Georg Agricola, author of De re metallica, an important early book on metal extraction

Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their compounds, which are called alloys. Materials Science or Materials Engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its applications to various areas of Science and A chemical element is a type of Atom that is distinguished by its Atomic number; that is by the number of Protons in its nucleus. Intermetallics or intermetallic compounds is a term that is used in a number of different ways An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has It is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to their practical use. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Metallurgy is commonly used in the craft of metalworking. A craft is a Skill, especially involving practical arts. It may refer to a Trade or particular art Metalworking is craft and practice of working with Metals to create individual parts assemblies or large scale structures

History

Main article: History of ferrous metallurgy

See also: Chalcolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent

An illustration of furnace bellows operated by waterwheels, from the Nong Shu, by Wang Zhen, 1313 AD, during the Chinese Yuan Dynasty. The history of ferrous metallurgy began far back in Prehistory, most likely with the use of Iron from Meteorites The Smelting of iron in The Chalcolithic (Greek khalkos + lithos ' Copper stone' period or Copper Age period known as the '''Eneolithic''' ('''Æneolithic''' is a The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. The emergence of Metallurgy in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica occurred relatively late in the region's history with distinctive works of metal apparent in HyderAlijpg|thumb|200px|right| Hyder Ali (c 1722-1782—the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore till 1782—developed military rockets using metal cylinders to contain the combustion A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai

The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold which can be found free or "native". Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c. The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" 40,000 BC. ^[1]

Gold headband from Thebes 750-700 BC

Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found native, allowing a limited amount of metalworking in early cultures. Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Metalworking is craft and practice of working with Metals to create individual parts assemblies or large scale structures Egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 B. C. were highly prized as "Daggers from Heaven"^[2]. However, by learning to get copper and tin by heating rocks and combining copper and tin to make an alloy called bronze, the technology of metallurgy began about 3500 B. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus C. with the Bronze Age. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for

The extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 It appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 B. The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established C. , beginning the Iron Age. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines^[3][4]

Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. The Philistines ( Hebrew פלשתים plishtim) (see "other uses" below were a people who inhabited the southern coast of Canaan, This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East, ancient Egypt and Anatolia (Turkey), Carthage, the Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China, ancient and medieval India, ancient and medieval Japan, etc. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Of interest to note is that many applications, practices, and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were possibly established in ancient China before Europeans mastered these crafts (such as the innovation of the blast furnace, cast iron, steel, hydraulic-powered trip hammers, etc. A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical Furnace used for Smelting to produce metals generally Iron. Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of Ferrous Alloys which solidify with a Eutectic. Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering A trip hammer (alt helve hammer) is a massive powered Hammer, usually raised by a Cam and then released to fall under the force of gravity. )^[5]. However, modern research suggests that Roman technology was far more sophisticated than hitherto supposed, especially in mining methods, metal extraction and forging. Roman technology is the engineering practice which supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body Forging is the term for shaping metal by using localized compressive forces They were for example expert in hydraulic mining methods well before the Chinese, or any other civilization of the time. Hydraulic mining, or hydraulicking, is a form of Mining that employs Water to dislodge rock material or move sediment

A 16th century book by Georg Agricola called De re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time. Georgius Agricola ( March 24, 1494 – November 21, 1555) was a German scholar and scientist De re metallica ( Latin for On the Nature of Metals (Minerals) is a book cataloging the state of the art of Mining, refining and Smelting Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy"^[6]

Extractive metallurgy

Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer form. Extractive Metallurgy is the practice of extracting Metal from Ore, purifying it and recycling it An ore is a volume of rock containing components or Minerals in a mode of occurrence that renders it valuable for mining In order to convert a metal oxide or sulfide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced either physically, chemically, or electrolytically. An oxide is a Chemical compound containing at least one Oxygen atom as well as at least one other element The term sulfide ( sulphide in British English) refers to several types of Chemical compounds containing Sulfur in its lowest Oxidation Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties An electrolyte is any substance containing free Ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium

Extractive metallurgists are interested in three primary streams: feed, concentrate (valuable metal oxide/sulfide), and tailings (waste). Tailings (also known as slimes, gangue, tailings pile, tails, leach residue, or slickens) are the materials left over After mining, large pieces of the ore feed are broken through crushing and/or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough where each particle is either mostly valuable or mostly waste. Concentrating the particles of a value in a form supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products.

Mining may not be necessary if the ore body and physical environment are conducive to leaching. In-situ leaching (ISL also called in-situ recovery (ISR or solution mining, is a process of recovering minerals such as Copper and Uranium Leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched solution. The solution is collected and processed to extract valuable metals.

Ore bodies often contain more than one valuable metal. Tailings of a previous process may be used as a feed in another process to extract a secondary product from the original ore. Additionally, a concentrate may contain more than one valuable metal. That concentrate would then be processed to separate the valuable metals into individual constituents.

Important common alloy systems

Common engineering metals include aluminium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium and zinc. The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across WikipediaNaming Chromium (ˈkroʊmiəm is a Chemical element which has the symbol Cr and Atomic number 24 Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Magnesium (mægˈniːziəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Mg, Atomic number 12 Atomic weight 24 Nickel (ˈnɪkəl is a metallic Chemical element with the symbol Ni and Atomic number 28 Titanium (taɪˈteɪniəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Ti and Atomic number 22 Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 These are most often used as alloys. Much effort has been placed on understanding the iron-carbon alloy system, which includes steels and cast irons. Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of Ferrous Alloys which solidify with a Eutectic. Plain carbon steels are used in low cost, high strength applications where weight and corrosion are not a problem. Corrosion means the breaking down of essential properties in a material due to Chemical reactions with its surroundings Cast irons, including ductile iron are also part of the iron-carbon system. Ductile iron, also called ductile cast iron, spheroidal graphite iron, or nodular cast iron, is a type of Cast iron invented in 1943 by

Stainless steel or galvanized steel are used where resistance to corrosion is important. In Metallurgy, stainless steel is defined as a Steel Alloy with a minimum of 11 Hot-dip galvanizing is a form of Galvanization. It is the process of coating Iron or Steel with a thin Zinc layer by passing the steel Aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys are used for applications where strength and lightness are required.

Cupro-nickel alloys such as Monel are used in highly corrosive environments and for non-magnetic applications. Monel is a Trademark of Special Metals Corporation for a series of nickel Alloys primarily composed of Nickel (up to 67% and Copper Nickel-based superalloys like Inconel are used in high temperature applications such as turbochargers, pressure vessels, and heat exchangers. A superalloy, or high-performance alloy, is an Alloy that exhibits excellent mechanical strength and creep resistance at high temperatures good surface Inconel is a registered Trademark of Special Metals Corporation that refers to a family of Austenitic Nickel -based Superalloys Inconel For extremely high temperatures, single crystal alloys are used to minimize creep.

Production engineering of metals

In production engineering, metallurgy is concerned with the production of metallic components for use in consumer or engineering products. Industrial engineering is also not good and shit Operations management, Systems engineering, production engineering manufacturing engineering or manufacturing systems Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and This involves the production of alloys, the shaping, the heat treatment and the surface treatment of the product. The task of the metallurgist is to achieve balance between material properties such as cost, weight, strength, toughness, hardness, corrosion and fatigue resistance, and performance in temperature extremes. In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object Tensile strength \sigma_{UTS} or S_U is the Stress at which a material breaks or permanently deforms Toughness, in Materials science and Metallurgy, is the resistance to Fracture of a material when stressed. Hardness refers to various properties of Matter in the Solid phase that give it high resistance to various kinds of shape change when Force Corrosion means the breaking down of essential properties in a material due to Chemical reactions with its surroundings Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature To achieve this goal, the operating environment must be carefully considered. In a saltwater environment, ferrous metals and some aluminium alloys corrode quickly. Metals exposed to cold or cryogenic conditions may endure a ductile to brittle transition and lose their toughness, becoming more brittle and prone to cracking. Cryogenics is often used incorrectly to refer to Cryonics, cryopreserving humans or animals Metals under continual cyclic loading can suffer from metal fatigue. Metals under constant stress at elevated temperatures can creep. Stress is a measure of the average amount of Force exerted per unit Area. Creep is the tendency of a solid material to slowly move or deform permanently under the influence of stresses It occurs as a result of long term exposure to levels of

Metal working processes

Metals are shaped by processes such as casting, forging, flow forming, rolling, extrusion, sintering, metalworking, machining and fabrication. Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is (usually poured into a mold which Forging is the term for shaping metal by using localized compressive forces Flow Forming is a Metal forming technique in which a disk or tube of metal is formed over a mandrel by a roller using tremendous pressure Rolling is a fabricating process in which the Metal, Plastic, Paper, Glass, etc Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile Sintering is a method for making objects from powder, by heating the material (below its Melting point - solid state sintering until its particles adhere Metalworking is craft and practice of working with Metals to create individual parts assemblies or large scale structures Conventional Machining, one of the most important material removal methods is a collection of material-working processes in which power-driven Machine tools, such as lathes Fabrication, when used as an industrial term applies to the building of Machines, Structures or Process equipment for the chemical or fertilizer sector With casting, molten metal is poured into a shaped mould. Molding is the process of Manufacturing by shaping pliable raw material using a rigid frame or model called a pattern. With forging, a red-hot billet is hammered into shape. Billet refers to a cast Semi finished product. It is also referred to as Ingot, particularly for smaller sizes With rolling, a billet is passed through successively narrower rollers to create a sheet. With extrusion, a hot and malleable metal is forced under pressure through a die, which shapes it before it cools. With sintering, a powdered metal is compressed into a die at high temperature. Powder metallurgy is a forming and fabrication technique consisting of three major processing stages With machining, lathes, milling machines, and drills cut the cold metal to shape. A lathe (ˈleɪð is a Machine tool which spins a block of material to perform various operations such as Cutting, Sanding, Knurling A milling machine is a Machine tool used for the shaping of Metal and other Solid Materials. A drill (from Dutch Drillen) is With fabrication, sheets of metal are cut with guillotines or gas cutters and bent into shape. The guillotine ( pronounced /ˈgijətin/ or /ˈgɪlətin/ in English in French was a device used for carrying out executions by Decapitation. Concerning a. " for the verdict on this matter --> Oxy-fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene welding, oxy welding

"Cold working" processes, where the product’s shape is altered by rolling, fabrication or other processes while the product is cold, can increase the strength of the product by a process called work hardening. Work hardening, strain hardening, or cold work is the strengthening of a material by macroscopically speaking plastic deformation (which has the Work hardening, strain hardening, or cold work is the strengthening of a material by macroscopically speaking plastic deformation (which has the Work hardening creates microscopic defects in the metal, which resist further changes of shape. In Materials science, a dislocation is a Crystallographic defect, or irregularity within a Crystal structure.

Various forms of casting exist in industry and academia. Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is (usually poured into a mold which These include sand casting, investment casting (also called the “lost wax process”), die casting and continuous casting. A sand casting or a sand molded casting is a cast part produced by forming a mold from a sand mixture and pouring molten liquid metal into the cavity in For investment casting in art see Lost-wax casting. Investment casting, also called Lost-wax casting, is one of the oldest known Lost-wax casting, sometimes called by the French name of cire perdue, is the process by which a bronze is cast from an artist's sculpture in industrial uses the modern process Die casting is the process of forcing molten Metal under high pressure into mold cavities (which are machined into dies Continuous Casting (also called Strand Casting is the process whereby molten steel is solidified into a "semifinished" billet bloom or slab for subsequent rolling in the finishing mills

Joining

Welding

Main article: Welding

Welding is a technique for joining metal components by melting the base material. Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials usually Metals or Thermoplastics by causing coalescence. Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials usually Metals or Thermoplastics by causing coalescence. A filler material of similar composition may also be melted into the joint.

Brazing

Main article: Brazing

Brazing is a technique for joining metals at a temperature below their melting point. Brazing is a joining process whereby a Filler metal or Alloy is heated to melting temperature above - or by the traditional definition in the United States Brazing is a joining process whereby a Filler metal or Alloy is heated to melting temperature above - or by the traditional definition in the United States A filler with a melting point below that of the base metal is used, and is drawn into the joint by capillary action. Brazing results in a mechanical and metallurgical bond between work pieces.

Soldering

Main article: Soldering

Soldering is a method of joining metals below their melting points using a filler metal. Soldering is a process in which two or more Metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint the filler metal having a relatively low Soldering is a process in which two or more Metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint the filler metal having a relatively low Soldering results in a mechanical joint and occurs at lower temperatures than brazing.

Heat treatment

Main article: Heat treatment

Metals can be heat treated to alter the properties of strength, ductility, toughness, hardness or resistance to corrosion. Second Album by Rock and roll Singer-songwriter near-legend Graham Parker. Second Album by Rock and roll Singer-songwriter near-legend Graham Parker. Common heat treatment processes include annealing, precipitation strengthening, quenching, and tempering. Annealing, in Metallurgy and Materials science, is a Heat treatment wherein a material is altered causing changes in its properties such as strength Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is a Heat treatment technique used to strengthen Malleable materials including most structural A quench refers to a rapid Cooling. In Polymer chemistry and Materials science, quenching is used to prevent low-temperature processes such as phase Tempering is a Heat treatment technique for metals and Alloys In Steels tempering is done to "toughen" the metal by transforming brittle The annealing process softens the metal by allowing recovery of cold work and grain growth. Quenching can be used to harden alloy steels, or in precipitation hardenable alloys, to trap dissolved solute atoms in solution. Tempering will cause the dissolved alloying elements to precipitate, or in the case of quenched steels, improve impact strength and ductile properties.

Surface treatment

Plating

Main article: Plating

Electroplating is a common surface-treatment technique. Plating describes surface-covering where a Metal is deposited on a conductive surface Electroplating is the process of using electrical current to reduce Cations of a desired material from a solution and coat a conductive object It involves bonding a thin layer of another metal such as gold, silver, chromium or zinc to the surface of the product. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Chromium (ˈkroʊmiəm is a Chemical element which has the symbol Cr and Atomic number 24 Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 It is used to reduce corrosion as well as to improve the product's aesthetic appearance.

Thermal spray

Main article: Thermal spray

Thermal spraying techniques are another popular finishing option, and often have better high temperature properties than electroplated coatings.

Case hardening

Main article: Case hardening

Case hardening is a process in which an alloying element, most commonly carbon or nitrogen, diffuses into the surface of a monolithic metal. Case hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a metal often a low Carbon steel, by infusing elements into the material's The resulting interstitial solid solution is harder than the base material, which improves wear resistance without sacrificing toughness.

Electrical and electronic engineering

Metallurgy is also applied to electrical and electronic materials where metals such as aluminium, copper, tin, silver, and gold are used in power lines, wires, printed circuit boards and integrated circuits. WikipediaNaming Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect Electronic components using conductive pathways or traces Microchipsjpg|right|thumb|200px|Microchips ( EPROM memory with a transparent window showing the integrated circuit inside

Metallurgical techniques

Metallography allows the metallurgist to study the microstructure of metals.

Metallurgists study the microscopic and macroscopic properties using metallography, a technique invented by Henry Clifton Sorby. Metallography is the Science and Art of preparing a metal surface for analysis by grinding polishing and etching to reveal microstructual constituents Henry Clifton Sorby ( May 10, 1826 &ndash March 9, 1908) English microscopist and Geologist, was born at Woodbourne near In metallography, an alloy of interest is ground flat and polished to a mirror finish. The sample can then be etched to reveal the microstructure and macrostructure of the metal. A metallurgist can then examine the sample with an optical or electron microscope and learn a great deal about the sample's composition, mechanical properties, and processing history. An electron microscope is a type of Microscope that uses Electrons to illuminate a specimen and create an enlarged image

Crystallography, often using diffraction of x-rays or electrons, is another valuable tool available to the modern metallurgist. Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of Atoms in Solids In older usage it is the scientific study of Crystals The Diffraction is normally taken to refer to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an obstacle X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J Crystallography allow the identification of unknown materials and reveals the crystal structure of the sample. Quantitative crystallography can be used to calculate the amount of phases present as well as the degree of strain to which a sample has been subjected.

The physical properties of metals can be quantified by mechanical testing. Typical tests include tensile strength, compressive strength, hardness, impact toughness, fatigue and creep life. In Materials science, the strength of a material refers to the material's ability to resist an applied force

See also

• Archaeometallurgy
• Fabrication (metal)
• Georg Agricola
• Metalworking
• National Institute of Foundry and Forge Technology
• Pyrometallurgy
• Timeline of materials technology

References

External links

• Wikiversity:Topic:Metallurgical engineering