Mfecane (Zulu name, also known as the Difaqane or Lifaqane in Sesotho), is an African expression which means something like "the crushing" or "scattering". Zulu (called isiZulu in Zulu is a Language of the Zulu people with about 10 million speakers the vast majority (over 95% of whom live in South History Should include probable history of the language what form of Bantu it is most closely derived from (the coolest forms! dates of movement of major groups It describes a period of widespread chaos and disturbance in southern Africa during the period between 1815 and about 1840. Southern Africa is the Southernmost Region of the African Continent, variably defined by Geography or Geopolitics. Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Year 1840 ( MDCCCXL) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year
The Mfecane began between the Tugela River and Pongola River, where Shaka created a militaristic zulu kingdom. Note Tugela redirects here For the Australian racehorse named after the river see Tugela (horse. The Pongola River is a river in South Africa. It is a tributary of the Maputo River. Shaka (sometimes spelled Tshaka, Tchaka or Chaka; ca 1787 – ca Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or The Mfecane spread from there, leading to the formation and consolidation of other groups — such as the Matabele, the Mfengu and the Makololo — and the creation of states such as the modern Lesotho. This article relates to the Ndebele people of Zimbabwe For other uses of the term please see Ndebele. Mfengu are an African ethnic group of South Africa who were forced off their land in 1877 and 1878. The Makololo are a people of Southern Africa, closely related to the Basotho, from which they separated themselves in the early 19th century Lesotho (lɪˈsuːtuː) officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is a Landlocked country and Enclave — entirely surrounded by the Republic of South
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Causes of the Mfecane
There are varying theories on the ultimate causes of this catastrophic, bloody migration of many different tribes in the area. Populations had increased greatly in Zululand. Zululand, the Zulu -dominated area of northern KwaZulu-Natal Province in South Africa, extends along the coast of the Indian Ocean from the Tugela The introduction of maize (corn) from the Americas through the Portuguese in Mozambique was a factor. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa Maize produced more food than indigenous grasses on the same land, and thus could sustain the larger population, at the price of greater water usage. It also allowed Shaka to raise a standing army, growing crops not being a part of their duties. By the end of the 1700s much of the arable land was now occupied. In Geography, arable land (from Latin arare, to Plough) is an agricultural term meaning land that can be used for Declining rainfall, and ten-year drought in the early 1800s meant that a battle for land and water resources began in earnest.
Other possible causes are the new tactics and weapons developed by the Zulus during this period. Instead of using throwing spears, the Zulus started to use broad bladed stabbing spears known as iklwa, which could be used very efficiently in close combat. An assegai or assagai (originally Berber zaġāya "spear" from Old French azagaie Old Spanish azagaya The Zulus also instituted a form of conscription where every man had to serve the king as soldier in special age regiments, known in English as Impis. An Impi is an isiZulu word for any armed body of men However in English it is often used to refer to a Zulu Regiment, which is called an ibutho in Not all peoples affected by the Mfecane adopted this practice, but many of the Nguni peoples did.
Rise of the Zulu
In about 1817, Dingiswayo of the Mthethwa group in the south near the Tugela River, entered into an alliance with the Tsonga controlling the trade routes to Delagoa Bay (now Maputo). Year 1817 ( MDCCCXVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Dingiswayo (c1780 - 1817 was a Mthethwa chief best known for his mentorship over a young Zulu general Shaka Zulu, who rose to become the greatest of The Mthethwa Paramountcy, sometimes referred to as the Mthethwa Empire, was a Southern African state that arose in the 1700s south of Delagoa Bay and inland in eastern Note Tugela redirects here For the Australian racehorse named after the river see Tugela (horse. The Shangaan (Vatsonga or Vitsonga are a large group of people living mainly in southern Mozambique in Maputo and in Gaza Province; there is also Maputo Bay (Baia de Maputo formerly Delagoa Bay is an Inlet of the Indian Ocean on the coast of Mozambique, between 25 40 and 26 20 S Maputo, formerly Lourenço Marques, is the Capital and largest city of Mozambique. This alliance encroached on the existing routes used by the Ndwandwe alliance, who occupied the region in the north, near the Pongola River. The Ndwandwe clan are a subgroup of the Nguni people who populate sections of Southern Africa The Pongola River is a river in South Africa. It is a tributary of the Maputo River. Battles between Dingiswayo and Zwide of the Ndwandwe probably mark the start of what became the Mfecane. King Zwide or Nkosi Zwide kaLanga (1758 - 1825 was the chief of the Ndwandwe clan from about 1805 to around 1820 The Ndwandwe clan are a subgroup of the Nguni people who populate sections of Southern Africa
After the Mthethwa were beaten by Zwide, and Dingiswayo killed, many of the Mthethwa leaders formed a confederation with the Zulu clan, under the leadership of Shaka. The Zulu ( IsiZulu: amaZulu) are the largest South African ethnic group of an estimated 10-11 million people who live mainly in the province of KwaZulu-Natal Shaka (sometimes spelled Tshaka, Tchaka or Chaka; ca 1787 – ca The Zulus conquered and assimilated smaller clans in the area, and the Battle of Gqokli Hill marked the start of his conquest of the Ndwandwe. The Battle of Gqokli Hill was conducted in 1818, a part of the Zulu Civil War, between Shaka of the Zulu nation and Zwide of the
Only the women and young men of a clan or village were welcomed by the Zulus. The elderly and men of fighting age were often either killed or escaped. Escapees quickly learned the tactics of the Zulus, and in turn descended upon more distant clans unfamiliar with the new order.
Consequences of the Mfecane for the Nguni tribes
In 1821 the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan defied Zulu king Shaka, and set up his own kingdom. Year 1821 ( MDCCCXXI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year Mzilikazi (meaning The Great Road) (ca 1790 - 9 September 1868) also sometimes called Mosilikatze was a Southern African king He quickly made many enemies, not only with the Zulu king, but also with the Boers, Griqua and Tswana. Boer (ˈbuːr in Dutch ˈbʊɚ/ /boʊɚ or /ˈbɔr/ in English is the Dutch word for Farmer which came to denote the descendants of the proto Afrikaans The Griqua ( Afrikaans Griekwa, sometimes incorrectly called Korana) are a subgroup of South Africa 's heterogeneous and Multiracial Tswana ( Motswana, plural Batswana) is the name of a Southern African people Defeats in several clashes convinced Mzilikazi to move north towards Swaziland. Moving northwards and then inland westwards along the watershed between the Vaal and the Limpopo River Mzilikazi and his followers (called Matabele in English) established an Ndebele state at just north-west of the city of Pretoria. This is for the river for the extraterrestrial robot deity see The Apple (Star Trek The Vaal River is the largest tributary of the Orange The Limpopo River rises in central southern Africa, and flows generally eastwards to the Indian Ocean. This article relates to the Ndebele people of Zimbabwe For other uses of the term please see Ndebele. During this period the Matabele left a trail of destruction and devastation in their wake. [1] During 1837-38 the Matabele were driven north of the Limpopo by the arrival of the Boer settlers, and they settled in an area now known as Matabeleland, in an area which is today in the south Zimbabwe. Modern day Matabeleland is a region in Zimbabwe currently divided into two provinces Matabeleland North and Matabeleland South. See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election He set up his new capital in Bulawayo. Bulawayo is the second largest city in Zimbabwe, after the capital Harare, with a population of 676000 (UN Humanitarian Co-ordinator Zimbabwe 2005 now estimated [2]
Shoshangane, one of Zwide's generals, fled to Mozambique with the remainder of the Ndwandwe after their defeat by Shaka at the Battle of Mhlatuze River in 1818. Soshangane was a General of the Zulu King Shaka who broke away from Shaka's Hegemony and carved out a Nguni empire of conquest ( Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa The Battle of Mhlatuze River was a battle fought between the Zulu and Ndwandwe tribes in 1820 following the Zulu Civil War. Year 1818 ( MDCCCXVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common There they established the Gaza kingdom. They oppressed the Tsonga living there, some of whom fled over the Lebombo Mountains into the Northern Transvaal. The Shangaan (Vatsonga or Vitsonga are a large group of people living mainly in southern Mozambique in Maputo and in Gaza Province; there is also The Lebombo Mountains, also called Lubombo Mountains, are a long narrow range of mountains in Southern Africa stretching from Hluhluwe in KwaZulu-Natal In 1833 Shoshangane invaded various Portuguese settlements, and was initially successful. Year 1833 ( MDCCCXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common A combination of internal disputes and war against the Swazi lead to the downfall of the Gaza. [3]
The Ngwane people lived in present-day Swaziland, settled in the southwest, and warred periodically with the Ndwandwe. The Kingdom of Swaziland is a country located in Southern Africa centred at approximately 26o49'S 31o38'E Ngwane leader Sobhuza led his people to higher elevations around 1820 to escape Zulu attacks. Sobhuza can refer to Sobhuza I of Swaziland Sobhuza II of Swaziland In this period the Ngwane became known as the Swazi, and Sobhuza established the Swazi kingdom in what is now central Swaziland. The Kingdom of Swaziland is a country located in Southern Africa centred at approximately 26o49'S 31o38'E
Zwangendaba of the Jere or Gumbi clan, a commander of the Ndwandwe army, fled north with Soshangane after his defeat in 1819. Zwangendaba (c 1785 – 1848 was the king of the Ngoni people for more than thirty years from approximately 1815 to his death in 1848 The Ndwandwe clan are a subgroup of the Nguni people who populate sections of Southern Africa Year 1819 ( MDCCCXIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar in the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year Zwangendaba's followers were henceforth called Ngoni and continued north of the Zambezi river, where they formed a state in the region between Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika. The Ngoni people are an ethnic group living in Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia, in east-central Africa. Lake Malawi (also known as Lake Nyasa, Lake Nyassa, Lake Niassa, and Lago Niassa in Mozambique) is the most southerly Lake Lake Tanganyika is a large Lake in central Africa (3° 20' to 8° 48' South and from 29° 5' to 31° 15' East Maseko lead another part of the Ngoni people and founded another state to the east of Zwangendaba's kingdom. The Ngoni people are an ethnic group living in Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia, in east-central Africa. Zwangendaba (c 1785 – 1848 was the king of the Ngoni people for more than thirty years from approximately 1815 to his death in 1848 [4]
To the east, escapees were assimilated into the Xhosa-speaking groups in present day Eastern Cape Province, becoming the Mfengu. See also Xhosa language The Xhosa (ǁʰɔsɑ( people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two The Eastern Cape is a province of South Africa. Its capital is Bhisho. Mfengu are an African ethnic group of South Africa who were forced off their land in 1877 and 1878. They were subjected to successive waves of attack, and were pressed from the West by the British.
Consequences of the Mfecane for the Sotho-Tswana peoples
Moshoeshoe I gathered the mountain clans together in an alliance against the Zulus. Moshoeshoe moʊˈʃweɪʃweɪ (c1786 - March 11 1870) was born at Menkhoaneng in the Northern part of present-day Lesotho. Using a combination of fortifying the easily defended hills and cavalry raids, he fought against his enemies with some success, despite not adopting the Zulu tactics, like most of his neighbors. The territory of Moshoeshoe I became the kingdom of Lesotho. Lesotho (lɪˈsuːtuː) officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is a Landlocked country and Enclave — entirely surrounded by the Republic of South [5]
Sebitwane gathered the Kololo tribe somewhere near modern Lesotho and wandered north across what is now Botswana, plundering and killing many of the Tswana people in the way. Sebetwane (d July 7, 1851) was a Basotho chief who after the Mfecane generated by the Zulu king Shaka migrated The Makololo are a people of Southern Africa, closely related to the Basotho, from which they separated themselves in the early 19th century Lesotho (lɪˈsuːtuː) officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is a Landlocked country and Enclave — entirely surrounded by the Republic of South The Republic of Botswana (Lefatshe la Botswana is a Landlocked nation in Southern Africa. Tswana ( Motswana, plural Batswana) is the name of a Southern African people They finally settled north of the Zambezi river in Barotseland, where they made themselves rulers of the Lozi people. Barotseland is a region in the western part of Zambia, and is the homeland of the Lozi people or Barotse who were previously known as Luyi or Aluyi The Lozi people are an ethnic group primarily of western Zambia, inhabiting the region of Barotseland. [6]
The Tswana were pillaged by two large invasion forces set on the move by the Mfecane. Tswana ( Motswana, plural Batswana) is the name of a Southern African people The first of these were the Kololo, which reached what is now Botswana in 1826. The Makololo are a people of Southern Africa, closely related to the Basotho, from which they separated themselves in the early 19th century The Republic of Botswana (Lefatshe la Botswana is a Landlocked nation in Southern Africa. The second was the passage of Mzilikazi across Tswana territory in 1837. Mzilikazi (meaning The Great Road) (ca 1790 - 9 September 1868) also sometimes called Mosilikatze was a Southern African king Neither of these invasion forces established a state within Tswana territory, and continued north instead. [7]
Controversies
In 1988, Rhodes University professor Julian Cobbing advanced a controversial new hypothesis on the rise of the Zulu state, which contended the 'Mfecane' to be a self-serving constructed product of Apartheid politicians and historians. Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) Rhodes University is a university in South Africa named after Cecil Rhodes. Julian Raymond Dennis Cobbing (born June 1944 London) is an English Historian, and Professor of History at Rhodes University ( According to Cobbing, the Mfecane has been mischaracterized by Apartheid historians as a period of internally-induced black-on-black destruction. Instead, argued Cobbing, the roots of the conflicts can be found in the actions of European slave traders.
Cobbing's hypothesis (now known by many historians as the "Cobbing Controversy") remains controversial, although many agree that Cobbing's analysis offered several key breakthroughs and insights into the nature of early Zulu society. Some critics assert that revisionist theories like Cobbing's place too much weight on environmental factors and ignore the key roles played by dynamic human actors like the Zulu king Shaka. Shaka (sometimes spelled Tshaka, Tchaka or Chaka; ca 1787 – ca Historian Elizabeth Eldredge challenged Cobbing's thesis on the grounds that the European slave trade was not dominant enough at the time of the Mfecane to have had any meaningful influence, while acknowledging that placing the fault entirely on the Zulus was a result of heavily biased analysis.
A balanced view of the massive upheaval of the Mfecane would certainly point to Zulu expansion as a major factor. It seems clear that aggressive Zulu military activities sparked a tremendous ferment of change. Other factors must be added into the mix, including population pressures; corn crops from Europe; and white encroachment and expansion in the general area, including slaving and Portuguese activities in Mozambique.
See also
Sources
- ^ Path Of Blood 2nd Ed. Gazaland is the historical name for the region in southeast Africa, in modern day Mozambique and Zimbabwe, which extends northward from the Komati The military history of South Africa chronicles a vast time period and complex events from the dawn of history until the present time Shaka (sometimes spelled Tshaka, Tchaka or Chaka; ca 1787 – ca 1979, Peter Becker, Penguin Press, Cape Town
- ^ Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 5
- ^ Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 5
- ^ Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 5
- ^ Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 5
- ^ A history of Ngamiland. 1750-1906. Thomas Tlou.
- ^ A history of Ngamiland. 1750-1906. Thomas Tlou.
One outstanding example of the traditional view of the Mfecane is J. D. Omer-Cooper's "The Zulu Aftermath".
A convincing refutation of the idea of Mfecane can be found in Norman Etherington's The Great Treks: The Transformation of Southern Africa, 1815-1854
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