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Ancient Mesopotamia
Euphrates • Tigris
Cities / Empires
Sumer: Eridu • Kish • Uruk • Ur • Lagash • Nippur • Ngirsu
Elam: Susa
Akkadian Empire: Akkad • Mari
Amorites: Isin • Larsa
Babylonia: Babylon • Chaldea
Hittites • Kassites • Hurrians/Mitanni
Assyria: Assur • Nimrud • Dur-Sharrukin • Nineveh
Chronology
History of Mesopotamia
History of Sumer • Kings of Sumer
Kings of Assyria
Kings of Babylon
Mythology
Enûma Elish • Gilgamesh
Assyro-Babylonian religion
Language
Sumerian • Elamite
Akkadian • Aramaic
Hurrian • Hittite
For other uses, see Mesopotamia (disambiguation). The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Eridu (URUNUNKI; Sumerian:eridug Akkadian: ?) from the Sumerian for 'mighty place' is modern Tell Abu Shahrain, Iraq Uruk ( URU UNUG, Sumerian: unug Akkadian: uruk) from the Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian Toponym 'unug' is modern Ur ( Sumerian:urim; Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, and was a city in ancient Sumer. Lagash ( is modern Tell al-Hiba, Iraq. Located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk Nippur (URUENLIL; Sumerian: Nibru Akkadian: Nibbur) from the Sumerian for 'lord wind' (Enlil is modern ? in Afak Al Qadisyah Ngirsu (cuneiform? Sumerian:Ĝirsu Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell Telloh, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq, and it was a city of Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of Amorite ( Sumerian MARTU, Akkadian Tidnum or Amurrūm, Egyptian Amar, Hebrew ’emōrî Isin (modern Ishan al-Bahriyat was a city of lower Mesopotamia, which flourished during the 20th century BC. Larsa (also Larag or Larak, modern Tell as-Senkereh, Iraq, possibly the Biblical Ellasar) was an important city of Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Chaldea (from Greek grc Χαλδαία Chaldaia; Akkadian akk māt Kaldu Hebrew כשדים Kaśdim, "the Chaldees" of the The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca The Hurrians (also Khurrites; cuneiform Ḫu-ur-ri 𒄷𒌨𒊑 were a people of the Ancient Near East, who lived in northern Mesopotamia Mitanni ( Hittite cuneiform, also Mittani) or Hanigalbat ( Assyrian Hanigalbat Khanigalbat cuneiform) Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Assur also spelled Ashur, from Assyrian Aššur, was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria. Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located south of Nineveh on the river Tigris. Dur-Sharrukin ("Fortress of Sargon" present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of Sargon II of Assyria. Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa) See Short chronology for a timeline in absolute dates The Chronology of the Ancient Near East is a framework of dates for Ancient Mesopotamia was settled and conquered by numerous ancient Civilizations. The history of Sumer, taken to include the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods spans the 5th to 3rd millennia BC ending with the downfall of the Third The Sumerian king list is an ancient text in the Sumerian language that lists kings of Sumer from Sumerian and foreign dynasties The following is a list of the kings of Babylonia, a major city and empire in ancient lower Mesopotamia, compiled from the traditional Babylonian king lists and modern Mesopotamian mythology is the collective name given to Sumerian Akkadian Assyrian and Babylonian mythologies from the land between the Tigris The akk Enûma Eliš is the Babylonian Creation myth (named for its Incipit) Gilgamesh was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk (Early Dynastic II first dynasty of Uruk ruling circa 2600 BC according to the Sumerian king The pre- Christian religions of Babylonia and Assyria are the earliest attestation of Ancient Semitic religion, in particular Mesopotamian mythology Assyriology (from Greek grc Ἀσσυρίᾱ Assyriā; and grc -λογία -logia) is the archaeological historical and linguistic study Sumerian ( " native tongue " was the language of ancient Sumer, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia since at least the 4th millennium BC Elamite is an Extinct language, which was spoken by the ancient Elamites. Aramaic is a Semitic language with Hurrian is a conventional name for the language of the Hurrians (Khurrites a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly Hittite or Nesili is the Extinct language once spoken by the Hittites, a people who created an empire centered on ancient Hattusas (modern

Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "The land between the two rivers")[1] is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, largely corresponding to modern Iraq[2], northeastern Syria,[2] southeastern Turkey,[2] and the Khūzestān Province of southwestern Iran[3][4]. The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Khūzestān (خوزستان is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics.

Commonly known as the "Cradle of civilization", Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian Empires. The cradle of civilization is any of the possible locations for the emergence of Civilization. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture In the Iron Age, it was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Neo-Babylonian Empire, and later conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. The Neo-Assyrian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 609 BC The term Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean refers to Babylonia under the rule of the 11th ("Chaldean" dynasty from the revolt of Nabopolassar The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of It mostly remained under Persian rule until the 7th century Islamic conquest of the Sassanid Empire. "Aturia" redirects here For the Fossil Nautilus Genus, see Aturia (cephalopod. The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Under the Caliphate, the region came to be known as Iraq. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics.


Contents

History

Main article: Timeline of Ancient Mesopotamia
Overview map of ancient Mesopotamia
Overview map of ancient Mesopotamia
Archaeological sites of Mesopotamia
Archaeological sites of Mesopotamia

The history of Mesopotamia begins with the emergence of urban societies in southern Iraq in the 5th millennium BC, and ends with either the arrival of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BC, when Mesopotamia began being colonized by foreign powers, or with the arrival of the Islamic Caliphate, when the region came to be known as Iraq. Ancient Mesopotamia was settled and conquered by numerous ancient Civilizations. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics.

A cultural continuity and spatial homogeneity for this entire historical geography ("the Great Tradition") is popularly assumed, though the assumption is problematic. Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient states with highly developed social complexity. The region was famous as one of the four riverine civilizations where writing was first invented, along with the Nile valley in Egypt, the Indus Valley in the Indian subcontinent and Yellow River valley in China (Although writing is also known to have arisen independently in Mesoamerica and the Andes). Maritime geography is often discussed in terms of four loosely-defined regions Riverine, brown water, green water, and blue water. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National

Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as Uruk, Nippur, Nineveh, and Babylon as well as major territorial states such as the Akkadian kingdom, Third Dynasty of Ur, and Assyrian empire. Uruk ( URU UNUG, Sumerian: unug Akkadian: uruk) from the Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian Toponym 'unug' is modern Nippur (URUENLIL; Sumerian: Nibru Akkadian: Nibbur) from the Sumerian for 'lord wind' (Enlil is modern ? in Afak Al Qadisyah Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa) Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq The Third Dynasty of Ur refers simultaneously to a 21st to 20th century BC ( Short chronology) Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were Ur-Nammu (king of Ur), Sargon (who established the Akkadian Kingdom), Hammurabi (who established the Old Babylonian state), and Tiglath-Pileser I (who established the Assyrian Empire). Ur-Nammu (or Ur-Namma, Ur-Engur, Ur-Gur, ca 2112-2095 BC Middle chronology) founded the Sumerian 3rd dynasty of Ur You may be looking for the Assyrian kings Sargon I Hammurabi ( Akkadian from Amorite ˤAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is a healer" from ˤAmmu, "paternal kinsman" and Rāpi Tiglath-Pileser I (from the Hebraic form of Akkadian: Tukultī-apil-Ešarra, "my trust is in the son of Esharra " was a king

"Ancient Mesopotamia" begins in the late 6th millennium BC, and ends with either the rise of the Achaemenid Persians in the 6th century BC or the Islamic conquest of Persian Mesopotamia in the 7th century AD. During the 6th millennium BC, Agriculture spreads from the Balkans to Italy and Eastern Europe and from Mesopotamia to Egypt. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia This long period may be divided as follows:

Dates are approximate for the second and third millennia BC; compare Chronology of the Ancient Near East. See Short chronology for a timeline in absolute dates The Chronology of the Ancient Near East is a framework of dates for

Geography

Mesopotamia is a semi-arid environment which ranges from the northern areas of rain fed agriculture, to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential if a surplus energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) is to be obtained. In Physics, Energy economics and ecological energetics, EROEI (Energy Returned on Energy Invested ERoEI, EROI (Energy Return On In Physics, Energy economics and ecological energetics, EROEI (Energy Returned on Energy Invested ERoEI, EROI (Energy Return On This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melted snows from the high peaks of the Zagros and from the Armenian cordillera, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, that give the region its name. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority. Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent dwelling nomads move herds of sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally lacking in building stone, precious metals and timber, and so historically has relied upon long distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas. In the marshlands to the south of the country, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since pre-historic times, and has added to the cultural mix.

Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. The demands for labour has from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecological carrying capacity, and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists have led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city states has meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller regional units. [5] These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq.

Language and writing

The earliest language written in Mesopotamia was Sumerian, an agglutinative language isolate. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Sumerian ( " native tongue " was the language of ancient Sumer, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia since at least the 4th millennium BC An agglutinative language is a Language that uses Agglutination extensively most Words are formed by joining Morphemes together A language isolate, in the absolute sense is a Natural language with no demonstrable genealogical (or "genetic" relationship with other living languages that is Scholars agree that other languages were also spoken in early Mesopotamia along with Sumerian. Later a Semitic language, Akkadian, came to be the dominant language, although Sumerian was retained for administration, religious, literary, and scientific purposes. The Semitic languages are a Language family whose living representatives are spoken by more than 467 million people across much of the Middle East, In Business, administration consists of the performance or management of business operations and thus the making or implementing of major decisions A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the Neo-Babylonian period. Then Aramaic, which had already become common in Mesopotamia, became the official provincial administration language of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Aramaic is a Semitic language with The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries. A temple (from the Latin word Templum) is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities such as prayer and sacrifice or analogous rites

In Early Mesopotamia (around mid 4th millennium BC) cuneiform script was invented. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appear to have been developed from pictograms. A pictogram ( also spelled pictogramme) or pictograph is a Symbol representing a Concept, object, activity place or event The earliest texts (7 archaic tablets) come from the E-anna super sacred precinct dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, Level III, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators. É is the Sumerian for "house" or " Temple " written ideographically with the Cuneiform sign 𒂍 (Borger nr

The early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. A logogram, or logograph, is a Grapheme which represents a word or a Morpheme (a meaningful unit of language Thus only a limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its reading and writing. Scribes is a programmers' text editor for GNOME with a simple design It was not until the widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of Mesopotamian population became learned in literacy. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated.

Literature and mythology

Main articles: Babylonian literature and Mesopotamian mythology

In Babylonian times there were libraries in most towns and temples; an old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn. Babylonian literature is one of the world's oldest Drawing on the traditions of Sumerian literature, the Babylonians compiled a vast textual tradition of mythological Mesopotamian mythology is the collective name given to Sumerian Akkadian Assyrian and Babylonian mythologies from the land between the Tigris Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar " Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary. Sumerian ( " native tongue " was the language of ancient Sumer, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia since at least the 4th millennium BC

A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists of them were drawn up.

There are many Babylonian literary works whose titles have come down to us. One of the most famous of these was the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sin-liqe-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia and is among the earliest known works of literary fiction. Sin-liqe-unninni was a scribe who lived in Babylonia between 1300 BC and 1000 BC Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk (Early Dynastic II first dynasty of Uruk ruling circa 2600 BC according to the Sumerian king The whole story is a composite product, and it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure.

Philosophy

Further information: Babylonian literature: Philosophy

The origins of philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogs, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose, and proverbs. Babylonian literature is one of the world's oldest Drawing on the traditions of Sumerian literature, the Babylonians compiled a vast textual tradition of mythological Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Wisdom is a concept of personal gaining of Knowledge, Understanding, Experience, discretion and intuitive understanding, along with a capacity Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions A dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog) is a reciprocal Conversation between two or more entities. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological A hymn is a type of Song, usually religious specifically written for the purpose of praise adoration or Prayer, and typically addressed to a deity/deities Lyrics (in singular form Lyric) are a set of words that accompany music either by speaking or singing For the Wikipedia guideline regarding editing articles see WikipediaManual of Style. A proverb (from the Latin proverbium) also called a byword or nayword, is a simple and concrete Saying popularly known and repeated Babylonian reasoning and rationality developed beyond empirical observation. Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. [6]

The earliest form of logic was developed by the Babylonians, notably in the rigorous nonergodic nature of their social systems. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. In Mathematics and Physics, the adjective ergodic is used to imply that a system satisfies the Ergodic hypothesis of Thermodynamics or that Social structure is a term frequently used in Sociology and Social theory — yet rarely defined or clearly conceptualised (Abercrombie et al Babylonian thought was axiomatic and is comparable to the "ordinary logic" described by John Maynard Keynes. Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both In traditional Logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas Babylonian thought was also based on an open-systems ontology which is compatible with ergodic axioms. An open system is a state of a System, in which a system continuously interacts with its environment In Philosophy, ontology (from the Greek, genitive: of being (part In Mathematics and Physics, the adjective ergodic is used to imply that a system satisfies the Ergodic hypothesis of Thermodynamics or that [7] Logic was employed to some extent in Babylonian astronomy and medicine. Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomical theories and methods that were developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris

Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy. Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism In particular, the Babylonian text Dialog of Pessimism contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of contrasts, and the dialectic and dialogs of Plato, as well as a precursor to the maieutic Socratic method of Socrates. An agonist is a term used to describe a type of ligand or drug that binds and alters the activity of a receptor. Heraclitus of Ephesus ( Ancient Greek: &mdash grc-Latn ''Hērákleitos ho Ephésios'' English Heraclitus the Ephesian) (ca In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Maieutics is a complex procedure of Research introduced by Socrates, embracing the Socratic method in its widest sense The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. [8] The Phoenician philosopher Thales is also known to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia. Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun Thales of Miletus According to Bertrand Russell, "Philosophy begins with Thales

Science and technology

Astronomy

Main article: Babylonian astronomy
Further information: Babylonian astrology and Babylonian calendar

The Babylonian astronomers were very interested in studying the stars and sky, and most could already predict eclipses and solstices. Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomical theories and methods that were developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris In Babylonia as well as in Assyria as a direct offshoot of Babylonian culture (or as we might also term it "Euphratean" culture Astrology takes its The Babylonian calendar was a Lunisolar calendar with years consisting of 12 Lunar months each beginning when a new crescent moon was first sighted low People thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12 month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time. In Babylonia as well as in Assyria as a direct offshoot of Babylonian culture (or as we might also term it "Euphratean" culture Astrology takes its

During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. [9] This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.

In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were of a thoroughly scientific character; how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the history of astronomy. Astronomy is the oldest of the Natural sciences dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, Mythological, and Astrological

The only Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. Seleucus (or Seleukos) of Seleucia (born c 190 BC fl 150s BC was a Babylonian astronomer from the Seleucia 190 BC). [10][11][12] Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c He supported the heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c

Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian, Byzantine and Syrian astronomy, in medieval Islamic astronomy, and in Central Asian and Western European astronomy. Greek astronomy is the Astronomy of those who wrote in the Greek language in Classical antiquity. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' [13]

Mathematics

Main article: Babylonian mathematics
Further information: Babylonian calendar

The Mesopotamians used a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system. Babylonian mathematics refers to any mathematics of the peoples of Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) from the days of the early Sumerians to the fall of The Babylonian calendar was a Lunisolar calendar with years consisting of 12 Lunar months each beginning when a new crescent moon was first sighted low Sexagesimal ( base-sixty) is a Numeral system with sixty as the base. A numeral system (or system of numeration) is a Mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set by symbols in a consistent manner This is the source of the current 60-minute hours and 24-hour days, as well as the 360 degree circle. This article describes the unit of angle For other meanings see Degree. The Sumerian calendar also measured weeks of seven days each. This mathematical knowledge was used in mapmaking. Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write has been an integral part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8000 years

The Babylonians might have been familiar with the general rules for measuring the areas. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if p were estimated as 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used p as 3 and 1/8 (3. 125 for 3. 14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven miles (11 km) today. This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. [14]

Medicine

The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the The 2nd millennium BC marks the transition from the Middle to the Late Bronze Age. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the physician Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,[15] during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC). Borsippa (modern Birs Nimrud site Iraq) was an important ancient city of Sumer, built on both sides of a lake about 17 The following is a list of the kings of Babylonia, a major city and empire in ancient lower Mesopotamia, compiled from the traditional Babylonian king lists and modern [16]

Along with contemporary ancient Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. Ancient Egyptian Medicine refers to the practices of healing common in Ancient Egypt from Circa 3300 BC until the Persian Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything Prognosis (older Greek πρόγνωσις modern Greek πρόγνωση - literally fore-knowing foreseeing) is a medical term denoting the Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs In addition, the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment, is the attempted Remediation of a health problem usually following a Diagnosis Etiology (alternatively aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis. A symptom' (from Greek σύμπτωμα, "accident misfortune that which befalls" from συμπίπτω, "I befall" from Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. [17]

The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. A bandage is a piece of material used either to support a medical device such as a dressing or splint, or on its own to provide support to the body A cream is a topical preparation usually for application to the Skin. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses. Exorcism (from Late Latin exorcismus, from Greek exorkizein - to adjure is the practice of evicting Demons or other evil A curse (also called execration) is any manner of Adversity thought to be inflicted by any supernatural power (such as a spell, a Prayer, an Esagil-kin-apli's Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery. In traditional Logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject An inspection is most generally an organised examination or formal evaluation exercise A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly [15]

Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his Diagnostic Handbook. Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and related ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis. Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. [18]

Technology

Mesopotamian people invented many technologies, most notably the wheel, which some consider the most important mechanical invention in history. A wheel is a circular device that is capable of rotating on its axis facilitating movement or transportation whilst supporting a load ( Mass) or performing labour in machines Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing [19] Other Mesopotamian inventions include metalworking, copper-working, glassmaking, lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, as well as irrigation. Metalworking is craft and practice of working with Metals to create individual parts assemblies or large scale structures Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many A light fixture is an electrical device used to create artificial light or illumination A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network of natural or artificial Fibres often referred to as thread or Yarn. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops They were also one of the first Bronze age people in the world. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for Early on they used copper, bronze and gold, and later they used iron. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and maces. Armour (or armor) is protective covering most commonly manufactured from metals to prevent damage from being inflicted to an individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact A dagger (from Vulgar Latin: 'daca' - a Dacian Knife) is a typically double-edged blade used for Stabbing or thrusting This is an article about a particle accelerator For uses of spear, see Spear or Spear (disambiguation. A mace is a simple Weapon that uses a heavy head on the end of a handle to deliver powerful blows

Religion

Sumerian religion was based on a series of sacred marriages between divine couples
Sumerian religion was based on a series of sacred marriages between divine couples

Mesopotamian religion was the first to be recorded. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc, surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that, heaven. Heaven may refer to the physical heavens the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the Universe beyond They also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the universe was born from this enormous sea. The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy In addition, Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic. Polytheism is belief in or worship of multiple Gods (usually assembled in a pantheon) together with associated Mythology and Rituals

Although the beliefs described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were also regional variations. Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a Proposition or Premise to be true The Sumerian word for universe is an-ki, which refers to the god An and the goddess Ki. Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the Pantheon, as the Greeks had Zeus and the Romans had Jupiter. A pantheon (from Greek Πάνθειον - pantheion, literally "a temple of all gods " neut Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. The Sumerians also posed philosophical questions, such as: Who are we?, Where are we?, How did we get here?. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language They attributed answers to these questions to explanations provided by their gods.

Primary gods and goddesses

Burials

Hundreds of graves have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian burial habits. A grave is a place where a dead body (usually a human although sometimes an animal is buried Burial, also called interment and inhumation, is the act of placing a person or object into the ground In the city of Ur, most people were buried in family graves under their houses (as in Catalhuyuk), along with some possessions. Ur ( Sumerian:urim; Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, and was a city in ancient Sumer. Çatalhöyük (ʧɑtɑl højyk in Turkish also Çatal Höyük and Çatal Hüyük, or any of the three without Diacritics çatal is Turkish A few have been found wrapped in mats and carpets. A carpet is any loom-woven felted textile or grass floor covering Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family chapel. A chapel is a holy place or area of Worship for Christians, which may be attached to an institution such as a large church, a College, a Other remains have been found buried in common city graveyards. A graveyard is any place set aside for long-term burial of the dead with or without monuments such as Headstones It is usually located near and administered by a 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them ; it is assumed that these were royal graves.

Culture

Music, songs and instruments

Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amused kings, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the marketplaces. A marketplace is the space actual or metaphorical in which a Market operates Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many generations until someone wrote them down. Generation (from the Greek γενεά) also known as procreation, is the act of producing Offspring. These songs provided a means of passing on through the centuries highly important information about historical events that were eventually passed on to modern historians. A century (from the Latin centum, meaning one hundred is One hundred consecutive Years Centuries are numbered ordinally (e Information as a concept has a diversity of meanings from everyday usage to technical settings History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology

The Oud (Arabic:العود) is a small, stringed musical instrument. The oud ( عود ʿūd, plural أعواد, a‘wād; kaban; Persian: بربط barbat; ud The oldest pictorial record of the Oud dates back to the Uruk period in Southern Mesopotamia over 5000 years ago. Uruk ( URU UNUG, Sumerian: unug Akkadian: uruk) from the Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian Toponym 'unug' is modern It is on a cylinder seal currently housed at the British Museum and acquired by Dr. A cylinder seal is a cylinder engraved with a 'picture story' used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface generally wet Clay. Dominique Collon. The image depicts a female crouching with her instruments upon a boat, playing right-handed. An image (from Latin imago) or picture is an artifact usually two-dimensional that has a similar appearance to some subject &mdashusually A boat is a Watercraft of modest size designed to float or plane on water and provide transport over it Someone who is right-handed will prefer to use this hand for everyday activities such as writing, maintaining personal hygiene, Cooking and so forth This instrument appears hundreds of times throughout Mesopotamian history and again in ancient Egypt from the 18th dynasty onwards in long- and short-neck varieties. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations

The oud is regarded as a precursor to the European lute. Lute can refer generally to any plucked string instrument with a neck (either Fretted or unfretted and a deep round back or more specifically to an instrument from Its name is derived from the Arabic word العود al-‘ūd 'the wood', which is probably the name of the tree from which the oud was made. (The Arabic name, with the definite article, is the source of the word 'lute'. )

Games

Hunting was popular among Assyrian kings. Hunting is the practice of pursuing Animals for Food, Recreation, or Trade. Boxing and wrestling feature frequently in art, and a form of polo was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses. Boxing (sometimes also known as English boxing or pugilism) is a Combat sport in which two participants generally of similar weight, Wrestling is the act of physical engagement between two people in which each wrestler strives to get an advantage over or control of the opponent Polo is a team sport played outdoors on Horseback in which the objective is to score goals against an opposing team [20] They also played a board game similar to senet and backgammon, now known as the "Royal Game of Ur. Senet (or senat) a board game from predynastic and ancient Egypt, is the oldest board game whose ancient existence has been confirmed dating Backgammon is a Board game for two players in which the playing pieces are moved according to the roll of Dice. The Royal Game of Ur refers to two game boards found in Royal Tombs of Ur by Sir Leonard Woolley in the 1920s "

Family life

The Babylonian marriage market, in the Royal Holloway College.
The Babylonian marriage market, in the Royal Holloway College.

Mesopotamia across its history became more and more a patriarchal society, in which the men were far more powerful than the women. Patriarchy is the structuring of Society on the basis of Family units where fathers have primary responsibility for the welfare of hence authority over As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, and so on, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade. [21] Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Cooking is the process of preparing Food by applying Heat, selecting measuring and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure for producing safe and edible Some children would help with crushing grain, or cleaning birds. Unusual for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had rights. A right is a legal or moral Entitlement or Permission. Rights are of vital importance in theories of Justice and deontological ethics They could own property and, if they had good reason, get a divorce. Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the termination of a Marriage.

Economy

Sumer developed the first economy, while the Babylonians developed the earliest system of economics, which was comparable to modern post-Keynesian economics, but with a more "anything goes" approach. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Post Keynesian economics is a school of thought with its origins in The General Theory of John Maynard Keynes, although its subsequent development was influenced [7]

Agriculture

Food supply in Mesopotamia was quite rich due to the location of the two rivers from which its name is derived, Tigris and Euphrates. Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys formed the northeastern portion of the Fertile Crescent, which also included the Jordan River valley & that of the Nile. The Fertile Crescent is a Crescent -shaped region in the Middle East, originally incorporating the Levant and Ancient Mesopotamia, and often Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for crops, portions of land further from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. Fertility is the natural capability of giving life As a measure "Fertility Rate" is the number of children born per couple person or population This is why the development of irrigation was very important for settlers of Mesopotamia. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established permanent residence there often to colonize the area Other Mesopotamian innovations include the control of water by dams and the use of aqueducts. The term innovation means a new way of doing something It may refer to incremental radical and revolutionary changes in thinking products processes or organisations A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water while other structures such as Floodgates, Levees An aqueduct is an artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden plows to soften the soil before planting crops such as barley, onions, grapes, turnips, and apples. Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs The plough ( American spelling plow; both plaʊ is a Tool used in Farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for Organicsalsajpg||thumb|right|Onions used in salsa.]]Cooked onions in frying pan For the Tokyo University supercomputer see Gravity Pipe. GRAPE, or GRA phics P rogramming E nvironment is For similar vegetables also called "turnip" see Turnip (disambiguation. The apple is the pomaceous Fruit of the apple tree Species Malus domestica in the Rose family Rosaceae. Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make beer and wine. Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers; crops were often ruined so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were also kept. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian, farmers did not depend on slaves to complete farm work for them, with some exceptions. Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons — known as slaves — are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical (i. e. the escape/mutiny of the slave). Mutiny is a conspiracy among members of a group of similarly-situated individuals (typically members of the Military; or the Crew of any ship even As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another

Government

Kings

Further information: Sumerian king list, List of Kings of Babylon, and Kings of Assyria

The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended from the city gods, but, unlike the ancient Egyptians, they never believed their kings were real gods. The Sumerian king list is an ancient text in the Sumerian language that lists kings of Sumer from Sumerian and foreign dynasties The following is a list of the kings of Babylonia, a major city and empire in ancient lower Mesopotamia, compiled from the traditional Babylonian king lists and modern God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now [22] Most kings named themselves “king of the universe” or “great king”. Another common name was “shepherd”, as kings had to look after their people. A shepherd is a person who tends to feeds or guards Sheep, especially in flocks

Notable Mesopotamian kings include:

Eannatum of Lagash who founded the first (short-lived) empire. Eannatum was a Sumerian king of Lagash who established one of the first verifiable empires in history Lagash ( is modern Tell al-Hiba, Iraq. Located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk

Sargon of Akkad who conquered all of Mesopotamia and created the first empire that outlived its founder. Sargon may refer to Persons Sargon of Akkad (Šarrukînu also known as Sargon the Great, Sargon I) Mesopotamian king

Hammurabi founded the first Babylonian empire. Hammurabi ( Akkadian from Amorite ˤAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is a healer" from ˤAmmu, "paternal kinsman" and Rāpi Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq

Tiglath-Pileser III founded the neo-Assyrian empire. Tiglath-Pileser III (from the Hebraic form of Akkadian: Tukultī-apil-Ešarra, "my trust is in the son of Esharra" was a prominent king

Nebuchadnezzar was the most powerful king in the neo-Babylonian Empire. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital He was thought to be the son of the god Nabu. He married the daughter of Cyaxeres, so the Median and the Babylonian dynasties had a familial connection. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations Nebuchadnezzar’s name means: Nabo, protect the crown!

Belshedezzar was the last king of Babylonia. He was the son of Nabonidus whose wife was Nictoris, the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar.

Power

When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called provinces. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that A province is a territorial unit almost always an Administrative division. Each of these were named after their main cities, like Nineveh, Samaria, Damascus and Arpad. Samaria, or the Shomron ( שֹׁמְרוֹן, Standard Šoməron Tiberian Šōmərôn Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. They all had their own governor who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes; he had to call up soldiers to war, and supply workers when a temple was built. A governor is a governing official usually the executive (at least nominally to different degrees also politically and administratively of a non-sovereign level of government A soldier is a general English term that refers to a member of a land component of National Armed forces. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units A temple (from the Latin word Templum) is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities such as prayer and sacrifice or analogous rites He was also responsible for the laws being enforced. In this way it was easier to keep control of an empire like Assyria. Although Babylon was quite a small state in the Sumerian, it grew tremendously throughout the time of Hammurabi's rule. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Hammurabi ( Akkadian from Amorite ˤAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is a healer" from ˤAmmu, "paternal kinsman" and Rāpi He was known as “the law maker”, and soon Babylon became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq It was later called Babylonia, which meant "the gateway of the gods. " It also became one of history's greatest centers of learning.

Warfare

Assyrian soldiers, from a plate in THE HISTORY OF COSTUME by Braun & Schneider (ca. 1860).
Assyrian soldiers, from a plate in THE HISTORY OF COSTUME by Braun & Schneider (ca. The Assyrian Empire originated in the early 2nd millennium BC, succeeding the Akkadian Kingdom of the late 3rd millennium BC. 1860).

As city-states began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals. A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war - the first recording of a war occurred around 3200BC but was not common until about 2500BC. At this point warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system, where a neutral city may act as an arbitrator for the two rival cities. This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states. [23] When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign countries. An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that King Sargon, for example conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with northern Syria. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Many Babylonian palace walls were decorated with the pictures of the successful fights and the enemy, whether desperately escaping, or hiding amongst reeds. A palace is a grand residence especially the home of a Head of state or some other high-ranking Public figure. A king in Sumer, Gilgamesh, was thought two-thirds god and only one third human. There were legendary stories and poems about him, which were passed on for many generations, because he had many adventures that were believed very important, and won many wars and battles.

Laws

King Hammurabi, as mentioned above, was famous for his set of laws, The Code of Hammurabi (created ca. Hammurabi ( Akkadian from Amorite ˤAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is a healer" from ˤAmmu, "paternal kinsman" and Rāpi The Code of Hammurabi ( Codex Hammurabi) is the best-preserved ancient Law code, created ca 1780 BC), which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia. He made over 200 laws for Mesopotamia For more information, see Hammurabi and Code of Hammurabi. Hammurabi ( Akkadian from Amorite ˤAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is a healer" from ˤAmmu, "paternal kinsman" and Rāpi The Code of Hammurabi ( Codex Hammurabi) is the best-preserved ancient Law code, created ca

Architecture

The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial representation of buildings and texts on building practices. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well. [24] Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities. Most notably known architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and Ur (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age palaces at Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa/Van Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe). Uruk ( URU UNUG, Sumerian: unug Akkadian: uruk) from the Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian Toponym 'unug' is modern The Diyala River (نهر ديالى Persian: دیاله Kurdish: Sirwan سيروان) is a River and tributary of the Tigris that The Third Dynasty of Ur refers simultaneously to a 21st to 20th century BC ( Short chronology) Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Nippur (URUENLIL; Sumerian: Nibru Akkadian: Nibbur) from the Sumerian for 'lord wind' (Enlil is modern ? in Afak Al Qadisyah Enlil ( EN = Lord + LIL = Loft "Lord of the Open" or "Lord of the Wind" was the name of a chief deity listed and written about in ancient Sumerian Ur ( Sumerian:urim; Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, and was a city in ancient Sumer. Sin (Akkadian Sîn, Suen; Sumerian Nanna) is a Sumerian God in Mesopotamian mythology. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for Ebla ( Arabic: عبيل، إيبلا modern Tell Mardikh, Syria) was an ancient city about 55 km southwest of Aleppo. Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of Alalakh (or Alalah, modern Tell Atchana near Antakya (ancient Antioch) Turkey) is the name of an ancient Amorite For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. For the village in Azerbaijan see Kültəpə. Kültepe is the name of the modern village near the ancient city of Kaneš in central eastern Boğazkale is a district of Çorum Province in the Black Sea region of Turkey. Ugarit ( Ugaritic: ʼugrt; Hebrew:; Arabic:) (modern Ras Shamra رأس شمرة ("top/head/cape of the wild Fennel Ashur (אַשּׁוּר often also transliterated as Asshur to reflect the pointing of Hebrew letter 'ש' ( Shin) in the Masoretic text which doubles the 'ש' was the Nuzi (or Nuzu; Akkadian Gasur; modern Yorghan Tepe, Iraq) was an ancient Mesopotamian city southwest of Kirkuk Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located south of Nineveh on the river Tigris. Dur-Sharrukin ("Fortress of Sargon" present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of Sargon II of Assyria. Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa) Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Urartian (also called Vannic, in older literature also "Chaldean" is the conventional name for the language spoken by the inhabitants of the ancient kingdom Tushpa (modern Van, Turkey located on Lake Van) was the capital of Urartu in the late 9th century BC Erebuni may refer to Erebuni Fortress, an ancient Urartian fortress Yerevan, capital of Armenia Erebuni Armenia Bistam (, Basṭām or Bisṭām) is an ancient town founded in the 6th century AD located in Khorasan, 6km north of the Iranian The states that are called Neo-Hittite, or more recently Syro-Hittite, were Luwian, Aramaic and Phoenician -speaking political entities of Carchemish (called Europus by the Greco-Romans) was an important ancient city of the Mitanni and Hittite empires now on the frontier between Tell Halaf ( Akkadian: Guzana; تل حلف, Syria) Karatepe, ("Black Hill" is a Late Hittite fortress and Open air museum in Osmaniye Province in southern Turkey. Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals, Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man.

Houses

The materials used to build a Mesopotamian house were the same as those used today: mud brick, mud plaster and wooden doors, which were all naturally available round the city,[25] although wood could not be naturally made very well during the particular time period described. Most houses had a square center room with other rooms attached to it, but a great variation in the size and materials used to build the houses suggest they were built by the inhabitants themselves [1]. The smallest rooms may not have coincided with the poorest people; in fact it could be that the poorest people built houses out of perishable materials such as reeds on the outside of the city, but there is very little direct evidence for this. [26]

The Palace

The palaces of the early Mesopotamian elites were large scale complexes, and were often lavishly decorated. A palace is a grand residence especially the home of a Head of state or some other high-ranking Public figure. Earliest examples are known from the Diyala River valley sites such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar. The Diyala River (نهر ديالى Persian: دیاله Kurdish: Sirwan سيروان) is a River and tributary of the Tigris that These third millennium BC palaces functioned as a large scale socio-economic institutions, therefore, along with residential and private function, they housed craftsmen workshops, food storehouses, ceremonial courtyards, and often associated with shrines. For instance, the so-called "giparu" (or Gig-Par-Ku in Sumerian) at Ur where the Moon god Nanna's priestesses resided was a major complex with multiple courtyards, a number of sanctuaries, burial chambers for dead priestesses, a ceremonial banquet hall, etc. A similarly complex example of a Mesopotamian palace was excavated at Mari in Syria, dating from the Old Babylonian period. Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية

Assyrian palaces of the Iron Age, especially at Kalhu/Nimrud, Dur Sharrukin/Khorsabad and Ninuwa/Nineveh, have become famous due to the pictorial and textual narrative programs on their walls, all carved on stone slabs known as orthostats. Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located south of Nineveh on the river Tigris. Dur-Sharrukin ("Fortress of Sargon" present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of Sargon II of Assyria. Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa) These pictorial programs either incorporated cultic scenes or the narrative accounts of the kings' military and civic accomplishments. Gates and important passageways were flanked with massive stone sculpture of apotropaic mythological figures. The architectural arrangement of these Iron Age palaces were also organized around large and small courtyards. Usually the king's throneroom opened to a massive ceremonial courtyard where important state councils met, state ceremonies performed.

Massive amounts of ivory furniture pieces were found in many Assyrian palaces pointing out an intense trade relationship with North Syrian Neo-Hittite states at the time. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture The states that are called Neo-Hittite, or more recently Syro-Hittite, were Luwian, Aramaic and Phoenician -speaking political entities of There is also good evidence that bronze repousse bands decorated the wooden gates.

Ziggurats

Ziggurats (Akkadian ziqquratu from the verb zaqāru) were massive stepped cult platforms found in certain Mesopotamian sanctuaries. A ziggurat ( Akkadian ziqqurrat, D-stem of zaqāru "to build on a raised area" was a Temple tower of the ancient Mesopotamian The idea seems to have originated in early Mesopotamian temples which were built successively, one building over another on the same site over centuries, creating a massive mound that raised the new temples over the rest of the city. A good example of such structure was the temple dedicated to Ea at Eridu (Tell Abu Shahrain) excavated by Fuad Safar and Seton Lloyd in 1940s, or the "White" Temple dedicated to Anu at Uruk in the Late Uruk period. Eridu (URUNUNKI; Sumerian:eridug Akkadian: ?) from the Sumerian for 'mighty place' is modern Tell Abu Shahrain, Iraq In Sumerian mythology and later for Assyrians and Babylonians Anu (also An; (from Sumerian *An = sky heaven was a sky-god Uruk ( URU UNUG, Sumerian: unug Akkadian: uruk) from the Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian Toponym 'unug' is modern Ur-Nammu's ziggurat, built at the height the Third Dynasty of Ur, at the site of Ur (Tell al Mugayyar) in the sanctuary of the Moon God Nanna, is also believed to be encasing earlier temples of the Early Dynastic Period. Ur-Nammu (or Ur-Namma, Ur-Engur, Ur-Gur, ca 2112-2095 BC Middle chronology) founded the Sumerian 3rd dynasty of Ur The Third Dynasty of Ur refers simultaneously to a 21st to 20th century BC ( Short chronology) Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Ur ( Sumerian:urim; Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, and was a city in ancient Sumer. Ur-Nammu's ziggurat is considered one of the earliest of all planned ziggurats. After that time Kassites and Elamites of the Late Bronze Age, and Assyrians and Babylonians of the Iron age continued to build artificially erected ziggurats. The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. Examples of such structures were found in Dur Kurigalzu (Aqar Quf), Dur-Untash (Tschoga Zanbil), Kalhu (Nimrud), Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad) and Babylon among others.

It has been suggested that ziggurats were built to resemble mountains, but there is little textual or archaeological evidence to support that hypothesis.

Ur-Nammu's ziggurat at Ur was designed as a three-stage construction, today only two of these survive. This entire mudbrick core structure was originally given a facing of baked brick envelope set in bitumen, circa 2. Bitumen is a mixture of organic Liquids that are highly Viscous, black sticky entirely soluble in Carbon disulfide, and composed primarily 5 m on the first lowest stage, and 1. 15 m on the second. Each of these baked bricks were stamped with the name of the king. The sloping walls of the stages were buttressed. The access to the top was by means of a triple monumental staircase, which all converges at a portal that opened on a landing between the first and second stages. The height of the first stage was about 11 m while the second stage rose some 5. 7 m. Usually a third stage is reconstructed by the excavator of the ziggurat (Leonard Woolley), and crowned by a temple. Sir Charles Leonard Woolley ( 17 April 1880 &ndash 20 February 1960) was a British Archaeologist best known for his Excavations At the Tschoga Zanbil ziggurat archaeologists have found massive reed ropes that ran across the core of the ziggurat structure and tied together the mudbrick mass.


Etymology

The regional toponym Mesopotamia ( < meso (μέσος) = middle and potamia < ποταμός = river, literally means "between two rivers") was coined in the Hellenistic period without any definite boundaries, to refer to a broad geographical area and probably used by the Seleucids. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Borders define geographic boundaries of political entities or legal jurisdictions such as Governments States or subnational administrative Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i The term biritum/birit narim corresponded to a similar geographical concept and coined at the time of the Aramaicization of the region. Aramaic is a Semitic language with [27] It is however widely accepted that early Mesopotamian societies simply referred to the entire alluvium as kalam in Sumerian (lit. Alluvium (from the Latin, alluvius, from alluere, "to wash against" is Soil or Sediments deposited by a river or other running "land"). More recently terms like "Greater Mesopotamia" or "Syro-Mesopotamia" have been adopted to refer to wider geographies corresponding to the Near East or Middle East. The later euphemisms are Eurocentric terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th century Western encroachments. Eurocentrism is the practice of viewing the world from a European perspective with an implied belief either consciously or subconsciously in the preeminence of European (and [28]


References

Notes

  1. ^ Mesopotamia - The British Museum.
  2. ^ a b c Geography of Mesopotamia - Thematic Essay - Timeline of Art History - The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  3. ^ www.jstor.org/view/00222968/ap020105/02a00040/0.
  4. ^ www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045360/Khuzestan.
  5. ^ Thompson, William R. (2004) "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns, and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation" (Vol 3, Journal of World Systems Research)
  6. ^ Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), p. 35-47.
  7. ^ a b Sheila C. Dow (2005), "Axioms and Babylonian thought: a reply", Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 27 (3), p. 385-391.
  8. ^ Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), p. 35-47 43.
  9. ^ D. Brown (2000), Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology , Styx Publications, ISBN 9056930362.
  10. ^ Otto E. Neugebauer (1945). Otto Eduard Neugebauer ( May 26 1899 &ndash February 19 1990) was an Austrian - American Mathematician and "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 4 (1), p. 1-38.
  11. ^ George Sarton (1955). George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B. C. ", Journal of the American Oriental Society 75 (3), p. 166-173 [169].
  12. ^ William P. D. Wightman (1951, 1953), The Growth of Scientific Ideas, Yale University Press p. 38.
  13. ^ Pingree (1998)
  14. ^ Eves, Chapter 2
  15. ^ a b H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 99, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004136665. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
  16. ^ Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 55, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9072371631. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
  17. ^ H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 97-98, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004136665. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
  18. ^ Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 5, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9072371631. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
  19. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan. Ahmad Y Hassan أحمد يوسف الحسن(born 1925 is a chevalier of the Légion d'honneur and a historian of Arabic and Islamic science and technology The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine.
  20. ^ Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat (1998). Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.  
  21. ^ Rivkah Harris (2000). Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia.  
  22. ^ Robert Dalling (2004). The Story of Us Humans, from Atoms to Today's Civilization.  
  23. ^ >Robert Dalling (2004). The Story of Us Humans, from Atoms to Today's Civilization.  
  24. ^ Dunham, Sally (2005). "Ancient Near Eastern architecture", in Daniel Snell: A Companion to the Ancient Near East. Oxford: Blackwell, 266–280. ISBN 0-631-23293-1.  
  25. ^ Nicholas Postgate, J N Postgate (1994). Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History.  
  26. ^ Susan Pollock (1999). Ancient Mesopotamia.  
  27. ^ Finkelstein, J. J. ; 1962. “Mesopotamia”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 21: 73-92
  28. ^ Scheffler, Thomas; 2003. “ 'Fertile crescent', 'Orient', 'Middle East': the changing mental maps of Southeast Asia,” European Review of History 10/2: 253–272. Also: Bahrani, Zainab; 1998. “Conjuring Mesopotamia: imaginative geography a world past", in Archaeology under fire: Nationalism, politics and heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. L. Meskell (ed. ), Routledge: London and New York, 159–174.

Bibliography

External links

A mebibyte (a contraction of me ga bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, abbreviated MiB.

Dictionary

Mesopotamia

-proper noun

  1. A region in Southwest Asia spanning from the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, that is reputed to have been the site of the most ancient civilizations in the history of man.
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