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Mexican-American War

A painting of the Battle of Veracruz. The Battle of Veracruz was a 20-day Siege of the key Mexican seaport of Veracruz, during the Mexican-American War.
Date 1846-1848
Location Texas, New Mexico, California; Northern, Central and Eastern Mexico; Mexico City
Result United States victory; the signing of Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and Mexican Cession. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ( Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo in Spanish) is the Peace treaty, largely dictated by the United States to The Mexican Cession is a historical name for the region of the present day southwestern United States that was ceded to the U
Belligerents

United States

Mexico
Commanders
James K. Polk
Zachary Taylor
Winfield Scott
Stephen W. Kearny		 Antonio López de Santa Anna
Mariano Arista
Pedro de Ampudia
José Mariá Flores
Strength
78,790 soldiers 25,000–40,000 soldiers
Casualties and losses
KIA: 1733
Total dead: 13,271
Wounded: 4,152

AWOL: 9,200+[1]

 5,000~ KIA
800~ Civillians Killed
Unknown killed from disease [2]

The Mexican-American War was an armed military conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. James Knox Polk ( November 2 1795&ndashJune 15 1849 was the eleventh President of the United States, serving from March 4 1845 to March 4 1849 Zachary Taylor (November 24 1784 &ndash July 9 1850 was an American military leader and the twelfth President of the United States. Winfield Scott ( June 13, 1786 &ndash May 29, 1866) was a United States Army general Diplomat, and presidential candidate Stephen Watts Kearny (IPA; "Kar-ney" ( August 30, 1794 October 31, 1848) was one of the foremost antebellum frontier officers Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón ( February 21, 1794 &ndash June 21, 1876) often known as Santa Mariano Arista was born in the state of San Luis Potosi 26 July 1802 died on board the English steamer " Tagus" going from Lisbon Portugal to France 7 August 1855 Pedro de Ampudia (1803-1868 was born in Cuba and served Mexico as an army officer for most of his life General José María Flores (1818 1866 was born in New Spain, an officer in the Mexican Army and was a member of la otra banda was appointed Governor and Killed in action ( KIA or K I A) is a casualty classification generally used by militaries to describe the deaths of their own forces by other In Military terminology desertion is the Abandonment of a " Duty " or post without permission from one's Government or superior The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. S. annexation of Texas. The Texas Annexation of 1845 was the voluntary Annexation of the Republic of Texas by the United States of America as Texas, the Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. Mexico did not recognize the secession and subsequent military victory by Texas in 1836; it considered Texas a rebel province. Secession (derived from the Latin term secessio is the act of withdrawing from an organization union or especially a political entity

In the United States, the conflict was traditionally referred to simply as the Mexican War. In Mexico, it is referred to as La Intervención Norteamericana ("The North American Intervention"), La Invasión Estadounidense ("The United States Invasion"), La Guerra de Defensa ("The Defensive War"), or La Guerra del 47 ("The War of '47").

In the United States, the war was a partisan issue, with most Whigs opposing it and most southern Democrats, animated by a popular belief in the Manifest Destiny (and the opportunity to gain territory for the expansion of slavery), supporting it. The Whig Party was a Political party of the United States during the era of Jacksonian democracy. The Democratic Party is one of two major Political parties in the United States, the other being the Republican Party. Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was destined to expand from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean. In Mexico, the war was considered a matter of national pride.

The most important consequence of the war for the United States was the Mexican Cession, in which the Mexican territories of Alta California and Santa Fé de Nuevo México were ceded to the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The Mexican Cession is a historical name for the region of the present day southwestern United States that was ceded to the U Alta California (Upper California was formed in 1804 when the Province of the Californias, then a part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas in the Santa Fe de Nuevo México (shortened to Nuevo México or Nuevo Méjico, translated as New Mexico) was a province of New Spain that existed The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ( Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo in Spanish) is the Peace treaty, largely dictated by the United States to In Mexico, the enormous loss of territory following the war encouraged its government to enact policies to colonize its northern territories as a hedge against further losses.

Contents

Background

A map of Mexico, 1835-1846.
A map of Mexico, 1835-1846.

After Mexico gained independence from the Spanish Empire at the end of its War of Independence in 1821, the Mexican Empire inherited the provinces of Alta California, Nuevo México, and Texas, from Spain. The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries The Mexican War of Independence (1810 - 1821 was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and Spanish colonial authorities which started on September 16 1810 The Mexican Empire was the official name of independent Mexico under a monarchical regime from 1822 to 1823 Alta California (Upper California was formed in 1804 when the Province of the Californias, then a part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas in the Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. Weakened and virtually bankrupt from the war, the new government found it difficult to govern its northern territories, which were thousands of miles from Mexico City, the capital. Mexico City (in Spanish: Ciudad de México, México DF, México or simply Méjico) is the Capital city of Mexico

Seeking to better control the border region of Texas, which had few settlers, the Mexican government permitted a few hundred U. S. families to settle the area. This, however, led to settlement of Texas on a scale unanticipated by the Mexican government, as its inability to control the border allowed thousands more Americans to settle than had been agreed upon. English-speaking settlers quickly formed a majority in Texas.

Although the United States made overtures to the Mexican government to buy Texas, Mexico, ruled by the short-lived régime of Emperor Agustín Iturbide and then his successor, Antonio López de Santa Anna, staunchly opposed selling any territory. Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu ( September 27, 1783 &ndash July 19, 1824) was Emperor of Mexico as Augustin Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón ( February 21, 1794 &ndash June 21, 1876) often known as Santa Mexico instead intended to colonize its northern provinces with Spanish-speaking settlers.

Texians had become increasingly disillusioned with the Mexican government. Texians were Anglo-American residents of Texas when Texas was part of Mexico, and subsequently when it was a sovereign nation. Many Mexican soldiers garrisoned in Texas were convicted criminals who were given the choice of prison or serving in the army in Texas. Many Texians were also unhappy with the location of their state capital, which moved periodically between Saltillo and Monclova, both of which were in southern Coahuila, some 500 miles (800 km) away; they wanted Texas to be a separate state from Coahuila (but not independent from Mexico) and to have its own capital. Santiago de la Monclova, more commonly known as just Monclova in everyday speech is a city as well as the surrounding municipality They believed a closer location for the capital would help to stem corruption and facilitate other matters of government. Some citizens were accustomed to the rights they had in the U. S. that they did not have in Mexico.

For example, Mexico did not protect freedom of religion, instead requiring colonists to pledge their acceptance of Roman Catholicism. Also, there was discontent with the deal Stephen Austin made with the Mexican government whereby farmers and ranchers had to offer their products first to Mexico before other markets. Stephen Fuller Austin (November 3 1793 &ndash December 27 1836 known as the "Father of Texas " led the second and ultimately successful colonization of the Cotton was in high demand throughout Europe and most settlers wanted to raise cotton for big profits.

But Mexico demanded that the settlers produce corn, grain, and beef and dictated which crops each settler would plant and harvest. Unlike in the states of the Southern United States where slavery was legal, Mexico had abolished slavery in 1829. The Mexican government made little effort to enforce abolition; however, periodic threats from the Mexican Federal government and the state government of Coahuila y Tejas incensed slave holding Texians.

In 1836 Texas had an estimated population of 38,470, 5,000 of whom were slaves. Texians and other states in Mexico were further incensed in 1836 when General Santa Anna abolished the 1824 constitution, replacing it with one that further centralized power in Mexico City. The new centralist constitution enshrined the Siete Leyes, which included secular reforms but granted additional powers to the president, such as the power to close Congress and suppress the judiciary. The Siete Leyes (or Seven Laws) were a series of constitutional instruments that fundamentally altered the organizational structure of the young first Mexican Several states rebelled against the new central government under Santa Anna, including Texas (then a department of the state of Coahuila y Tejas), San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Durango, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Jalisco and Zacatecas. Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. Coahuila y Tejas (or Coahuila and Texas) was one of the constituent states of the newly established United Mexican States under its 1824 Constitution San Luis Potosí is the name of both a state in Mexico and that state's capital city Querétaro (former formal name Querétaro Arteaga) is a state in central Mexico. Durango (duˈɾaŋgo is one of the constituent States of Mexico. Guanajuato is the name of a state in Mexico and that state's capital city as well as a river in the area Michoacán formally Michoacán de Ocampo (from Nahuatl Michhuacān "place of the fishermen" is one of the 31 constituent states Jalisco is a state in Mexico. The capital of Jalisco is the city of Guadalajara. Zacatecas is one of the 31 constituent states of Mexico. It is located in the north-central region and it is bounded to the northwest by Durango Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas withdrew from Mexico and established their own republic in 1840, the Republic of the Rio Grande, which was defeated by Santa Anna that same year. Coahuila, formally Coahuila de Zaragoza is one of Mexico 's 31 component states. Nuevo León ( Spanish for "New León " after the former kingdom in Spain) is a state located in northeastern Mexico. Tamaulipas is one of the 31 states of Mexico, it is located in the northeast The Republic of the Rio Grande existed briefly in North America between the Republic of Texas and Mexico, from January 17 to November The Republic of Yucatán also withdrew from Mexico later, and declared its neutrality in the Mexican-American War. The Republic of Yucatán was a separate Republic that existed briefly on Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula during the 1840s

The Texas Revolution erupted in 1836, after Texas declared its independence from Mexico. The Texas Revolution or Texas War of Independence was fought from October 2 1835 to April 21 1836 between Mexico and the Texas (Tejas portion of the Mexican Mexico responded by invading Texas, where General Santa Anna won major victories in the battles of the Alamo and Goliad. The Battle of the Alamo was fought in February and March 1836 in San Antonio, Texas. The Goliad Campaign refers to a series of battles which occurred in 1836 as part of the Texas Revolution, which ultimately led to the Goliad massacre

On April 21, 1836, the Texans decisively defeated Santa Anna's forces in the Battle of San Jacinto. The Battle of San Jacinto, fought on April 21, 1836, in present-day Harris County Texas, was the decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. Santa Anna himself was taken captive by the Texas militia and released after signing the Treaties of Velasco in which he promised to recognize the sovereignty of the Republic of Texas and the Rio Grande as the boundary between Texas and Mexico. The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service The Treaties of Velasco were two documents signed at Velasco Texas, (which is now Surfside Beach Texas) on 14 May 1836 between Antonio The Republic of Texas was a sovereign Nation in North America between the United States and Mexico that existed from 1836 to The Mexican government, however, refused to acknowledge these concessions, arguing that Santa Anna was not a representative of Mexico, that he had no authority to negotiate on behalf of Mexico, and that he signed away Texas under duress. For English law on the criminal defence see Duress in English law. The Mexican government never ratified the Treaties of Velasco.

Republic of Texas

See also: History of Texas
The Republic of Texas.The present-day outlines of the U.S. states are superimposed on the boundaries of 1836–1845.
The Republic of Texas. The history of Texas as part of the United States began in 1845 but settlement of the region dates back to the end of the Upper Paleolithic Period The Republic of Texas was a sovereign Nation in North America between the United States and Mexico that existed from 1836 to The present-day outlines of the U. S. states are superimposed on the boundaries of 1836–1845.

In the years after 1836, Texas consolidated its position as an independent republic by establishing diplomatic ties with Britain, France, and the United States. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Most Texans were in favor of annexation by the United States, but U. S. President Andrew Jackson rejected it. Andrew Jackson (March 15 1767 June 8 1845 was the seventh President of the United States (1829&ndash1837

Under U. S. President John Tyler, Texas was offered admission to the Union as a slave state [3]. John Tyler Jr (March 29 1790 January 18 1862 was the tenth President of the United States (1841-1845 and the first ever to obtain that office via succession The bill was signed into law on March 1, 1845. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 1845 ( MDCCCXLV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common It was ratified by Texas on July 4. Events 836 - Pactum Sicardi, peace between the Principality of Benevento and the Duchy of Naples Texas became the 28th state on December 28, a law signed by President James K. Polk. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of James Knox Polk ( November 2 1795&ndashJune 15 1849 was the eleventh President of the United States, serving from March 4 1845 to March 4 1849

The Mexican government had long warned that annexation would mean war with the United States. Britain and France, which recognized the independence of Texas, repeatedly tried to dissuade Mexico from declaring war. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. British efforts to mediate were fruitless in part because additional political disputes (particularly the Oregon boundary dispute) arose between Mexico, Britain, and the United States. The Oregon boundary dispute (or Oregon question) arose as a result of competing British and American claims to the Pacific Northwest of

In 1845, President Polk sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico City in an attempt to purchase Mexico's Alta California and Santa Fé de Nuevo México territories. John Slidell (1793 &ndash July 26, 1871) was an American politician lawyer and businessman Mexico City (in Spanish: Ciudad de México, México DF, México or simply Méjico) is the Capital city of Mexico Alta California (Upper California was formed in 1804 when the Province of the Californias, then a part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas in the Santa Fe de Nuevo México (shortened to Nuevo México or Nuevo Méjico, translated as New Mexico) was a province of New Spain that existed U. S. expansionists wanted California to thwart British ambitions in the area and to have a Pacific Ocean port. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions Polk authorized Slidell to forgive the $4. 5 million owed to U. S. citizens for damages caused by the Mexican War of Independence and pay another $25 to $30 million in exchange for the two territories. The Mexican War of Independence (1810 - 1821 was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and Spanish colonial authorities which started on September 16 1810

However, Mexico was not inclined nor in a position to negotiate. In 1846 alone, the presidency changed hands four times, the war ministry six times, and the finance ministry sixteen times. [4] In Mexico, public opinion and all political factions agreed that selling the territories to the United States would tarnish the national honor. [5] Mexicans who opposed open conflict with the United States, including President José Joaquín de Herrera, were viewed as traitors. José Joaquín de Herrera ( Xalapa, Veracruz, February 23, 1792 &ndash February 10, 1854 in Tacubaya, Distrito When de Herrera considered receiving Slidell in order to peacefully negotiate the problem of Texas annexation, he was accused of treason and deposed.

Military opponents of President José Joaquín de Herrera, supported by populist newspapers, considered Slidell's presence in Mexico City an insult. After a more nationalistic government under General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga came to power, the new government publicly reaffirmed Mexico's claim to Texas; Slidell, convinced that Mexico should be "chastised," returned to the United States. Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga ( Mexico City, c January 7, 1797 &ndash September 7, 1849 in Mexico City was an ultraconservative [6]

Opening hostilities

Mexico claimed the Nueces River — about 150 miles (240 km) north of the Rio Grande — as its border with Texas; the United States claimed the Rio Grande as the boundary, citing the 1836 Treaty of Velasco. The Nueces River is a river in the US state of Texas, approximately 315 mi (507 km long The Treaties of Velasco were two documents signed at Velasco Texas, (which is now Surfside Beach Texas) on 14 May 1836 between Antonio Mexico, however, never ratified this treaty. Regardless, the United States used the treaty to advance its cause.

In 1846, after Texas was admitted into the Union, Polk sent militia under General Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande to protect Texas. Zachary Taylor (November 24 1784 &ndash July 9 1850 was an American military leader and the twelfth President of the United States. Taylor ignored Mexican demands to withdraw to the Nueces. He constructed a make-shift fort (later known as Fort Brown) on the banks of the Rio Grande opposite the city of Matamoros, Tamaulipas. Fort Brown was a military post of the United States Army in Texas during the latter half of 19th century and the early part of the 20th century Mexican forces under General Mariano Arista prepared for war. Mariano Arista was born in the state of San Luis Potosi 26 July 1802 died on board the English steamer " Tagus" going from Lisbon Portugal to France 7 August 1855

On April 24, 1846, a 2,000-strong Mexican cavalry detachment attacked a 63-man U. Events 1479 BC - Thutmose III ascends to the throne of Egypt, although power effectively shifts to Hatshepsut (according to For the game see 1846 (board game. Year 1846 ( MDCCCXLVI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display The Cavalry (from French cavalerie) is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as Soldiers or Warriors who fought mounted on S. patrol that had been sent into the contested territory north of the Rio Grande and south of the Nueces River. The Mexican cavalry succeeded in routing the patrol, killing 11 U. S. soldiers in what later became known as the Thornton Affair after the slain U. The Thornton Affair, also known as the Thornton Skirmish, was an incident between the military forces of the United States and Mexico. S. officer who was in command. A few survivors returned to Fort Brown.

May 3 began the Siege of Fort Texas. Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João The Siege of Fort Texas marked the beginning of active campaigning by the armies of the United States and Mexico during the Mexican-American War. Mexican artillery at Matamoros opened fire on Fort Texas, which replied with its own guns. The bombardment continued for five days and expanded as Mexican forces gradually surrounded the fort. Two U. S. soldiers were killed during the bombardment, including Jacob Brown, after whom the fort was later named.

On May 8, Zachary Taylor arrived with 2,400 troops to relieve the fort. Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen However, Arista rushed north and intercepted him with a force of 3,400 at Palo Alto. The Battle of Palo Alto was the first major Battle of the Mexican-American War and was fought on May 8, 1846, on disputed ground five miles The Americans employed "flying artillery," the American term for horse artillery, a type of mobile light artillery that was mounted on horse carriages with the entire crew riding horses into battle. Horse artillery was a type of light fast-moving and fast-firing Artillery which provided highly mobile Fire support to European and American U. S. artillery had a devastating effect on the Mexican Army. The Mexicans replied with cavalry skirmishes and their own artillery. The U. S. flying artillery somewhat demoralized the Mexican side, and seeking terrain more to their advantage, the Mexicans retreated to the far side of a dry riverbed (resaca) during the night. It provided a natural fortification, but during the retreat, Mexican troops were scattered, making communication difficult. During the Battle of Resaca de la Palma the next day, the two sides engaged in vicious hand to hand combat. At the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, one of the early engagements of the Mexican-American War, United States General Zachary Taylor engaged the retreating Hand-to-hand combat (sometimes abbreviated as HTH or H2H is a generic term for Close quarters fighting, particularly when the outcome is potentially fatal as in Melee The U. S. cavalry managed to capture the Mexican artillery, causing the Mexican side to retreat — a retreat that turned into a rout. Fighting on difficult terrain, his troops scattered, Arista found it impossible to rally his forces. Mexican casualties were heavy, and the Mexicans were forced to abandon their artillery and baggage. Fort Brown inflicted further casualties as the withdrawing troops passed by the fort. Many Mexican soldiers drowned trying to swim across the Rio Grande.

Declaration of war

By then, Polk had received word of the Thornton Affair. The Thornton Affair, also known as the Thornton Skirmish, was an incident between the military forces of the United States and Mexico. This, added to the Mexican government's rejection of Slidell, Polk believed, constituted a casus belli. Casus belli is a Latin language expression meaning the justification for acts of war His message to Congress on May 11, 1846 stated that Mexico had "invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople For the game see 1846 (board game. Year 1846 ( MDCCCXLVI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display " A joint session of Congress approved the declaration of war, with southern Democrats in strong support because they saw the annexation of Mexico as an opportunity to increase the number of slave states. Sixty-seven Whigs voted against the war on a key slavery amendment, but on the final passage only 14 Whigs voted no, including Reps. The Whig Party was a Political party of the United States during the era of Jacksonian democracy. Abraham Lincoln and John Quincy Adams. Abraham Lincoln (February 12 1809 &ndash April 15 1865 the sixteenth President of the United States, successfully led his country through its greatest internal John Quincy Adams (July 11 1767 &ndash February 23 1848 was an American diplomat and politician who served as the sixth President of the United States The United States declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846. Events 1497 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola. For the game see 1846 (board game. Year 1846 ( MDCCCXLVI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display Mexico officially declared war on July 7 (sometimes the manifest from President Paredes on May 23 is considered a declaration of war, but only Congress had the power to declare war). Events 1456 - A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga ( Mexico City, c January 7, 1797 &ndash September 7, 1849 in Mexico City was an ultraconservative Events 1430 - Siege of Compiègne: Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians while leading an army to relieve Compiègne Congress (formally Congreso de la Unión or Congress of the Union) is the Legislative branch of the Mexican government.

Opposition to the war

In the United States, most Whigs in the North and South opposed the war; most Democrats supported it. Joshua Giddings led a group of dissenters in Washington D. Joshua Reed Giddings ( October 6, 1795 &ndash May 27, 1864) was an American Statesman prominent in the anti- Slavery C. He called the war with Mexico "an aggressive, unholy, and unjust war," and voted against supplying soldiers and weapons for the war. He said:

"In the murder of Mexicans upon their own soil, or in robbing them of their country, I can take no part either now or here-after. The guilt of these crimes must rest on others. I will not participate in them. "[7]

Fellow Whig, Congressman Abraham Lincoln, contested the causes for the war and demanded to know the exact spot on which Thornton had been attacked and U. S. blood shed. "Show me the spot," he demanded. Whig leader Robert Toombs of Georgia declared:

"This war is a nondescript. Robert Augustus Toombs ( July 2, 1810 &ndash December 15, 1885) was an American political leader Secretary of State of the Confederacy The State of Georgia ( is a state in the United States and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule . . . We charge the President with usurping the war-making power. . . with seizing a country. . . which had been for centuries, and was then in the possession of the Mexicans. . . . Let us put a check upon this lust of dominion. We had territory enough, Heaven knew. "[8]

Northern abolitionists attacked the war as an attempt by slave-owners -- frequently referred to as "the Slave Power" — to expand the grip of slavery and thus assure their continued influence in the federal government. Abolitionism was a political movement of the 18th and 19th century which sought to make Slavery illegal particularly in the United States and British West Indies As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Acting on his convictions, Henry David Thoreau was jailed for his refusal to pay taxes to support the war, and penned his famous essay, Civil Disobedience. Civil Disobedience ( Resistance to Civil Government) is an essay by Henry David Thoreau that was first published in 1849

Former President John Quincy Adams also expressed his belief that the war was fundamentally an effort to expand slavery. John Quincy Adams (July 11 1767 &ndash February 23 1848 was an American diplomat and politician who served as the sixth President of the United States In response to such concerns, Democratic Congressman David Wilmot introduced the Wilmot Proviso, which aimed to prohibit slavery in any new territory acquired from Mexico. This article is about an American politician For the actor of the same name see David Wilmot. The Wilmot Proviso was introduced on August 8, 1846, in the United States House of Representatives as a rider on a $2 million appropriations Wilmot's proposal did not pass Congress, but it spurred further hostility between the factions.

Conduct of the war

After the declaration of war, U. S. forces invaded Mexican territory on two main fronts. The U.S. war department sent a cavalry force under Stephen W. Kearny to invade western Mexico from Fort Leavenworth, reinforced by a Pacific fleet under John D. Sloat. The United States Department of War, sometimes also called the War Office, was the department of the United States government 's executive branch Stephen Watts Kearny (IPA; "Kar-ney" ( August 30, 1794 October 31, 1848) was one of the foremost antebellum frontier officers Fort Leavenworth is a United States Army facility located in Leavenworth County Kansas (just north of the city of Leavenworth) in the upper northeast John Drake Sloat ( July 6, 1781 November 28, 1867) was a commodore in the United States Navy and in 1846 This was done primarily because of concerns that Britain might also attempt to occupy the area. Two more forces, one under John E. Wool and the other under Taylor, were ordered to occupy Mexico as far south as the city of Monterrey. John Ellis Wool ( February 20, 1784 &ndash November 10, 1869) was an officer in the United States Army during three consecutive U This article is about the Mexican city for other uses see Monterrey (disambiguation.

California

See also: History of California
A replica of the first "Bear Flag" now at El Presidio de Sonoma, or Sonoma Barracks.
A replica of the first "Bear Flag" now at El Presidio de Sonoma, or Sonoma Barracks. The History of California is divided into the following articles El Presidio de Sonoma, or Sonoma Barracks, was a military outpost established in Alta California in 1836

When the US declared war against Mexico, on May 13, 1846, it took almost two months (mid-July 1846) for definite word of war to get to California. Events 1497 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola. For the game see 1846 (board game. Year 1846 ( MDCCCXLVI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display U. S. consul Thomas O. Larkin, stationed in Monterey, on hearing rumors of war tried to keep peace between the U. Thomas Oliver Larkin (September 16 1802 - October 27 1858 was an early American emigrant to Mexico and a signer of the original California Constitution. S. and the small Mexican military garrison commanded by José Castro. José Antonio Castro (b Monterey, 1808 d February 1860 was acting governor of Alta California in 1835-1836 and Commandante General of the Mexican U. S. Army captain John C. Frémont with about 60 well-armed men had entered California in December 1845 and was making a slow march to Oregon when they received word that war between Mexico and the U. John Charles Frémont ( January 21, 1813 July 13, 1890) was an American military officer, explorer, the S. was imminent and so began their chapter of the war, the "Bear Flag Revolt". [9]

On June 15, 1846, some 30 settlers, mostly U. Events 763 BC - Assyrians record a Solar eclipse that will be used to fix the Chronology of Mesopotamian history For the game see 1846 (board game. Year 1846 ( MDCCCXLVI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display S. citizens, staged a revolt and seized the small Mexican garrison in Sonoma. Sonoma is a historically significant city in Sonoma Valley, Sonoma County California, USA. They raised the "Bear Flag" of the California Republic over Sonoma. The California Republic, also called the Bear Flag Republic, was the result of a revolt by Americans on June 14 1846, in the town of Sonoma It lasted one week until the U. S. Army, led by Frémont, took over on June 23. Events 1180 - First Battle of Uji, starting the Genpei War in Japan 1305 - The Flemish The California state flag today is based on this original Bear Flag, and still contains the words "California Republic. "

Commodore John Drake Sloat, on hearing of imminent war and the revolt in Sonoma, ordered his naval and marine forces to occupy Yerba Buena (present day San Francisco) on July 7 and raise the U. John Drake Sloat ( July 6, 1781 November 28, 1867) was a commodore in the United States Navy and in 1846 Yerba Buena was the name of a town in the Mexican territory of Alta California that became the city of San Francisco California, after it was claimed by Events 1456 - A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death S. flag, which was accomplished on July 9. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. On July 15, Sloat transferred his command to Commodore Robert F. Stockton, a much more aggressive leader, who put Frémont's forces under his orders. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Christian soldiers take the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem after the final Robert Field Stockton ( 20 August 1795 7 October 1866) was an United States naval commodore, notable in On July 19, Frémont's "California Battalion" swelled to about 160 additional men from newly arrived settlers near Sacramento, and he entered Monterey in a joint operation with some of Stockton's sailors and marines. Events 711 - Muslim forces under Tariq ibn Ziyad defeat the Visigoths led by their king Roderic. The word had been received — the war was official. The U. S. forces easily took over the north of California; within days they controlled San Francisco, Sonoma, and Sutter's Fort in Sacramento.

In Northern California, Mexican General José Castro and Governor Pío Pico fled further south into loyalist Mexico. José Antonio Castro (b Monterey, 1808 d February 1860 was acting governor of Alta California in 1835-1836 and Commandante General of the Mexican Pío de Jesus Pico ( May 5, 1801 September 11, 1894) was the last Mexican Governor of Alta California. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. When Stockton's forces, sailing south to San Diego, stopped in San Pedro, he dispatched 50 US Marines, and entered Los Angeles unresisted on August 13, 1846, known as the Siege of Los Angeles, the nearly bloodless conquest of California seemed complete. San Pedro is a beach community within Los Angeles California, USA Los Angeles (lɑˈsændʒələs los ˈaŋxeles in Spanish) is the largest City in the state of California and the American West Events 3114 BC - According to the Lounsbury correlation the start of the Maya calendar. For the game see 1846 (board game. Year 1846 ( MDCCCXLVI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display The "Siege of Los Angeles" was a military occupation by the United States Marines of the Pueblo de Los Angeles during the Mexican-American war Stockton, however, left too small a force in Los Angeles, and the Californios, acting on their own and without help from Mexico, led by José Mariá Flores, forced the American garrison to retreat in late September. Californio's (Spanish for "Californian" is a term used to identify a Californian of Hispanic and/or Latin-American descent first as a part of New Spain, later General José María Flores (1818 1866 was born in New Spain, an officer in the Mexican Army and was a member of la otra banda was appointed Governor and More than 300 reinforcements sent by Stockton, led by U. S. Navy Captain William Mervine, were repulsed in the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, October 7 through October 9, 1846, near San Pedro, where 14 U.S. Marines were killed. William Mervine ( 14 March 1791 &ndash 15 September 1868) was a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy, whose career included The Battle of Dominguez Rancho (October 8-9 1846 was a military engagement of the Mexican-American War. Events 3761 BC - The epoch (origin of the modern Hebrew calendar ( Proleptic Julian calendar) Events 768 - Carloman I and Charlemagne are crowned Kings of The Franks. For the game see 1846 (board game. Year 1846 ( MDCCCXLVI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display San Pedro is a beach community within Los Angeles California, USA The rancho vaqueros, banded together to defend their land, fighting as Californio Lancers, became a force to deal with the Americans had not planned on. A lancer ( Uhlan) was a type of Cavalryman who fought with a Lance. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Meanwhile, General Stephen W. Kearny, with a squadron of 139 dragoons, finally reached California after a grueling march across New Mexico, Arizona and the Sonora desert, on December 6, 1846, and fought in a small battle with Californio Lancers at the Battle of San Pasqual near San Diego, California, where 22 of Kearny's troops were killed. Stephen Watts Kearny (IPA; "Kar-ney" ( August 30, 1794 October 31, 1848) was one of the foremost antebellum frontier officers A dragoon is a soldier intended primarily to fight on foot but trained also in Horse riding and cavalry combat especially New Mexico ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. The Sonoran Desert (sometimes called the Gila Desert after the Gila River or the Low Desert in opposition to the higher Mojave Desert) is Events 1060 - Béla I of Hungary is crowned king of Hungary 1240 - Mongol invasion of Rus: Kiev For the game see 1846 (board game. Year 1846 ( MDCCCXLVI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display The Battle of San Pasqual (also spelled San Pascual) was a military encounter that occurred during the Mexican-American War in what is now the San Pasqual Kearny's command was bloodied and in poor condition but pushed on until they had to establish a defensive position on "Mule" Hill near present-day Escondido. The Californios besieged the dragoons for four days until Commodore Stockton's relief force arrived. Later, their re-supplied, combined force, marched north from San Diego, entering the Los Angeles area on January 8, 1847, linking up with Frémont's men. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common With U. S. forces totaling 660 soldiers and marines, they fought and defeated an equal Californio force in the decisive Battle of Rio San Gabriel, and the next day, January 9, 1847, they fought the Battle of La Mesa. The Battle of Rio San Gabriel was a decisive action of the California campaign of the Mexican-American War and occurred at the sites of present-day Montebello Events 475 - Byzantine Emperor Zeno is forced to flee his capital at Constantinople. Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common The Battle of La Mesa occurred on January 9, 1847, in present-day Vernon California, the day after the Battle of Rio San Gabriel. On January 12, 1847, the last significant body of Californios surrendered to U. Events 475 - Basiliscus becomes Byzantine Emperor, with a coronation ceremony in the Hebdomon palace in Constantinople Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common S. forces. That marked the end of the war in California. On January 13, 1847, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed. Events 532 - Nika riots in Constantinople. 888 - Odo Count of Paris becomes King of the Franks Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common The Treaty of Cahuenga. usually called the "Capitulation of Cahuenga" ended the fighting of the Mexican-American War in California in 1847

On January 28, 1847, U. Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common S. Army Lieutenant William Tecumseh Sherman and some army units arrived in Monterey, California. The next day, the famous Mormon Battalion commanded by fellow dragoon, Lt. The Mormon Battalion was the only religious "unit" in American military history serving from July 1846 to July 1847 during the Mexican-American War. Col. Philip St. George Cooke arrived at San Diego after making a remarkable march from Council Bluffs, Iowa Territory. Other U. S. forces continued to arrive in California. On March 15, 1847, Col. Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Jonathan D. Stevenson’s Seventh Regiment of New York Volunteers of about 900 men started arriving in California. All of these men were in place when word went out that gold was discovered in California, January 1848.

Northeastern Mexico

The defeats at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma caused political turmoil in Mexico, turmoil which Antonio López de Santa Anna used to revive his political career and return from self-imposed exile in Cuba. Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón ( February 21, 1794 &ndash June 21, 1876) often known as Santa He promised the U. S. troops that if allowed to pass through their blockade, he would negotiate a peaceful conclusion to the war and sell the New Mexico and Alta California territories to the United States. Once he arrived in Mexico, however, he reneged and offered his military skills to the Mexican government. After he had been appointed general he reneged again and seized the presidency.

Led by Taylor, 2,300 U. S. troops crossed the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) after some initial difficulties in obtaining river transport. He occupied the city of Matamoros, then Camargo (where while waiting the soldiery suffered the first of many problems with disease) and then proceeded south and besieged the city of Monterrey. Camargo is a Municipality in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas. This article is about the Mexican city for other uses see Monterrey (disambiguation.

This Battle of Monterrey was a hard fought battle during which both sides suffered serious losses. In the Battle of Monterrey (September 21&ndash23 1846 during the Mexican-American War, General Pedro de Ampudia and the Mexican Army of the North The American light artillery was ineffective against the stone fortifications of the city. The Mexican forces were under General Pedro de Ampudia. Pedro de Ampudia (1803-1868 was born in Cuba and served Mexico as an army officer for most of his life

A U. S. infantry division and the Texas Rangers captured four hills to the west of the town and with them heavy cannon. That lent the U. S. soldiers the strength to storm the city from the west and east. Once in the city, U. S. soldiers fought house to house: each was cleared by throwing lighted shells, which worked like grenades.

Eventually, these actions drove and trapped Ampudia's men into the city's central plaza, where howitzer shelling forced Ampudia to negotiate. Taylor agreed to allow the Mexican Army to evacuate and to an 8-week armistice in return for the surrender of the city. Under pressure from Washington, Taylor broke the armistice and occupied the city of Saltillo, southwest of Monterrey. Santa Anna blamed the loss of Monterrey and Saltillo on Ampudia and demoted him to command a small artillery battalion.

On February 22, 1847, Santa Anna personally marched north to fight Taylor with 20,000 men. Events 1495 - King Charles VIII of France enters Naples to claim the city's throne Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Taylor, with 4,600 men, had entrenched at a mountain pass called Buena Vista. Santa Anna suffered desertions on the way north and arrived with 15,000 men in a tired state. He demanded and was refused surrender of the U. S. army; he attacked the next morning. Santa Anna flanked the U. S. positions by sending his cavalry and some of his infantry up the steep terrain that made up one side of the pass, while a division of infantry attacked frontally along the road leading to Buena Vista.

Furious fighting ensued during which the U. S. troops were almost routed, but were saved by artillery fire against a Mexican advance at close range by Captain Braxton Bragg, and a charge by the mounted Mississippi Riflemen under Jefferson Davis. Braxton Bragg (March 22 1817 &ndash September 27 1876 was a career United States Army officer and then a General in the Confederate States Army, a Jefferson Finis Davis ( June 3, 1808 &ndash December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as President of the Having suffered discouraging losses, Santa Anna withdrew that night, leaving Taylor in control of Northern Mexico. Polk distrusted Taylor, whom he felt had shown incompetence in the Battle of Monterrey by agreeing to the armistice, and may have considered him a political rival for the White House. Taylor later used the Battle of Buena Vista as the centerpiece of his successful 1848 presidential campaign. The Battle of Buena Vista ( 23 February 1847) also known as the Battle of Angostura saw the United States Army use heavy artillery to repulse

Scott's campaign

Rather than reinforce Taylor's army for a continued advance, President Polk sent a second army under General Winfield Scott, which was transported to the port of Veracruz by sea, to begin an invasion of the Mexican heartland. Winfield Scott ( June 13, 1786 &ndash May 29, 1866) was a United States Army general Diplomat, and presidential candidate The city of Veracruz is a major port city and municipality on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. Scott performed the first major amphibious landing in the history of the United States in preparation for the Siege of Veracruz. The Battle of Veracruz was a 20-day Siege of the key Mexican seaport of Veracruz, during the Mexican-American War. A group of 12,000 volunteer and regular soldiers successfully offloaded supplies, weapons and horses near the walled city. Included in the invading force were Robert E. Lee, George Meade, Ulysses S. Grant, and Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson. Robert Edward Lee (January 19 1807 &ndash October 12 1870 was a career United States Army officer, an Engineer, and among the most celebrated George Gordon Meade ( December 31, 1815 &ndash November 6, 1872) was a career United States Army officer and civil engineer involved Ulysses S Grant, born Hiram Ulysses Grant (April 27 1822 &ndash July 23 1885 was an American general and the eighteenth President of the United States Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson (January 21 1824 &ndash May 10 1863 was a Confederate general during the American Civil War, and probably the The city was defended by Mexican General Juan Morales with 3,400 men. Mortars and naval guns under Commodore Matthew C. Perry were used to reduce the city walls and harass defenders. A mortar is a muzzle-loading Indirect fire weapon that fires shells at low velocities short ranges and high-arcing ballistic trajectories Matthew Calbraith Perry ( April 10, 1794 &ndash March 4, 1858) was the Commodore of the U The city replied as best it could with its own artillery. The effect of the extended barrage destroyed the will of the Mexican side to fight against a numerically superior force, and they surrendered the city after 12 days under siege. U. S. troops suffered 80 casualties, while the Mexican side had around 180 killed and wounded, about half of whom were civilian. During the siege, the U. S. side began to fall victim to yellow fever. Yellow fever (also called yellow jack, black vomit or sometimes American Plague) is an acute viral disease

Scott then marched westward toward Mexico City with 8,500 healthy troops, while Santa Anna set up a defensive position in a canyon around the main road at the halfway mark to Mexico City, near the hamlet of Cerro Gordo. The Battle of Cerro Gordo in the Mexican-American War saw Winfield Scott 's US troops flank and drive Santa Anna's larger Mexican army from a strong defensive Santa Anna had entrenched with 12,000 troops and artillery that were trained on the road, along which he expected Scott to appear. However, Scott had sent 2,600 mounted dragoons ahead, and the Mexican artillery prematurely fired on them and revealed their positions. Instead of taking the main road, Scott's troops trekked through the rough terrain to the north, setting up his artillery on the high ground and quietly flanking the Mexicans. Although by then aware of the positions of U. S. troops, Santa Anna and his troops were unprepared for the onslaught that followed. The Mexican army was routed. The U. S. army suffered 400 casualties, while the Mexicans suffered over 1,000 casualties and 3,000 were taken prisoner. In August 1847, Captain Kirby Smith, of Scott's 3rd Infantry, reflected on the resistance of the Mexican army:

“ "What a stupid people they are! They can do nothing and their continued defeats should convince them of it. Edmund Kirby Smith (May 16 1824 – March 28 1893 was a career United States Army officer an educator and a general in the Confederate Army during They have lost six great battles; we have captured six hundred and eight cannon, nearly one hundred thousand stands of arms, made twenty thousand prisoners, have the greatest portion of their country and are fast advancing on their Capital which must be ours,—yet they refuse to [re]treat!"[10] ”

In May, Scott pushed on to Puebla, the second largest city in Mexico. The city of Puebla, officially Heroic Puebla de Zaragoza (nicknamed Angelópolis) is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of Puebla. Because of the citizens' hostility to Santa Anna, the city capitulated without resistance on May 1. Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Mexico City was laid open in the Battle of Chapultepec and subsequently occupied. The Battle of Chapultepec (September 1847 was a US victory over Mexican forces holding Chapultepec Castle west of Mexico City during the Mexican-American Winfield Scott became an American national hero after his victories in the Mexican-American War, and later became military governor of occupied Mexico City. Winfield Scott ( June 13, 1786 &ndash May 29, 1866) was a United States Army general Diplomat, and presidential candidate Mexico City (in Spanish: Ciudad de México, México DF, México or simply Méjico) is the Capital city of Mexico

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Main article: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
The Mexican Cession.
The Mexican Cession. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ( Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo in Spanish) is the Peace treaty, largely dictated by the United States to The Mexican Cession is a historical name for the region of the present day southwestern United States that was ceded to the U

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848 by American diplomat Nicholas Trist, ended the war and gave the U. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ( Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo in Spanish) is the Peace treaty, largely dictated by the United States to Events 962 - Translatio imperii: Pope John XII crowns Otto I Holy Roman Emperor, the first Holy Roman Emperor Year 1848 ( MDCCCXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Nicholas Philip Trist ( June 2 1800 - February 11 1874) was an American Diplomat. S. undisputed control of Texas, established the U. Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. S. -Mexican border of the Rio Grande River, and ceded to the United States the present-day states of California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Wyoming. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Nevada ( is a state located in the western region of the United States of America. The State of Utah (ˈjuːtɔː or) is a western state of the United States. The State of Colorado ( or chiefly by nonresidents) is a state located in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States of America. The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. New Mexico ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. The State of Wyoming ( is a sparsely populated state in the western region of the United States. In return, Mexico received US $15,000,000, — less than half the amount the U. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been S. had attempted to offer Mexico for the land before the opening of hostilities[11] — and the U. S. agreed to assume $3. 25 million in debts that the Mexican government owed to U. S. citizens. The acquisition was a source of controversy at time, especially among U. S. politicians that had opposed the war from the start. A leading U. S. newspaper, the Whig Intelligencer sardonically concluded that:[12][13]

“ We take nothing by conquest. . . . Thank God. ”

The sale of land is known in the United States as the Mexican Cession. The Mexican Cession is a historical name for the region of the present day southwestern United States that was ceded to the U

Prior to ratifying the treaty, the US Senate made two modifications, changing the language of Article IX (which guaranteed Mexicans living in the purchased territories the right to become US citizens), and striking out Article X (which conceded the legitimacy of land grants made by the Mexican government). On May 26 1848, when the two countries exchanged ratifications of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, they further agreed to a three-article protocol (known as the Protocol of Querétaro) to explain the amendments. The first article claimed that the original Article IX of the treaty, although replaced by Article III of the Treaty of Louisiana, would still confer the rights delineated in Article IX. The second article confirmed the legitimacy of land grants pursuant to Mexican law. [14]

The protocol further noted that said explanations had been accepted by the Mexican Minister of Foreign Affairs on behalf of the Mexican Government, and was signed in Querétaro by A. H. Sevier, Nathan Clifford and Luis de la Rosa. [14]

Results

Mexico lost more than 500,000 square miles (about 1,300,000 km²) of land, about 40% of its territory. The annexed territories contained about 1,000 Mexican families in Alta California and 7,000 in Nuevo México. A few relocated further south in Mexico; the great majority remained in the United States. Descendants of these Mexican families have risen to prominence in American life, such as U.S. Senator Ken Salazar, and his brother, U.S. Rep. John Salazar, both from Colorado. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives Kenneth Lee Salazar (born March 2, 1955) is an American politician, rancher and environmentalist from the U The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. The State of Colorado ( or chiefly by nonresidents) is a state located in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States of America.

A month before the end of the war, Polk was criticized in a United States House of Representatives amendment to a bill praising Major General Zachary Taylor for "a war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States. The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. Major General or Major-General is a Military rank used in many countries Zachary Taylor (November 24 1784 &ndash July 9 1850 was an American military leader and the twelfth President of the United States. " This criticism, in which Congressman Abraham Lincoln played an important role with his Spot Resolutions, followed congressional scrutiny of the war's beginnings, including factual challenges to claims made by President Polk. A Member of Congress is a Politician who is a member of a Congress. Abraham Lincoln (February 12 1809 &ndash April 15 1865 the sixteenth President of the United States, successfully led his country through its greatest internal The "spot" resolutions were offered in the United States House of Representatives on 22 December 1847 by Abraham Lincoln Whig representative from Illinois [15][16] The vote followed party lines, with all Whigs supporting the amendment. Lincoln's attack haunted his future campaigns in the heavily Democratic state of Illinois, and was cited by enemies well into his presidency. [17] The stand did not cost Lincoln his Congressional seat in Illinois' Seventh Congressional District; the district was the only place in Illinois where a Whig could win high office, and party leaders agreed to one-term limits for Whig representatives there. Lincoln was succeeded by a Democrat, but the Seventh Congressional District voted for Zachary Taylor, a Whig, that fall. Zachary Taylor (November 24 1784 &ndash July 9 1850 was an American military leader and the twelfth President of the United States. [18]

In much of the United States, victory and the acquisition of new land brought a surge of patriotism (the country had also acquired the southern half of the Oregon Country in 1846 through a treaty with the United Kingdom). Oregon Country or Oregon (to be distinguished from the American State also called Oregon) was a predominantly American term referring to Victory seemed to fulfill citizens' belief in their country's Manifest Destiny. Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was destined to expand from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean. While Whig Ralph Waldo Emerson rejected war "as a means of achieving America's destiny," he accepted that "most of the great results of history are brought about by discreditable means" Although the Whigs had opposed the war, they made Zachary Taylor their presidential candidate in the election of 1848, praising his military performance while muting their criticism of the war itself. Ralph Waldo Emerson (May 25 1803 &ndash April 27 1882 was an American essayist philosopher poet and leader of the Transcendentalist movement in the early 19th century The United States presidential election of 1848 was an open race

Many of the military leaders on both sides of the American Civil War had fought as junior officers in Mexico, including Ulysses S. Grant, George B. McClellan, Ambrose Burnside, Stonewall Jackson, James Longstreet, George Meade, and Robert E. Lee, as well as the future Confederate President Jefferson Davis. Ulysses S Grant, born Hiram Ulysses Grant (April 27 1822 &ndash July 23 1885 was an American general and the eighteenth President of the United States George Brinton McClellan ( December 3 1826 October 29 1885) was a major general during the American Civil War. Ambrose Everett Burnside (May 23 1824 September 13 1881 was an American soldier railroad executive inventor industrialist and politician from Rhode Island, Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson (January 21 1824 &ndash May 10 1863 was a Confederate general during the American Civil War, and probably the James Longstreet (January 8 1821 &ndash January 2 1904 was one of the foremost Confederate Generals of the American Civil War and the principal subordinate George Gordon Meade ( December 31, 1815 &ndash November 6, 1872) was a career United States Army officer and civil engineer involved Robert Edward Lee (January 19 1807 &ndash October 12 1870 was a career United States Army officer, an Engineer, and among the most celebrated The Confederate States of America (also called the Confederacy, the Confederate States, and CSA) formed as the government set up from 1861 Jefferson Finis Davis ( June 3, 1808 &ndash December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as President of the

In Mexico City's Chapultepec Park, the Monument to the Heroic Cadets commemorates the heroic sacrifice of six teenaged military cadets who fought to their deaths rather than surrender to American troops during the Battle of Chapultepec Castle on September 18, 1847. Chapultepec ( Chapoltepēc "at the grasshopper hill" in the Nahuatl language; c Los Niños Héroes (the "Boy Heroes" or "Heroic Cadets" were six teenage military cadets who died defending Mexico at Mexico City 's Chapultepec Events 96 - Nerva is proclaimed Roman Emperor after Domitian is assassinated Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common The monument is an important patriotic site in Mexico. On March 5, 1947, nearly one hundred years after the battle, U. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. S. President Harry S. Truman placed a wreath at the monument and stood for a moment of silence. "One minute silence" redirects here For the band see One Minute Silence.

General Ulysses S. Grant's views about the War

President Ulysses S. Grant, who as a young army officer had served in Mexico under General Taylor, recalled in his Memoirs, published in 1885, that:

"Generally, the officers of the army were indifferent whether the annexation was consummated or not; but not so all of them. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by Ulysses S Grant, born Hiram Ulysses Grant (April 27 1822 &ndash July 23 1885 was an American general and the eighteenth President of the United States The United States Army is a military organization whose primary mission is to "provide necessary forces and capabilities. The Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S Grant is an autobiography of American President Ulysses S For myself, I was bitterly opposed to the measure, and to this day regard the war, which resulted, as one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation. It was an instance of a republic following the bad example of European monarchies, in not considering justice in their desire to acquire additional territory. " [19]

Grant also expressed the view that the war against Mexico had brought God's punishment on the United States in the form of the American Civil War:

"The Southern rebellion was largely the outgrowth of the Mexican war. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South Nations, like individuals, are punished for their transgressions. We got our punishment in the most sanguinary and expensive war of modern times. " [20]

In 1879, while in China during his post presidential world tour, Grant told John Russell Young: "I had very strong opinions on the subject. I do not think there was ever a more wicked war than that waged by the United States on Mexico. I had a horror of the Mexican War, and I have always believed that it was on our part most unjust. The wickedness was not in the way our soldiers conducted it, but in the conduct of our government in declaring was. We had no claim on Mexico. Texas had no claim beyond the Nueces River, and yet we pushed on to the Rio Grande and crossed it. I am always ashamed of my country when I think of that invasion" [21].

Combatants

Although 13,000 U. S. soldiers died during the course of the Mexican-American War, only about 1,700 were killed in combat. Ninety percent died of disease, such as yellow fever. Yellow fever (also called yellow jack, black vomit or sometimes American Plague) is an acute viral disease Mexican casualties are estimated at 25,000.

On the American side, the war was fought by regulars and the volunteers, with the majority of atrocities being committed by volunteers. U. S. soldiers' memoirs describe cases of scalping innocent civilians, the rape and murder of women, the murder of children, the burning of homes, and the desecrating of Catholic religious objects and buildings. Catholic is an Adjective derived from the Greek adjective '' / 'katholikos' meaning "whole" or "complete". One officer's diary records:

"We reached Burrita about 5 pm, many of the Louisiana volunteers were there, a lawless drunken rabble. They had driven away the inhabitants, taken possession of their houses, and were emulating each other in making beasts of themselves. [22]

John L. O'Sullivan, a vocal proponent of Manifest Destiny, later recollected:

"The regulars regarded the volunteers with importance and contempt. John Louis O'Sullivan ( November 15, 1813 – March 24, 1895) was an American columnist and editor who used the term " Manifest . . [The volunteers] robbed Mexicans of their cattle and corn, stole their fences for firewood, got drunk, and killed several inoffensive inhabitants of the town in the streets. "

Many of the volunteers were unwanted and considered poor soldiers. The expression "Just like Gaines's army" came to refer to something useless, the phrase having originated when a group of untrained and unwilling Louisiana troops were rejected and sent back by General Taylor at the beginning of the war.

One of the contributing factors to loss of the war by Mexico was the inferiority of their weapons. The Mexican army was using British muskets from the Napoleonic Wars; furthermore, Mexican troops were trained to fire with their muskets held loosely at hip-level, while U. A musket is a muzzle -loaded Smoothbore Long gun, which is intended to be fired from the shoulder The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions S. soldiers used the more accurate method of butting the rifle up to the shoulder and taking aim along the barrel. In contrast to the aging Mexican standard-issue infantry weapon, some U. S. troops had the latest U. S. -manufactured breech-loading flintlock "Hall's" rifles and Percussion cap Model 1841 rifles. A breech-loading weapon is a Firearm (a Rifle, a Gun etc in which the Bullet or shell is inserted or loaded at the rear of the The percussion cap, introduced around 1830, was the crucial invention that enabled muzzle-loading firearms to fire reliably in any weather A rifle is a Firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of grooves ("rifling" cut into the barrel walls In the later stages of the war, U. S. cavalry and officers were issued Colt revolvers, of which the U. rEVOLVEr is the fourth studio album by Swedish metal band The Haunted. S. army had ordered 1000 in 1846. Throughout the war, the superiority of the U. S. artillery often carried the day.

Political divisions inside Mexico was another factor in the U. S. victory. Inside Mexico, the centralistas and republicanos vied for power, and at times the two factions inside Mexico's military fought each other rather than the invading American army. Another faction called the monarchists, whose members wanted to install a king (some even advocated rejoining Spain) further complicated matters. Monarchism is the advocacy of the establishment preservation or restoration of a Monarchy as a Form of government in a nation A king is a male Monarch, or a Head of state, who may or may not depending on the style of government of a nation exercise monarchal powers over a territory usually This third faction would rise to predominance in the period of the French intervention in Mexico. The French intervention in Mexico, also known as the Maximilian Affair and The Franco-Mexican War, was an invasion of Mexico by the army of the

The Saint Patrick's Battalion (San Patricios) was a group of several hundred immigrant soldiers, the majority Irish, who deserted the U. The Saint Patrick's Battalion ( Spanish: Batallón de San Patricio) was a unit of several hundred Immigrants and Expatriates of European Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world S. Army because of ill-treatment or sympathetic leanings to fellow Mexican Catholics. They joined the Mexican army. Most were killed in the Battle of Churubusco; about 100 were captured by the U. The Battles of Churubusco took place on August 20, 1847, in the immediate aftermath of the Battle of Contreras (Padierna during the Mexican-American S. and roughly half were hanged as deserters.

The last surviving U.S. veteran of the conflict, Owen Thomas Edgar, died on September 3, 1929, at age 98. The last surviving veteran of any particular war upon his or her death marks the end of a historic era Owen Thomas Edgar ( June 17, 1831 &ndash September 3, 1929) was according to data from the United States Department of Veterans Affairs Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius Year 1929 ( MCMXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

Impact of the War in the United States

Despite initial objections from the Whigs and abolitionists, the war would nevertheless unite the United States in a common cause and was fought almost entirely by volunteers. The army swelled from just over 6,000 to more than 115,000. Of this total, approximately 1. 5% were killed in the fighting, and nearly 10% died of disease; another 12% were wounded or discharged because of disease, or both.

For years afterward, Mexican-American War veterans continued to suffer from the debilitating diseases contracted during the campaigns. The casualty rate was thus easily over 25% for the 17 months of the war; the total casualties may have reached 35–40% if later injury- and disease-related deaths are added. In this respect, the war was proportionately the most deadly in American military history.

During the war, political quarrels in the US arose regarding the disposition of conquered Mexico. A strong "All-Mexico" movement urged annexation of the entire territory. Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was destined to expand from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean. Abolitionists opposed that position and fought for the exclusion of slavery from any territory absorbed by the United States. In 1847, the House of Representatives passed the Wilmot Proviso, stipulating that none of the territory acquired should be open to slavery. The Wilmot Proviso was introduced on August 8, 1846, in the United States House of Representatives as a rider on a $2 million appropriations The Senate avoided the issue, and a late attempt to add it to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was defeated.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was the result of Nicholas Trist's unauthorized negotiations. It was approved by the U. S. Senate on 10 March 1848, and ratified by the Mexican Congress on May 25. Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing Year 1848 ( MDCCCXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. Mexico's cession of Alta California and Nuevo México and its recognition of U. S. sovereignty over all of Texas north of the Rio Grande formalized the addition of 3. 1 million km² (1. 2 million mi2) of territory to the United States. In return the United States agreed to pay $15 million and assumed the claims of its citizens against Mexico. A final territorial adjustment between Mexico and the United States was made by the Gadsden Purchase in 1853. The Gadsden Purchase (known as Venta de La Mesilla or Treaty of La Mesilla in Mexico is a region of what is today southern Arizona and New Mexico

As late as 1880, the "Republican Campaign Textbook" by the Republican Congressional Committee [23] described the war as "Feculent, reeking Corruption" and "one of the darkest scenes in our history - a war forced upon our and the Mexican people by the high-handed usurpations of Pres't Polk in pursuit of territorial aggrandizement of the slave oligarchy".

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Ex. Mexico is a country in North America and the largest Spanish -speaking country in the world The term Reconquista (in English "reconquest" was popularized by Mexican writers Carlos Fuentes and Elena Poniatowska to Doc. 36, 30th Cong. , 1 Sess, "Report of the Secretary of War. . . pp. 6-7
  2. ^ http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/wars19c.htm
  3. ^ [1]
  4. ^ Donald Fithian Stevens, Origins of Instability in Early Republican Mexico (1991) p. 11
  5. ^ Miguel E. Soto, "The Monarchist Conspiracy and the Mexican War" in Essays on the Mexican War ed by Wayne Cutler; Texas A&M University Press. 1986. pp 66-67
  6. ^ Mexican War from Global Security. com
  7. ^ 150 Years of Occupation by Bandino
  8. ^ Beveridge 1:417
  9. ^ See Captain John Charles Fremont and the Bear Flag Revolt
  10. ^ Eisenhower, John S. D. (1989). So Far from God: The U. S. War With Mexico, 1846-1848. New York: Random House, 295. ISBN 0806132795.  
  11. ^ Bronwyn Mills U. S. -Mexican war p. 23 ISBN 0816049327
  12. ^ Kenneth C. Davis, “Don’t Know Much About History” (Avon Books, New York 1995) p. 143
  13. ^ Howard Zinn, “A People’s History of the United States” (HarperCollins Publishers, New York 2003) p. 169
  14. ^ a b Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Full text (including Protocol) from academic. udayton. edu. Retrieved October 25, 2007.
  15. ^ Congressional Globe, 30th Session (1848) pp.93-95
  16. ^ House Journal, 30th Session (1848) pp.183-184
  17. ^ Donald, David Herbert. Lincoln. New York; Touchstone, 1995, p. 128
  18. ^ Donald, 111-113; 133
  19. ^ Ulysses S Grant Quotes on the Military Academy and the Mexican War
  20. ^ Personal Memoirs of General U. S. Grant — Complete by Ulysses S. Grant
  21. ^ Young, John Russell. Around the World with General Grant, page 447 (Copyright 1879)
  22. ^ Bronwyn Mills U. S. -Mexican war ISBN 0-8160-4932-7
  23. ^ Mexican-American War description from the Republican Campaign Textbook

References

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

Surveys

Military

Political and Diplomatic

External links

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