Pavlov (disambiguation. Valentin Sergeyevich Pavlov (Валентин Сергеевич Павлов September 26, Gennady Ivanovich Yanayev ( Янаев Геннадий Иванович in Russian) (born August 26, 1937) Russian Politician Pugo was found shot; and Akhromeyev, who had offered his assistance but was never implicated, was found hanging in his Kremlin office. Sergei Feodorovich Akhromeev (Сергей Фёдорович Ахромеев 1923 – 1991 Russian Military figure Hero of the Soviet Union (1982 Most of these men had been former allies of Gorbachev's or promoted by him, which drew fresh criticism. ^[4]

Aftermath of the coup and the final collapse

Between August 21 and September 22, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikstan, and Turkmenistan declared their independence. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. Simultaneously, Boris Yeltsin ordered the CPSU to suspend its activities on the territory of Russia and closed the Central Committee building at Staraya Ploschad. Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin () (1 February 1931 23 April 2007 was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999 Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Central Committee most commonly refers to the central executive unit of a Leninist (commonly also Trotskyist) or Communist party, whether ruling or The Russian flag now flew beside the Soviet flag at the Kremlin. View01jpg|thumb|right|250px|Remains of the Kolomna Kremlin]] Kremlin (Кремль Kreml) is the Russian word for "fortress" "citadel" or "castle" In light of these circumstances, Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary of the CPSU on August 24 and advised the Central Committee to dissolve. Gorbachev's hopes of a new Union were further hit when the Congress of People's Deputies dissolved itself on September 5. Though Gorbachev and the representatives of 8 republics (excluding Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldavia, Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) signed an agreement on forming a new economic community on October 18, events were overtaking Gorbachev. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (საქართველოს საბჭოთასოციალისტური რესპუბლიკა Moldavia (Moldova is a geographic and historical region and former Principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between Eastern Carpathians Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region ^[4]

The final blow to Gorbachev's vision was effectively dealt by a Ukrainian referendum on December 1, where the Ukrainian people voted for independence. The presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus met in Belovezh Forest, near Brest, Belarus, on December 8, founding the Commonwealth of Independent States and declaring the end of the Soviet Union in the Belavezha Accords. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Białowieża Primaeval Forest, known as Belaveskaya Pushcha (Белавеская пушча or Belovezhskaya Pushcha in Belarus The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Belavezha Accords (Беловежские соглашения is the Agreement which declared the Soviet Union effectively dissolved and established the Gorbachev was presented with a fait accompli and reluctantly agreed with Yeltsin, on December 17, to dissolve the Soviet Union. Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin () (1 February 1931 23 April 2007 was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Gorbachev resigned on December 25 and the Soviet Union was formally dissolved the next day. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Two days later, on December 27, Yeltsin moved into Gorbachev's old office. Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin () (1 February 1931 23 April 2007 was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999 ^[4]

Gorbachev had aimed to maintain the CPSU as a united party but move it in the direction of social democracy. Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left The inherent contradictions in this approach, praising Lenin, admiring Sweden's social model and seeking to keep the three Baltic states, were difficult enough. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. But when the CPSU was proscribed after the August coup, Gorbachev was left with no effective power base beyond the armed forces. The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt ( August 19 - August 21, 1991) also known as the August Putsch or August Coup was a three-day In the end, Yeltsin won them around with promises of better payment.

Activities after resignation

Following his resignation and the collapse of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev remained active in Russian politics. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Martin Brian Mulroney PC CC GOQ (predominantly known as Brian Mulroney) (born March 20, 1939) was the eighteenth Margaret Hilda Thatcher Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925 The 40th President of the United States, Ronald Wilson Reagan, died on June 5 2004 after suffering from Alzheimer's disease for nearly a decade Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Following a failed run for the presidency in 1996, Gorbachev established the Social Democratic Party of Russia, a union between several Russian social democratic parties. The Social Democratic Party of Russia ( Russian: Социал-демократическая партия России was a Political party founded in Russia Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left He resigned as party leader in May 2004 over a disagreement with the party's chairman over the direction taken in the December 2003 election campaign. The party was later banned in 2007 by the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation due to its failure to establish local offices with at least 500 members in the majority of Russian regions, which is required by Russian law for a political organisation to be listed as party. The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation ( Russian: ru Верховный Суд Российской Федерации is the final instance in Administrative law ^[16] Later that year, Gorbachev founded a new political party, called the Union of Social-Democrats. Union of Social Democrats ( Russian: Союз социал-демократов Soyuz sotsial-demkratov) is an all- Russian non-governmental organization ^[17] In June 2004, Gorbachev represented Russia at the funeral of Ronald Reagan. The 40th President of the United States, Ronald Wilson Reagan, died on June 5 2004 after suffering from Alzheimer's disease for nearly a decade

Gorbachev has also appeared in numerous media events since his resignation from office. In 1993, Gorbachev appeared as himself in the Wim Wenders film, Faraway, So Close!, the sequel to Wings of Desire. Ernst Wilhelm ("Wim" Wenders (born August 14, 1945) is a German Film director, Playwright, Author, Faraway So Close! ( In weiter Ferne so nah!) is a 1993 film by German director Wim Wenders. Wings of Desire is a 1987 Film by the German director Wim Wenders. In 1997, Gorbachev appeared with his granddaughter Anastasia in an internationally-screened television commercial for Pizza Hut. The US corporation's fee for the 60-second ad went to his not-for-profit Gorbachev Foundation. Gorbachev Foundation is a Non-profit organization headquartered in San Francisco California founded in 1992 by the former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev ^[18] In 2007, French luxury brand Louis Vuitton announced that Gorbachev would be shown in an ad campaign for their signature luggage. Louis Vuitton Malletier, commonly referred to as Louis Vuitton ( pronounced /lwi vɥitɔ̃/ or sometimes shortened to LV, is a French luxury fashion

Since his resignation, Gorbachev has remained involved in world affairs. He founded the Gorbachev Foundation in 1992, headquartered in San Francisco, California. Gorbachev Foundation is a Non-profit organization headquartered in San Francisco California founded in 1992 by the former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev The City and County of San Francisco is the fourth most populous city He later founded Green Cross International, with which he was one of three major sponsors of the Earth Charter. Green Cross International is an environmental organization founded by former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1993, building upon the work The Earth Charter is a declaration of fundamental values and principles from Earth Charter International that it considers as necessary for building a just sustainable and peaceful global He also became a member of the Club of Rome. The Club of Rome is a global Think tank that deals with a variety of international political issues On July 27, 2007, Gorbachev criticised recent U. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. S. foreign policy for sowing world disorder. “What has followed are unilateral actions, what has followed are wars, what has followed is ignoring the U. N. Security Council, ignoring international law and ignoring the will of the people, even the American people,” he said. ^[19] In 2007, Gorbachev on a visit to New Orleans promised to a crowd of listeners that he would return in 2011 to personally lead a local revolution if the U. New Orleans (nʲuːˈɔrliənz nʲuːˈɔrlənz French: La Nouvelle-Orléans) is a major United States port city and the largest city in Louisiana S. government had failed by then to repair the levees. His comments were greeted with enthusiasm by the crowd, but he claimed that revolutionary action should be a last resort. ^[20]

In November 2006, Gorbachev was admitted to a hospital in Munich, Germany after he reported that he was not feeling well. Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. He had an operation on a carotid artery in his neck on November 21, 2006. Events 164 BC - Judas Maccabaeus, son of Mattathias of the Hasmonean family restores the Temple in Jerusalem. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. He returned to Russia on December 9, 2006. Events 536 - Byzantine General Belisarius enters Rome while the Ostrogothic garrison peacefully leaves the city Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.

He is now a member of the Club of Madrid. The Club of Madrid is an independent organization created for the purpose of promoting Democracy and change in the global community.

Honours and accolades

• 
  In 1990, Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his leading role in the peace process which today characterises important parts of the international community". The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by The Ronald Reagan Freedom Award is the highest civilian honor bestowed by the private Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. The Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Center for Public Affairs is the Presidential library of Ronald Wilson Reagan, the 40th President of the United States The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor

• On May 4, 1992, Gorbachev was awarded the first ever Ronald Reagan Freedom Award at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) The Ronald Reagan Freedom Award is the highest civilian honor bestowed by the private Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. The Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Center for Public Affairs is the Presidential library of Ronald Wilson Reagan, the 40th President of the United States Simi Valley is an incorporated city located in the southeast corner of Ventura County, California, bordering the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. ^[21]

• In 1993 Gorbachev was awarded a Legum Doctor, honoris causa from Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada. This article is about the university in Ottawa Ontario Canada Ottawa (ˈɒtəwə or sometimes /ˈɒtəwɑː/ is the Capital of Canada and the country's fourth largest municipality. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page

• In 1995, Gorbachev received an Honorary Doctorate from Durham University, County Durham, England for his contribution to "the cause of political tolerance and an end to Cold War-style confrontation". Durham University is a University in Durham, England. It was founded as the University of Durham (which remains its official and legal name England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland ^[22]

• For his historic role in the evolution of glasnost, and for his leadership in the disarmament negotiations with the United States during the Reagan administration, Gorbachev was awarded the Courage of Conscience award October 20, 1996. The United States Presidency of Ronald Reagan, also known as the Reagan Administration, was a Republican administration headed by ^[23]

• Gorbachev, together with Bill Clinton and Sophia Loren, were awarded the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children for their recording of Sergei Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf. William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19 1946 served as the forty-second President of the United States Sophia Loren (born September 20 1934 is an Academy Award winning Italian film actress born Sofia Villani Scicolone The Grammy Awards (originally called the Gramophone Awards)—or Grammys —are presented annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences The Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children has been awarded since 1994 Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev (Серге́й Серге́евич Проко́фьев Sergéj Sergéjevič Prokófjev) ( - 5 March 1953 was a Russian composer who Peter and the Wolf is a composition by Sergei Prokofiev written in 1936 after his return to the Soviet Union.

• In 2005, Gorbachev was awarded the Point Alpha Prize for his role in supporting German reunification. German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung took place twice after 1945 first in 1957 the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany He also received an honorary doctorate from the University of Münster. The University of Münster ( German Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, WWU is a public University located in the city of Münster ^[24]

Religious affiliation

Gorbachev was baptised in the Russian Orthodox Church as a child. See also Eastern Orthodox Church Structure and organization The Slavic Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure He campaigned for establishment of freedom of religion laws in the former Soviet Union.

Gorbachev has also expressed pantheistic views, saying, in an interview with the magazine Resurgence, "Nature is my god. Pantheism ( Greek: πάν ( 'pan') = all and θεός ( 'theos') = God it literally means " God is All "^[25]

Remarks by Gorbachev to Ronald Reagan in discussions during their summits, made the President deeply intrigued by the possibility that the leader of the Evil Empire might be a "closet Christian. " Reagan seems to have seen this as the most interesting aspect of his meeting with the Soviet leader in Geneva. ^[26]

At the end of a November 1996 interview on CSPAN's Booknotes, Gorbachev described his plans for future books. He made the following reference to God: "I don't know how many years God will be giving me, [or] what His plans are. " ^[27]

Gorbachev was the recipient of the Athenagoras Humanitarian Award of the Order of St. Andrew Archons of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople on 20 November, 2005^[28]. The Archons of the Ecumenical Patriarchate are honorees of the Patriarch of Constantinople, who have been selected from among the Laity due to service to those portions History Early history Christianity in Byzantium existed from the time of the Twelve Apostles, but it was in the year 330 that the Roman Emperor

On March 19 2008, during a surprise visit to pray at the tomb of Saint Francis in Assisi, Italy, Gorbachev made an announcement which has been interpreted to the effect that he was a Christian. For the opera by Olivier Messiaen see Saint-François d'Assise. Assisi (əˈsiːzi or /əˈsiːsi/ ( Latin: Asisium) is a Town in Italy in Province of Perugia, Italy, in the Umbria Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Gorbachev stated that "St Francis is, for me, the alter Christus, the other Christ. Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " His story fascinates me and has played a fundamental role in my life. " He added, "It was through St Francis that I arrived at the Church, so it was important that I came to visit his tomb. "^[29]

However, a few days later, he reportedly told the Russian news agency Interfax, "Over the last few days some media have been disseminating fantasies—I can't use any other word—about my secret Catholicism, [. Interfax (Интерфакс is a Russian non-governmental News agency based in Moscow. . . ] To sum up and avoid any misunderstandings, let me say that I have been and remain an atheist. "^[30]. In response, a spokesman for the Russian Orthodox patriarch Alexei II told the Russian media: "In Italy, he (Gorbachev) spoke in emotional terms, rather than in terms of faith. See also Eastern Orthodox Church Structure and organization The Slavic Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure He is still on his way to Christianity. If he arrives, we will welcome him. "^[30]

Naevus flammeus

Gorbachev is the most famous person in modern times with visible naevus flammeus. A port-wine stain or naevus flammeus is a vascular Birthmark consisting of superficial and deep dilated capillaries in the Skin which The crimson birthmark on the top of his bald head was the source of much satire among critics and cartoonists. A birthmark is a Blemish on the Skin formed before Birth. A little over 1 in 10 babies have a Vascular birthmark Contrary to some accounts, it is not rosacea. Rosacea (rəʊˈzeɪʃə is a common but often misunderstood condition that is estimated to affect over 45 million people worldwide In his official photos as a Politburo member this birthmark was removed. Politburo, short for Political Bureau, Russian Politicheskoye Buro, is the executive organization for a number of Political parties, most notably

Though some suggested that it be surgically removed, Gorbachev opted not to, as once he was publicly known to have the mark, he believed it would be perceived as him being more concerned with his appearance than other, more important issues. ^[31]

See also

• History of the Soviet Union
• Black January – Soviet massacre of Azeris in 1990
• Soviet Union
• Earth Charter
• Eduard Shevardnadze, senior Gorbachev ally and twice his Foreign Minister – later President of Georgia from 1995 until he resigned on 23 November 2003 in that country's Rose Revolution. History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union is covered in the following series of articles Black January ( Azeri: Qara Yanvar) also known as Black Saturday or the January Massacre was a crackdown of Azeri protest demonstrations The Azerbaijanis are an Ethnic group mainly in the Republic of Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Earth Charter is a declaration of fundamental values and principles from Earth Charter International that it considers as necessary for building a just sustainable and peaceful global Eduard Amvrosiyevich Shevardnadze (ედუარდ შევარდნაძე ɛduɑrd ʃɛvɑrdnɑdzɛ (born 25 January 1928 in Mamati, Lanchkhuti The President of Georgia (საქართველოს პრეზიდენტი is the Commander-in-chief of Georgia. The "Revolution of Roses quot (often translated into English as the Rose Revolution) (ვარდების რევოლუცია - vardebis
• Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, key Gorbachev advisor and ally
• Sergei M. Plekhanov, other former Gorbachev advisor on the United States and Canada. See Alexander Yakovlev for other individuals with the same name Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, Александр Николаевич Sergei M Plekhanov (born 1946 in Moscow, Russia) is a former Russian Soviet Government adviser and former Deputy Director of the Institute for The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page

Other meanings

• Raisa Gorbacheva, wife of Mikhail, died of leukaemia 1999
• Yuri Gorbachev, famous Russian-American painter and sculptor, nephew of Mikhail Gorbachev
• Gorbachevo, a place in Belarus
• Gorbachevo, a place near Smolensk in Russia

References

Further reading

Primary sources

• Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and the World, Perennial Library, Harper & Row, 1988, ISBN 0-06-091528-5
• Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs, Doubleday, 1996, ISBN 0-385-48019-9
• Mikhail Gorbachev Moral Lesson of the Twentieth Century with Daisaku Ikeda (2005)

• "At Historic Crossroads: Documents on the December 1989 Malta Summit" in Cold War International History Project Bulletin 2001 (12-13): 229-241. is president of Soka Gakkai International (SGI a Buddhist association which claims 12 million members in more than 190 countries and territories and founder of several educational ISSN 1071-9652

Secondary sources

• Anders Åslund, Gorbachev's Struggle for Economic Reform Cornell University Press, 1991
• Archie Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-19-288052-7
• Farnham, Barbara. Anders Åslund (andəʂ oːslʉnd (born 1952) is a Swedish Economist and expert on Economic transition from centrally planned to market "Reagan and the Gorbachev Revolution: Perceiving the End of Threat" Political Science Quarterly 2001 116(2): 225-252. ISSN 0032-3195
• Marshall Goldman, What Went Wrong with Perestroika? W. W. Norton, 1992
• Jackson, William D. "Soviet Reassessment of Ronald Reagan, 1985–1988" Political Science Quarterly 1998–1999 113(4): 617-644. ISSN 0032-3195
• Jack Matlock, Reagan and Gorbachev: How the Cold War Ended (2004)
• Jack Matlock, Autopsy on an Empire: The American Ambassador's Account of the Collapse of the Soviet Union (1995)
• David Remnick, Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire (New York: Random House, 1993)_. David Remnick (born October 29, 1958 in Hackensack, New Jersey) is an American Journalist, Writer, and Lenin's Tomb The Last Days of the Soviet Empire is a bestselling work by David Remnick.
• Robert Strayer, Why Did the Soviet Union Collapse? Understanding Historical Change M. E. Sharpe. 1998

External links

• MikhailGorbachev.org
• The Gorbachev Foundation
• Public Opinion about Gorbachev
• The Encyclopaedia of Marxism, from which parts of this article have been taken.
• Green Cross International official site
• Mikhail S. Gorbachev Biography, in Russian
• Out in the Cold Guardian interview March 8, 2005
• TIME 100 for 2004: Mikhail Gorbachev
• CNN Cold War – Profile: Mikhail Gorbachev from the 1998 series
  • September 1997 interview
• Biography, talks, tributes and quotes
• Ubben Lecture at DePauw University
• Mikhail Gorbachev's Project Syndicate op/eds
• Commanding Heights: Mikhail Gorbachev (PBS interview), April 2001. The Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS) is a Non-profit Public broadcasting Television service with 354 member TV stations in the
• USSR – USA: Summit Documents and Materials, Washington May 30 – June 3, 1990
• Truth
• [1] Gorbachev to speak at University of Dallas as McDermott Guest Lecturer
• Works by or about Mikhail Gorbachev in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

Preceded by Konstantin Chernenko	General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1985–1991	Succeeded by Vladimir Ivashko
Preceded by Andrei Gromyko as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet	Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (1988–1989) Chairman of the Supreme Soviet (1989–1990) President of the Soviet Union (1990–1991) 1988–1991	Succeeded by Ivan Korotchenya as Executive Secretary of CIS The Soviet Union was dissolved and replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States
Preceded by -	Recipient of The Ronald Reagan Freedom Award 1992	Succeeded by Colin Powell

Persondata
NAME	Gorbachev, Mikhail
ALTERNATIVE NAMES	Горбачёв, Михаи́л Серге́евич (Russian); Gorbačëv, Mihail Sergeevič (alternate transliteration); Gorbachyov, Mikhail Sergeyevich (alternate transliteration)
SHORT DESCRIPTION	leader of the Soviet Union
DATE OF BIRTH	March 2, 1931
PLACE OF BIRTH	Privolnoye, Russia
DATE OF DEATH	living
PLACE OF DEATH	living

WorldCat is a Union catalog which itemizes the collections of more than 10000 libraries which participate in the OCLC global cooperative Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko (Константи́н Усти́нович Черне́нко Konstantin Ustinovič Černenko; 24 September 1911 &ndash 10 March 1985 was The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( First Secretary in 1953-1966 was the title synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union after Vladimir Antonovich Ivashko (Владимир Антонович Ивашко Володимир Антонович Івашко (1932&ndash1994 was briefly the acting General Andrei Andreyevich Gromyko (Андре́й Андре́евич Громы́ко Андрэй Андрэевіч Грамыка July 2 1989 was a Soviet politician Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR This position was held by four people at once Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR This position was held by four people at once The President of the Soviet Union was the Head of State of the USSR from March 15, 1990 to December 25, 1991. The Ronald Reagan Freedom Award is the highest civilian honor bestowed by the private Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. Colin Luther Powell, KCB (Honorary MSC, (born April 5, 1937) is a retired General in the United States Army. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Events 986 - Louis V becomes King of the Franks. 1127 - Assassination of Charles the Good Year 1931 ( MCMXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending

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