Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Spanish: Mesoamérica) is a region in the mid-latitudes of the Americas, namely the culture area within which a number of pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries. The article is about the geographic sense of the term For other uses including Regions and Regional, see Region (disambiguation. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America A cultural area or culture area is a Region ( Area) with one relatively homogeneous human activity or complex of activities ( Culture The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions The Spanish colonization of the Americas was Spain 's conquest settlement and rule over much of the Western hemisphere. ^[1][2][3] The culture area extends from central Honduras and northwestern Costa Rica on the south to, in Mexico, the Soto la Marina River in Tamaulipas and the Rio Fuerte in Sinaloa on the north. Honduras in Spanish, República de Honduras) is a democratic republic in Central America. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Tamaulipas is one of the 31 states of Mexico, it is located in the northeast The Fuerte River is a river in the northwestern Mexican state of Sinaloa. Sinaloa is one of the 31 states of Mexico. Geography Sinaloa is bordered to the north by Sonora and Chihuahua; to the south Prehistoric groups in this area are characterized by agricultural villages and large ceremonial and politico-religious capitals ^[4] This culture area included some of the most complex and advanced cultures of the Americas, including the Olmec, Teotihuacan, the Maya, and the Aztec. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the Pre-Columbian Americas The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political ^[5]

Contents 1 Etymology and definition 2 Geography 2.1 Topography 2.2 Bodies of water 2.3 Biodiversity 2.4 Cultural sub-areas 3 Chronology and culture 3.1 Paleo-Indian 3.2 Archaic 3.3 Preclassic/Formative 3.4 Classic 3.4.1 Early Classic 3.4.2 Late Classic 3.4.3 Terminal Classic 3.5 Postclassic 4 General characteristics 4.1 Subsistence 4.2 Architecture 4.3 Political organization 4.4 Economy 4.4.1 Currency 5 Common characteristics of Mesoamerican culture 5.1 Calendrical systems 5.2 Writing systems 5.3 The ballgame 5.4 Medicine and science 5.4.1 Medicine 5.4.2 Arithmetic 5.5 Mythology and worldview 5.5.1 Sacrifice 5.5.1.1 Autosacrifice 5.5.1.2 Human Sacrifice 5.5.2 Astronomy 5.5.3 The symbolism of space and time 5.6 Political and religious art 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 References 9 External links

Etymology and definition

The term Mesoamerica – literally, "middle America" in Greek – was first used by the German ethnologist Paul Kirchhoff,^[6] who noted that similarities existed among the various pre-Columbian cultures within the region that included southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, western Honduras, and the Pacific lowlands of Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and Paul Kirchhoff ( 17 August, 1900 –1972 was a German Anthropologist, most noted for his seminal work in defining and elaborating the Culture The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest Belize (bəˈliːz formerly British Honduras, is a country in Central America. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. Honduras in Spanish, República de Honduras) is a democratic republic in Central America. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in In the tradition of cultural-history, the prevalent archaeological theory of the early to middle 20th century, Kirchhoff defined this zone as a culture area based on a suite of interrelated cultural similarities brought about by millennia of inter- and intra-regional interaction (i. Culture-historical archaeology or simply Culture history is a form of archaeological theory Archaeological theory covers the debates over the practice of Archaeology and the interpretation of archaeological results A cultural area or culture area is a Region ( Area) with one relatively homogeneous human activity or complex of activities ( Culture e. , diffusion). Cultural diffusion, as first conceptualized by Alfred L Kroeber in his influential 1940 paper Stimulus Diffusion, or trans-cultural diffusion in later reformulations These included sedentism, agriculture (specifically a reliance on the cultivation of maize), the use of two different calendars (a 260 day ritual calendar and a 365 day calendar based on the solar year), a base 20 (vigesimal) number system, pictographic and hieroglyphic writing systems, the practice of various forms of sacrifice, and a complex of shared ideological concepts. In evolutionary anthropology and archaeology, sedentism (sometimes denominated sedentariness is a term applied to the transition from Nomadic to permanent year-round Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica The word Calendar consist of two words 1 Cal ( in Pashto means Year in Hindi and Persian is Sal- also means Year A tropical year (also known as a solar year) is the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons as seen from Earth The vigesimal or base - numeral system is based on twenty (in the same way in which the ordinary decimal numeral system is based on ten A pictogram ( also spelled pictogramme) or pictograph is a Symbol representing a Concept, object, activity place or event Hieroglyph ( Greek grc-Grek ἱερογλύφος " sacred carving " or hieroglyphics ( = grc-Grek τὰ ἱερογλυφικά A writing system is a type of Symbolic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in Language. Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" Mesoamerica has also been shown to be a linguistic area defined by a number of grammatical traits that have spread through the area by diffusion. A Sprachbund (ˈʃpraːxbʊnt in German plural Sprachbünde) from the German word for “language union” also known as a linguistic area, convergence The Mesoamerican Linguistic Area is a Sprachbund containing many of the languages natively spoken in the cultural area of Mesoamerica.

Mesoamerica is recognized as a near-prototypical cultural area and the term is now fully integrated in the standard terminology of pre-Columbian anthropological studies. Cultural anthropology is one of four fields of Anthropology (the holistic study of humanity) as it developed in the United States. Conversely, the sister terms Aridoamerica and Oasisamerica, which refer to northern Mexico and the western United States, respectively, have not entered into widespread usage. Aridoamerica was a broad cultural area in pre-Columbian North America used to describe the northern region of Mexico, in contrast to Mesoamerica (the south Oasisamerica was a broad Cultural area in Pre-Columbian North America. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the

Unrelated to the archaeological and ethnohistorical usage, the term may also be used to refer to a modern economic territory designated the Mesoamerican region (MAR), which combines the countries of Central America with nine southeastern States of Mexico. The Mesoamerican region (often abbreviated MAR) is a trans-national economic region recognized by the OECD among other economic and developmental organizations

Geography

Main article: Geography of Mesoamerica

Located on the isthmus joining North and South America between ca. geography of Mesoamerica entails the physical and Human geography of Mesoamerica, a Culture area inhabited by complex indigenous An isthmus is a narrow strip of land connecting two larger land areas South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a 10° and 22° northern latitude, Mesoamerica possesses a complex combination of ecological systems, topographic zones, and environmental contexts. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Archaeologist and anthropologist Michael D. Coe groups these different niches into two broad categories: the lowlands (those areas between sea level and 1000 meters) and the altiplanos, or highlands (situated between 1000 and 2000 meters above sea level). Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Michael D Coe (born 1929 is an American Archaeologist, Anthropologist, epigrapher and Author. In Ecology, a niche (pronounced nich nēsh or nish A shorthand definition of niche is how an organism makes a living Mean sea level (MSL is the average (mean height of the Sea, with reference to a suitable reference surface In the low-lying regions, sub-tropical and tropical climates are most common, as is true for most of the coastline along the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The subtropics are the zones of the Earth immediately north and south of the tropic zone which is bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of A tropical climate is a kind of Climate typical in the Tropics. For the region see Caribbean. The Caribbean Sea (kəˈrɪbiən or /ˌkærɨˈbiːən/ is a tropical Sea in the Western Hemisphere The highlands show much more climatic diversity, ranging from dry tropical to cold mountainous climates, the dominant climate is temperate with warm temperatures and moderate rainfall. Mountain climate (also highland climate) is a crude geographical term used for the kind of Climate in the Mountains and generally in the High country The rain fall varies, between the dry Oaxaca, and north Yucatan to the Humid southern Pacific and Caribbean lowlands. The Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca ( Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), in Spanish phonemically /oa'xaka/ named for its largest city, is one of the Yucatán is one of the 31 states of Mexico, located on the north of the Yucatán Peninsula.

Topography

There is extensive topographic variation in Mesoamerica, ranging from the high peaks circumscribing the Valley of Mexico and within the central Sierra Madre mountains to the low flatlands of the northern Yucatán Peninsula. Atitlán is a large conical active Stratovolcano adjacent to the Caldera of Lake Atitlán in the Highlands of Guatemala. Volcán San Pedro ( is a Stratovolcano in Guatemala, on the shores of Lago de Atitlán. Valley of Mexico is a highland Plateau in central Mexico roughly coterminous with the present-day Distrito Federal and the eastern half of the State The tallest mountain in Mesoamerica is Pico de Orizaba, a dormant volcano located one the border of Puebla and Veracruz. The Pico de Orizaba, or Citlaltépetl (from Nahuatl citlal(in = star and tepētl = mountain is a Stratovolcano, the highest Is a Mexican state located in the center east of the country to the east of Mexico City. Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave is one of the 31 states that constitute the republic of Mexico. Its peak elevation is 5,636 m (18,490 ft).

The Sierra Madre mountains, which consist of a number of smaller ranges, run from northern Mesoamerican south through Costa Rica. The chain is historically volcanic. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the In central and southern Mexico, a portion of the Sierra Madre chain is known as the Eje Volcánico Transversal, or the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt. For other topics with the same name see " Sierra Nevada " There are 83 inactive and active volcanoes within the Sierra Madre range, including 11 in Mexico, 37 in Guatemala, 7 in El Salvador, 25 in Nicaragua, and 3 in northwestern Costa Rica. According to the Michigan Technological University [2], 16 of these are still active. The tallest active volcano is Popocatépetl at 5,452 m (17,883 ft). Popocatépetl (commonly referred to as Popo, El Popo or Don Goyo) (popokaˈtepetɬ is an active Volcano and at 5426 m This volcano, which retains its Nahuatl name, is located 70 km southeast of Mexico City. Nahuatl ( is a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan or Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family Mexico City (in Spanish: Ciudad de México, México DF, México or simply Méjico) is the Capital city of Mexico Other volcanoes of note include Tacana on the Mexico-Guatemala border, Tajumulco and Santamaría in Guatemala, Izalco in El Salvador, Momotombo in Nicaragua, and Arenal in Costa Rica. Eight-thousanders The 14 " Eight-thousanders quot 8000 meters or higher above Sea level, all in the Himalayas: Everest (8848 Volcán Tajumulco is a large Stratovolcano in the department of San Marcos in western Guatemala. Volcán Santa María is a large active Volcano in the Western Highlands of Guatemala, close to the city of Quetzaltenango. Izalco is a parasitic Stratovolcano of the Santa Ana Volcano, which is located in western El Salvador. Momotombo is a Volcano in Nicaragua, not far from the city of León.

One important topographic feature is the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, a low plateau that breaks up the Sierra Madre chain between the Sierra Madre del Sur to the north and the Sierra Madre de Chiapas to the south. Topography ( topo-, "place" and graphia, "writing" is the study of Earth 's Surface features or those of Planets The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is an Isthmus in Mexico. It represents the shortest distance between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, and The Sierra Madre del Sur is a Mountain range in southern Mexico, extending 1000 km from southern Michoacán east through Guerrero, to the Sierra Madre (known in Mexico as Sierra Madre de Chiapas) is a mountain range (located at) which runs northwest-southeast from the state of Chiapas in Mexico At its highest point, the Isthmus is 224 meters (735 ft) above mean sea level. An isthmus is a narrow strip of land connecting two larger land areas This area also represents the shortest distance between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean in Mexico. The Gulf of Mexico ( Spanish: Golfo de México) is the ninth largest Body of water in the world The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions The distance between the two coasts is roughly 200 kilometers (120 miles). Although the northern side of the Isthmus is swampy and covered with dense jungle, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, as the lowest and most level point within the Sierra Madre mountain chain, was nonetheless a main transportation, communication, and economic route within Mesoamerica.

Bodies of water

Outside of the northern Maya lowlands, rivers are common throughout Mesoamerica. "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there A number of the more important ones served as loci of human occupation in the area. The longest river in Mesoamerica is the Usumacinta, which forms in Guatemala at the convergence of the Salinas or Chixoy, and La Pasion River and runs north for 970 km (480 km of which are navigable), eventually draining into the Gulf of Mexico. The Usumacinta River is a River in southeastern Mexico and northwestern Guatemala. The Pasión River ( Río la Pasión) is a River located in the northern lowlands region of Guatemala. The Gulf of Mexico ( Spanish: Golfo de México) is the ninth largest Body of water in the world Other rivers of note include the Rio Grande de Santiago, the Grijalva River, the Motagua River, the Ulúa River, and the Hondo River. The Río Grande de Santiago is the longest river in Mexico mesuring up to a massive 433 kilometers Grijalva River, also Tabasco R ( Spanish: Río Grijalva, known locally also as Río Chiapa is a 480 km The Motagua River is a 486 km long river in Guatemala. It rises in central Guatemala to the north-east of Guatemala City and runs north-east to east to the Gulf The Ulua River (Río Ulúa is a river in western Honduras. It rises in the central mountainous area of the country close to La Paz and runs 150 miles approximately The northern Maya lowlands, especially the north portion of the Yucatán peninsula, are notable for its nearly complete lack of rivers (largely due to its absolute lack of topographic variation). Additionally, no lakes exist in the northern peninsula. The main source of water in this area, therefore, is sub-surface, and consists of water from aquifers that which is retained within cenotes. An aquifer is an underground layer of Water -bearing Permeable rock or unconsolidated materials ( Gravel, Sand, Silt, or Clay A cenote (pronounced in Mexican Spanish and in English, plural cenotes; from Yucatec Maya dzonot) is a type of Sinkhole

With an area of 8264 km², Lake Nicaragua is the largest lake in Mesoamerica. Lake Chapala is Mexico’s largest freshwater lake, but Lake Texcoco is perhaps the most well-known as the location upon which Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire, was founded. Lake Chapala (Lago de Chapala is Mexico 's largest freshwater Lake. Lake Texcoco (Lago de Texcoco was a natural Lake formation within the Valley of Mexico, a basin with an average Elevation of 2236 m Above There are some towns in Mexico which are spelled "Tenochtitlán" like San Lorenzo Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political Lake Petén Itzá, in northern Guatemala, is notable as the location at which the last independent Maya city, Tayasal (or Noh Petén), held out until 1697. Lake Petén Itzá ( Lago Petén Itzá) is a Lake in central Petén department in Guatemala. Tayasal is a Pre-Columbian Maya Archaeological site that dates to the Postclassic period Other large lakes include Lake Atitlán, Lake Izabal, Lake Güija, Lemoa, and Lake Managua. Lake Atitlán ( Lago de Atitlán) is a large Endorheic Lake in the Guatemalan Highlands Lago de Izabal, also known as the Golfo Dulce, is the largest lake in Guatemala with a surface area of 589 The geography of El Salvador is unique among the nations of Central America. Lake Managua (also known as Lake Xolotlán) (located at) is a Lake in Nicaragua.

Biodiversity

There are almost all ecosystems in Mesoamerica, the more well known are the Caribbean Coral Reef, the second largest in the world, and the Bosawas Biosphere Reserve, second in size to the Amazonas. The Maya Biosphere Reserve ( Reserva de la Biosfera Maya) is a Nature reserve in Guatemala managed by Guatemala's National Council of Protected Areas (CONAP El Mirador is a large Pre-Columbian Mayan settlement located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( The Bosawás Biosphere Reserve in the northern part of Nicaragua is a hilly tropical forest designated in 1997 as a UNESCO Biosphere reserve. Amazonas is derived from Rio Amazonas, the local Portuguese name for the Amazon River. ^[7] The Highlands present mix and conifer forest. The biodiversity is among the richest in the world, although the number of species in the red list of the IUCN is growing every year.

Cultural sub-areas

There are a number of distinct sub-regions within Mesoamerica that are defined by a convergence of geographic and cultural attributes. These sub-regions are more conceptual than culturally meaningful, and the demarcation of their limits is not rigid. The Maya area, for example, can be divided into two general groups: the lowlands and highlands. The lowlands are further divided into the southern and northern Maya lowlands. The southern Maya lowlands are generally conceptualized as encompassing northern Guatemala, southern Campeche and Quintana Roo in Mexico, and Belize. Campeche is the name of both a state in Mexico and its capital city Quintana Roo (kinˈtana ˈro is a state of Mexico, on the eastern part of the Yucatán Peninsula. The northern lowlands cover the remainder of the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula. The Yucatán Peninsula, in Southeastern Mexico, separates the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico. Other areas include Central Mexico, West Mexico, the Gulf Coast Lowlands, Oaxaca, the Southern Pacific Lowlands, and Southeast Mesoamerica (including northern Honduras). The Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca ( Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), in Spanish phonemically /oa'xaka/ named for its largest city, is one of the

Chronology and culture

Main article: Mesoamerican chronology

The history of human occupation in Mesoamerica is divided among a number of stages or periods. Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation These are known, with slight variation depending on region, as the Paleo-Indian, the Archaic, the Preclassic (or Formative), the Classic, and the Postclassic. Paleo-Indians or Paleo-Americans were the ancient peoples of the Americas who were present at the end of the last Ice Age. Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation The last three periods, representing the core of Mesoamerican cultural fluorescence, are further divided into two or three sub-phases. Most of the time following the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century is lumped into the Colonial period.

The differentiation of early periods (i. e. , up through the end of the Late Preclassic) generally reflects different configurations of socio-cultural organization that are characterized by increasing socio-political complexity, the adoption of new and different subsistence strategies, and changes in economic organization (including increased interregional interaction). Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation Sociocultural evolution(ism is an umbrella term for theories of cultural evolution and Social evolution, describing how Cultures and societies A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions Subsistence is the food necessary to sustain life The following is a list of subsistence techniques: Hunting and Gathering The Classic period through the Postclassic are differentiated by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of the various political entities throughout Mesoamerica. Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation

Paleo-Indian

The Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian period precedes the advent of agriculture and is characterized by a nomadic hunting and gathering subsistence strategy. Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting Big-game hunting, similar to that seen in contemporaneous North America, was a large component of the subsistence strategy of the Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian. Evidence for this time period in Mesoamerica is sparse and the documented sites scattered Ca 10,500 DC. These include Chivacabé, Los Tapiales, and Puerta Parada in the highlands of Guatemala, Orange Walk in Belize, and the El Gigante cave in Honduras. This latter sites had a number of obsidian blades and Clovis style fluted projectile points. Obsidian is a naturally occurring Glass formed as an extrusive Igneous rock. Clovis points are the diagnostic Projectile point associated with the North American Clovis culture. In Archaeology, a projectile point is an object that was hafted and used either as Knife or Projectile tip or both commonly called an Arrowhead Fishtail points, the most common style in South America, were recovered from Puerta Parada, dated to ca. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a 10,000 BC, as well as other sites including Los Grifos cave in Chiapas (ca. Chiapas is the southernmost state of Mexico, located towards the southeast of the country 8500 BC) and Iztapan (ca. 7700 – 7300 BC), a mammoth kill site located in the Valley of Mexico near Texcoco. A mammoth is any Species of the Extinct Genus Mammuthus. These Proboscideans are members of the elephant family and Texcoco ( Classical Nahuatl: Tetzco(hco, tetsˈkoʔko was a major Acolhua City-state in the central Mexican plateau region of Mesoamerica

Archaic

The Archaic period (8000-2000 BC) is characterized by the rise of incipient agriculture in Mesoamerica. In the 8th millennium BC, Agriculture becomes widely practiced in the Fertile Crescent and Anatolia. The 20th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2000 BC to 1901 BC Agriculture in Mesoamerica dates to the Archaic period of Mesoamerican chronology ( 8000 - 2000 BC) The initial phases of the Archaic involved the cultivation of wild plants, transitioning into informal domestication and culminating with sedentism and agricultural production by the close of the period. In evolutionary anthropology and archaeology, sedentism (sometimes denominated sedentariness is a term applied to the transition from Nomadic to permanent year-round Archaic sites include Sipacate in Escuintla, Guatemala, where maize pollen samples date to ca. Escuintla (sometimes spelled Esquintla) is a city in south central Guatemala. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of Analysis of the distribution of Pollen grains of various species contained in Surface layer deposits especially Peat bogs and lake Sediments 3500 BC. The well known Coxcatlan cave site in the Valley of Tehuacán, Puebla, which contains over 10,000 teosinte cobs (an antecedent to maize), and Guila Naquitz in Oaxaca represent some of the earliest examples of agriculture in Mesoamerica. Juxtlahuaca Painting 1svg|right|300px|thumb|A contemporary illustration of Painting 1 from Juxtlahuaca Tehuacán is the second largest city in the Mexican state of Puebla, nestled in the Southeast Valley of Tehuacán bordering the states of Oaxaca and Is a Mexican state located in the center east of the country to the east of Mexico City. The teosintes are a group of large grasses of the genus Zea found in Mexico, Guatemala and Nicaragua. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Juxtlahuaca Painting 1svg|right|300px|thumb|A contemporary illustration of Painting 1 from Juxtlahuaca The early development of pottery, often seen as a sign of sedentism, has been documented as a number of sites, including the West Mexican sites of Matanchén in Nayarit and Puerto Marqués in Guerrero. Matanchén is the name of both the bay and one of the small towns located just south of San Blas, Nayarit is one of Mexico’s 31 states and is located on the central west coast bordering the Pacific Ocean. The State of Guerrero is a state in the southern meridional region of Mexico. La Blanca, Ocós, and Ujuxte in the Pacific Lowlands of Guatemala yielded pottery dated to ca. La Blanca is a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican archaeological site with an occupation dating predominately from the Middle Preclassic (900-600 BC period of Mesoamerican The site of Ujuxte (after the Ramón or Breadnut tree -- uh-hush-te is the largest Pre-Classical site to be discovered on Guatemala Pacific coast Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest 2500 BC.

Preclassic/Formative

See also: Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures

The first complex civilization to develop in Mesoamerica were the Olmec, who inhabited the gulf coast region of Veracruz throughout the Preclassic period. The causes and degree of Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures has been a subject of debate over many decades Nakbe is one of the largest early Maya archaeological sites rivaled by El Mirador. The Mirador Basin is a geographically defined elevated Basin found in the remote rain forest of the northern department of Petén, Guatemala. The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave is one of the 31 states that constitute the republic of Mexico. The main sites of the Olmec include San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes. San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán (or San Lorenzo) is the collective name for three related Archaeological sites -- San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán and Potrero Nuevo -- located This article is about the archeological site in Mexico For the fossil site in Colombia see La Venta (Colombia. Tres Zapotes is a Mesoamerican Archaeological site located in the south-central Gulf Lowlands of Mexico in the Papaloapan River plain Although specific dates vary, these sites were occupied from roughly 1200 to 400 BC. Remains of other early cultures interacting with the Olmec have been found at Takalik Abaj, Izapa, and Teopantecuanitlan, and as far south as in Honduras. Tak'alik A'baj' is an Pre-Columbian archaeological site formerly known as Abaj Takalik. Izapa is a very large Pre-Columbian Archaeological site located in the Mexican state of Chiapas; it was occupied during the Late Formative Teopantecuanitlan is an Archaeological site in the Mexican state of Guerrero that represents an unexpectedly early development of Honduras in Spanish, República de Honduras) is a democratic republic in Central America. ^[8] Research in the Pacific Lowlands of Chiapas and Guatemala suggest that Izapa and the Monte Alto Culture may have preceded the Olmec. Izapa is a very large Pre-Columbian Archaeological site located in the Mexican state of Chiapas; it was occupied during the Late Formative Monte Alto is an Archaeological site on the Pacific Coast in what is now Guatemala. Radiocarbon samples associated with various sculptures found at the Late Preclassic site of Izapa suggest a date of between 1800 and 1500 BC. Radiocarbon dating is a Radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring Radioisotope Carbon-14 (14C to determine the age of Izapa is a very large Pre-Columbian Archaeological site located in the Mexican state of Chiapas; it was occupied during the Late Formative ^[9]

The Middle and Late Preclassic witnessed the rise of the Maya in the southern Maya highlands and lowlands and at a few sites in the northern Maya lowlands. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas The earliest Maya sites coalesced after 1000 BC, and include Nakbe, El Mirador, and Cerros. Nakbe is one of the largest early Maya archaeological sites rivaled by El Mirador. El Mirador is a large Pre-Columbian Mayan settlement located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala. Cerros is also an obsolete English name for Cedros Island Cerros is a Maya Archaeological site in northern Middle to Late Preclassic Maya sites include Kaminaljuyú, Cival, Edzná, Cobá, Lamanai, Komchen, Dzibilchaltun, and San Bartolo, among others. Kaminaljuyu is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization. Cival is an Archaeological site in the Petén Basin region of the southern Maya lowlands which was formerly a major city of the Pre-Columbian Maya Edzná is a Maya Archaeological site in the north of the Mexican state of Campeche. Coba ( Cobá in the Spanish language) is a large ruined city of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located in the state of Quintana Lamanai (from Lama'an Ai, "submerged crocodile" in Yucatec Maya) is a Mesoamerican Archaeological site, and was once a considerably Komchen is Pre-Columbian Maya Archaeological site located in the northwestern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula. Sacbe_Dzibilchaltunjpg|right|thumb|Sacbe at Dzibilchaltun]]DzibilchaltunColonialOpenChapel

The Preclassic in the central Mexican highlands is represented by such sites as Tlapacoya, Tlatilco, and Cuicuilco. Tlapacoya is an important Archaeological site in Mexico, located at the foot of the Tlapacoya volcano southeast of Mexico City, on the former shore of Tlatilco was a large Pre-Columbian village in the Valley of Mexico situated near the modern-day town of the same name in the Mexican Federal District Cuicuilco was an ancient City in the central Mexican highlands on the southern shore of the Lake Texcoco in the southeastern Valley of Mexico These sites were eventually superseded by Teotihuacán, an important Classic era site which would eventually dominate economic and interaction spheres throughout Mesoamerica. Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the Pre-Columbian Americas The settlement of Teotihuacan is dated to later portion of the Late Preclassic, or roughly A. D. 50.

In the Valley of Oaxaca, San José Mogote represents one of the oldest permanent agricultural villages in the area, and one of the first to use pottery. Valley of Oaxaca is a geographic region located within the modern day State of Oaxaca in southern Mexico. San José Mogote is a Pre-Columbian Archaeological site of the Zapotec, a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in the region of what is now the During the Early and Middle Preclassic, the site developed some of the earliest examples of defensive palisades, ceremonial structures, the use of adobe, and hieroglyphic writing. palisade is a steel or wooden Fence or wall of variable height usually used as a defensive structure Adobe bricks are a Natural building material made from Sand, Clay, water and some kind of fibrous or Organic material ( Sticks, Mesoamerica, like Mesopotamia, China, and Egypt, is one of the few places in the world where writing has developed independently Also importantly, the site was one of the first to demonstrate inherited status, signifying a radical shift in socio-cultural and political structure. Ascribed status is the Social status a person is given from birth or assumes involuntarily later in life San José Mogote would eventual be overtaken by Monte Albán, the subsequent capital of the Zapotec empire, during the Late Preclassic. Monte Albán is a large Pre-Columbian Archaeological site in the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca. The Zapotec civilization was an indigenous Pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca of southern Mesoamerica.

The Preclassic in western Mexico, in the states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, and Michoacán also known as the Occidente, is poorly understood. Nayarit is one of Mexico’s 31 states and is located on the central west coast bordering the Pacific Ocean. Jalisco is a state in Mexico. The capital of Jalisco is the city of Guadalajara. For the state capital of the same name see Colima Colima. There is also a volcano named Colima, and a spider genus Colima ( Zodariidae Michoacán formally Michoacán de Ocampo (from Nahuatl Michhuacān "place of the fishermen" is one of the 31 constituent states This period is best represented by the thousands of figurines recovered by looters and ascribed to the "shaft tomb tradition". The Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition or shaft tomb culture refers to a set of interlocked cultural traits found in the western Mexican states of Jalisco

Classic

Early Classic

The Classic period is marked by the rise and dominance of several polities. The traditional distinction between the Early and Late Classic are marked by their changing fortune and their ability to maintain regional primacy. Of paramount importance are Teotihuacán in central Mexico and Tikal in Guatemala – indeed, the Early Classic’s temporal limits generally correlate to the main periods of these sites. Tikal (or Tik’al, according to the more current orthography is the largest of the ancient ruined cities of the Mayan civilization. Monte Alban in Oaxaca is another Classic period polity that expanded and floreced during this period, but the Zapotec capital exerted less interregional influence than the other two sites.

During the Early Classic, Teotihuacan participated in and perhaps dominated a far-reaching macro-regional interaction network. Architectural and artifact styles (talud-tablero, tripod slab-footed ceramic vessels) epitomized at Teotihuacan were mimicked and adopted at many distant settlements. Pachuca obsidian, whose trade and distribution is argued to have been economically controlled by Teotihuacan, is found throughout Mesoamerica. Obsidian is a naturally formed Volcanic Glass that was an important part of the Material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica

Tikal came to politically, economically, and militarily dominate much of the southern Maya lowlands during the Early Classic. An exchange network centered at Tikal distributed a variety of goods and commodities throughout southeast Mesoamerica, such as obsidian imported from central Mexico (e. g. , Pachuca) and highland Guatemala (e. g. , El Chayal, which was predominantly used by the Maya during the Early Classic), and jade from the Motagua valley in Guatemala. Obsidian is a naturally formed Volcanic Glass that was an important part of the Material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica Jade use in Mesoamerica was largely influenced by the conceptualization of the material as a rare and valued Commodity among Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican The Motagua River is a 486 km long river in Guatemala. It rises in central Guatemala to the north-east of Guatemala City and runs north-east to east to the Gulf Carved inscriptions at the site attest to direct interaction with individuals adorned in Teotihuacan-styled dress ca 400 AD. However, Tikal was often in conflict with other polities in the Petén Basin, as well as with others outside of it, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Dos Pilas, Naranjo, and Calakmul. The Petén Basin is a geographical subregion of Mesoamerica, located in the northern portion of the modern-day nation of Guatemala, and essentially contained within Uaxactun (waʃakˈtun is an ancient ruin of the Maya civilization, located in the Petén Basin region of the Maya lowlands in the present-day department Caracol or El Caracol is the name given to a large ancient Maya archaeological site located in what is now the Cayo District of Belize. Dos Pilas is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization located in what is now the department of Petén, Guatemala. Naranjo is a Spanish-language surname that can refer to People Alberto Naranjo (b Calakmul (also Kalakmul and other less frequent variants is the name given to site of one of the largest ancient Maya cities ever uncovered Towards the end of the Early Classic, this conflict would lead to Tikal’s military defeat at the hands of Caracol in 562 and a period commonly known as the Tikal Hiatus. Tikal (or Tik’al, according to the more current orthography is the largest of the ancient ruined cities of the Mayan civilization.

Late Classic

The Late Classic period (beginning ca. AD 600 until AD 800/850 [varies]) is characterized as a period of interregional competition and factionalization among the numerous regional polities in the Maya area. This largely resulted from the decrease in Tikal’s socio-political and economic power at the beginning. It was during this time that a number of other sites, therefore, rose to regional prominence and were able to exert greater interregional influence, including Caracol, Copán, Palenque, and Calakmul (who was allied with Caracol and may have assisted in the defeat of Tikal), and Dos Pilas Aguateca and Cancuén in the Petexbatún region of Guatemala. The Pre-Columbian city today known as Copán is a locale in extreme western Honduras, in the Copán Department, near to the Guatemalan border Palenque ( Bàak' in Modern Maya) is a Maya archeological site near the Usumacinta River in the Mexican state of Chiapas Dos Pilas is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization located in what is now the department of Petén, Guatemala. Aguateca is a Maya site located in northern Guatemala 's Petexbatun Basin in the department of Petén. Cancuén is an Archaeological site of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located in the Pasión subregion of the central Maya lowlands in the Petexbatún is a small Lake formed by a river of the same name which is a tributary of the La Pasion river Around 710 DC, Tikal arouses again and started to build strong alliances and defeating its worst enemies. In the Maya area, the Late Classic ended with the so-called Maya "collapse," a transitional period coupling the general depopulation of the southern lowlands and development and fluorescence of centers in the northern lowlands. The Classic Maya Collapse refers to the decline and abandonment of the Classic Period Maya cities of the southern Maya lowlands of Mesoamerica between the

Terminal Classic

Generally applied to the Maya area, the Terminal Classic roughly spans the time between AD 800/850 and ca. AD 1000. Overall, it generally correlates the rise to prominence of Puuc settlements in the northern Maya lowlands, so named after the hills in which they are mainly found. PuucChunjujujpg|right|thumb|325px|Puuc building at Chunhuhub, Campeche, as drawn by Frederick Catherwood, 1841]][[Image UxmalCornerChacMask Puuc settlements are specifically associated with a unique architectural style (the "Puuc architectural style") that represents a technological departure from previous construction techniques. Major Puuc sites include Uxmal, Sayil, Labna, Kabah, and Oxkintok. Uxmal ( Yucatec Maya: Óoxmáal is a large Pre-Columbian ruined city of the Maya civilization in the state of Yucatán, Mexico. Sayil is a Maya Archaeological site in the Mexican state of Yucatán, in the southwest of the state south of Uxmal. Labná by Catherwoodjpg|thumb|250px|Gateway at Labna (also known as Labna Vault as drawn by Frederick Catherwood. Oxkintok is a Pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site on the Yucatán Peninsula, located at the northern tip of the Puuc hills - a few kilometers While generally concentrating within the area in and around the Puuc hills, the style has been documented as far away as at Chichen Itza to the east and Edzna to the south. Chichen Itza (tʃiːˈtʃɛn iːˈtsɑː from Chi'ch'èen Ìitsha' "At the mouth of the well of the Itza " is a Edzná is a Maya Archaeological site in the north of the Mexican state of Campeche.

Chichén Itzá was originally thought to have been a Postclassic site in the northern Maya lowlands. Research over the past few decades has established that it was first settled during the Early/Late Classic transition but rose to prominence during the Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic. During its apogee, this widely known site economically and politically dominated the northern lowlands. Its participation in the circum-peninsular exchange route, possible through its port site of Isla Cerritos, allowed Chichén Itzá to remain highly connected to areas such as central Mexico and Central America. The apparent “Mexicanization” of architecture at Chichén Itzá led past researchers to believe that Chichén Itzá existed under the control of a Toltec empire. Chronological data refutes this early interpretation, and it is now known that Chichén Itzá predated the Toltec; Mexican architectural styles are now used as an indicator of strong economic and ideological ties between the two regions.

Postclassic

The Postclassic (beginning AD 900-1000, depending on area) is, like the Late Classic, characterized by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of various polities. The main Maya centers were located in the northern lowlands. Following Chichén Itzá, whose political structure collapsed during the Early Postclassic, Mayapán rose to prominence during the Middle Postclassic and dominated the north for ca. Mayapan ( Màayapáan in Modern Maya) (in Spanish Mayapán) is a Pre-Columbian Maya site in the state of 200 years. After Mayapán’s fragmentation, political structure in the northern lowlands revolved around a number of large towns or city-states, such as Oxkutzcab and Ti’ho (Mérida, Yucatán), that competed with one another. Oxkutzcab (sometimes spelled as Oxcutzcab) is a small city surrounded by a municipality of the same name in the Mexican state of Yucatán Mérida ( Tiho' in Modern Maya) is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of Yucatán and the Yucatan Peninsula.

Toniná, in the Chiapas highlands, and Kaminaljuyú in the central Guatemala highlands, were important southern highland Maya centers. Tonina (Toniná in the Spanish language) is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site and ruined city of the Maya civilization located in what is now Kaminaljuyu is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization. The latter site, Kaminaljuyú, is one of the longest occupied sites in Mesoamerica and was continuously inhabited from ca. 800 BC to around AD 1200. Other important highland Maya groups include the K'iche' of Utatlán, the Mam in Zaculeu, the Poqomam in Mixco Viejo, and the Kaqchikel at Iximche in the Guatemalan highlands. This page is about the Native American people for other uses the dish see Quiché (disambiguation. Gumarcaj, (sometimes rendered as Cumarcaj or Kumarcaaj) is an archeological site in El Quiché department of Guatemala. The Mam are a Native American people of the highlands of western Guatemala. Zaculeu (traditional spelling or Saqulew (modern Maya spelling is a Pre-Columbian Archeological site in the highlands of southwestern Guatemala Poqomam is a Mayan language, closely related to Poqomchí. It is spoken by ca Mixco Viejo is an archaeological site in the north east of the Chimaltenango district of Guatemala, some 50 km to the north of Guatemala City The Kaqchikel (in modern orthography formerly also spelled Cakchiquel) are one of the indigenous Maya peoples of the midwestern highlands in Guatemala Iximché is a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican Archaeological site in the western highlands of Guatemala. The Pipil resided in El Salvador, while the Ch'orti' were in eastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras. The Pipil are an indigenous people who live in western El Salvador. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. The Ch'orti' people (alternatively Ch'orti' Maya or Chorti) are one of the indigenous Maya peoples, who primarily reside in communities and Honduras in Spanish, República de Honduras) is a democratic republic in Central America.

In central Mexico, the early portion of the Postclassic correlates with the rise of the Toltec and an empire based at their capital, Tula (also known as Tollan). Toltec-style Vessel 1jpg|thumb|250px|right|A rather expressive orange-ware clay vessel in the Toltec style Tula is a town of 28432 (2005 census in the southwestern part of the state of Hidalgo in central Mexico, some 100 km to the north-northwest of Mexico City This article is about the historic cities In the science fiction television series Stargate SG-1, the "Tollan" are an advanced human civilization see Cholula, initially an important Early Classic center contemporaneous with Teotihuacan, maintained its political structure (it did not collapse) and continued to function as a regionally important center during the Postclassic. The latter portion of the Postclassic is generally associated with the rise of the Mexica and the Aztec empire. The Mexica ( Nahuatl: Mēxihcah, meːˈʃiʔkaʔ or Mexicans ( Spanish: Mexicanos) were an indigenous people of the Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political One of the more commonly known cultural groups in Mesoamerica, the Aztec politically dominated nearly all of central Mexico, the Gulf Coast, Mexico’s southern Pacific Coast (Chiapas and into Guatemala), Oaxaca, and Guerrero. The State of Guerrero is a state in the southern meridional region of Mexico.

The Tarascans (also known as the P'urhépecha) were located in Michoacan and Guerrero. The Tarascan state was a state in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, roughly covering the geographic area of the present day Mexican state of Michoacán The P'urhépecha, sometimes referred to as Tarascan or Purépecha are an indigenous people centered in the northwestern region of the Mexican Michoacán formally Michoacán de Ocampo (from Nahuatl Michhuacān "place of the fishermen" is one of the 31 constituent states With their capital at Tzintzuntzan, the Tarascan state was one of the only ones to actively and continuously resist Aztec domination during the Late Postclassic. Tzintzuntzan is a city in the state of Michoacán, Mexico, located at. Other important Postclassic cultures in Mesoamerica include the Totonac along the eastern coast (in the modern-day states of Veracruz, Puebla, and Hidalgo). The Totonac people resided in the eastern coastal and mountainous regions of Mexico at the time of the Spanish arrival in 1519. Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave is one of the 31 states that constitute the republic of Mexico. Is a Mexican state located in the center east of the country to the east of Mexico City. The Huastec resided north of the Totonac, mainly in the modern-day states of Tamaulipas and northern Veracruz. Tamaulipas is one of the 31 states of Mexico, it is located in the northeast The Mixtec and Zapotec cultures, centered at Mitla and Zaachila respectively, inhabited Oaxaca. The Mixtec (or Mixteca) are an indigenous Mesoamerican people inhabiting the Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and Puebla Mitla is the name commonly given to an archaeological site located in the town of San Pablo Villa de Mitla in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. Zaachila (the Zapotec name Nahuatl: Teotzapotlan; Mixtec: Ñuhu Tocuisi) is a town in Oaxaca, Mexico, 6 km

The Postclassic ends with the arrival of the Spanish and their subsequent conquest of the Aztec between 1519 and 1521. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. It should be noted that many other cultural groups did not acquiesce until later. For example, Maya groups in the Petén area, including the Itza at Tayasal and the Ko'woj at Zacpeten, remained independent until 1697. The Itza are a Guatemalan ethnic group of Maya affiliation speaking the Itza' language. Tayasal is a Pre-Columbian Maya Archaeological site that dates to the Postclassic period The Ko'woj (also recorded as Coguo, Cohuo, Kob'ow, Kob'ox, and Kowo) were a Maya group and Polity, from Zacpeten is a Pre-Columbian Maya Archaeological site in northern Guatemala.

Some Mesoamerican cultures never achieved dominant status or left impressive archeological remains but should be mentioned as noteworthy. These include the Otomi, Mixe-Zoque groups (which may or may not have been related to the Olmecs), the northern Uto-aztecan groups, often referred to as the Chichimeca, that include the Cora and Huichol, the Chontales, the Huaves, and the Pipil, Xincan and Lencan peoples of Central America. The Mixe-Zoque languages constitute a Language family whose living members are spoken in and around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. Uto-Aztecan (also Uto-Aztekan) is a Native American Language family. Chichimeca was the name that the Nahuas generically applied to a wide range of semi- Nomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico, and carried The Cora are an indigenous ethnic group of Western Central Mexico that live in the Sierra de Nayarit and in La Mesa de Nayar in the Mexican states of The Huichol or Wixáritari are an indigenous ethnic group of western central Mexico, living in the Sierra Madre Occidental range in the Mexican states of

Summary of the Chronology and Cultures of Mesoamerica

Period	Timespan	Important cultures, cities
Paleo-Indian	10,000-3500 BC	Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, obsidian and pyrite points, Iztapan,
Archaic	3500-1800 BC	Agricultural settlements, Tehuacán
Preclassic (Formative)	BC 2000-250 AD	Unknown culture in La Blanca and Ujuxte, Monte Alto culture
Early Preclassic	BC 2000-1000	Olmec area: San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan; Central Mexico: Chalcatzingo; Valley of Oaxaca: San José Mogote. In the History of Mesoamerica, the stage known as the Paleo-Indian period (or alternatively the Lithic stage) is the era in the scheme of Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation Tehuacán is the second largest city in the Mexican state of Puebla, nestled in the Southeast Valley of Tehuacán bordering the states of Oaxaca and Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation La Blanca is a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican archaeological site with an occupation dating predominately from the Middle Preclassic (900-600 BC period of Mesoamerican The site of Ujuxte (after the Ramón or Breadnut tree -- uh-hush-te is the largest Pre-Classical site to be discovered on Guatemala Pacific coast Monte Alto is an Archaeological site on the Pacific Coast in what is now Guatemala. San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán (or San Lorenzo) is the collective name for three related Archaeological sites -- San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán and Potrero Nuevo -- located Chalcatzingo is a Mesoamerican archaeological site in the Valley of Morelos dating from the Formative Period of Mesoamerican chronology. San José Mogote is a Pre-Columbian Archaeological site of the Zapotec, a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in the region of what is now the The Maya area: Nakbe, Cerros
Middle Preclassic	BC 1000-400	Olmec area: La Venta, Tres Zapotes; Maya area: El Mirador, Izapa, Lamanai, Xunantunich, Naj Tunich, Takalik Abaj, Kaminaljuyú, Uaxactun; Valley of Oaxaca: Monte Albán
Late Preclassic	BC 400-200 AD	Maya area: Uaxactun, Tikal, Edzná, Cival, San Bartolo, Altar de Sacrificios, Piedras Negras, Ceibal, Rio Azul; Central Mexico: Teotihuacan; Gulf Coast: Epi-Olmec culture; Western Mexico: Shaft Tomb Tradition
Classic	200-900 AD	Classic Maya Centers, Teotihuacan, Zapotec
Early Classic	200-600 AD	Maya area: Calakmul, Caracol, Chunchucmil, Copán, Naranjo, Palenque, Quiriguá, Tikal, Uaxactun, Yaxha; Central Mexico: Teotihuacan apogee; Zapotec apogee; Western Mexico: Teuchitlan tradition
Late Classic	600-900 AD	Maya area: Uxmal, Toniná, Cobá, Waka', Pusilhá, Xultún, Dos Pilas, Cancuen, Aguateca; Central Mexico: Xochicalco, Cacaxtla; Gulf Coast: El Tajín and Classic Veracruz culture; Western Mexico: Teuchitlan tradition
Terminal Classic	800-900/1000 AD	Maya area: Puuc sites - Uxmal, Labna, Sayil, Kabah
Postclassic	900-1519 AD	Aztec, Tarascans, Mixtec, Totonac, Pipil, Itzá, Ko'woj, K'iche', Kaqchikel, Poqomam, Mam
Early Postclassic	900-1200 AD	Cholula, Tula, Mitla, El Tajín, Tulum, Topoxte, Kaminaljuyú, Joya de Cerén
Late Postclassic	1200- 1519 AD	Tenochtitlan, Cempoala, Tzintzuntzan, Mayapán, Ti'ho, Utatlán, Iximche, Mixco Viejo, Zaculeu
Post Conquest	Until 1697 AD	Central Peten: Tayasal, Zacpeten

General characteristics

Subsistence

Main article: Agriculture in Mesoamerica

See also: Maya diet and subsistence

By roughly 6000 BC, hunter-gatherers living in the highlands and lowlands of Mesoamerica began to develop agricultural practices with early cultivation of squash and chiles. A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting The term highland is used to denote any Mountainous region or elevated mountainous Plateau. The earliest example of maize comes from Guila Naquitz, a cave in Oaxaca, that dates to ca. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica 4000 BC. It should be noted, however, that earlier maize samples have been documented at the Los Ladrones cave site in Panama, ca. Panama, officially the Republic of Panama (República de Panamá) is the southernmost country of Central America. 5500 BC [3]PDF. Slightly thereafter, other crops begin to be cultivated by the semi-agrarian communities throughout Mesoamerica. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture ^[10] Although maize is the most common domesticate, the common bean, tepary bean, scarlet runner bean, jicama, tomato and squash all become common cultivates by 3500 BC. Jícama (Spanish hee -kah-mah from Nahuatl xicamatl hee -kah-mahtl also Mexican Potato and Mexican Turnip, is the name The tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum, syn Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is a herbaceous usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family At the same time, cotton, yucca and agave were exploited for fibers and textile materials. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp The yuccas comprise the Genus Yucca of 40-50 species of perennials Shrubs and Trees in the Agave family Agave is a succulent Plant of a large Botanical Genus of the same name belonging to the family Agavaceae. A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network of natural or artificial Fibres often referred to as thread or Yarn. ^[11] By 2000 BC corn is the staple crop in the region and would remain so up through modern times. The Ramón or Breadnut tree (Brosimum alicastrum) was an occasional substitute for maize in producing flour. The breadnut ( Brosimum alicastrum) is a Brosimum tree species under the Moraceae family of Flowering plants whose other genera The breadnut ( Brosimum alicastrum) is a Brosimum tree species under the Moraceae family of Flowering plants whose other genera Fruit was also important in the daily diet of Mesoamerican cultures. Some of the main ones consumed include avocado, papaya, guava, mamey, zapote, and anona. The avocado ( Persea americana) (from Nahuatl āhuacatl) also known as aguacate ( Spanish) butter pear or The papaya (from Carib via Spanish) is the Fruit of the Plant Carica papaya, in the genus Carica. Guava is a Genus of about 100 Species of Tropical Shrubs and small Trees in the myrtle family Myrtaceae. Mamey is a commune of the Meurthe-et-Moselle département, in northeastern France. Sapote or tzapotl is a Nahuatl language word for a soft edible Fruit. For other meanings see Annona (disambiguation. Annona is the second largest Genus, after Guatteria

Mesoamerica lacked animals suitable for domestication, most notably domesticated large ungulates -- the lack of pack animals to assist in transportation is one notable difference between Mesoamerica and the cultures of the South American Andes. Ungulates (meaning roughly "being Hoofed quot or "hoofed animal" are several groups of Mammals most of which use the tips of their toes usually Other animals, including the duck, deer, dogs, and turkey were domesticated. For duck as a food see Duck (food; for other meanings see Duck (disambiguation. A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. The dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated Subspecies of the gray wolf, a Mammal of the Canidae family of the order Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Domestication (from Latin domesticus) refers to the process whereby a Population of Animals Turkey was the first, occurring around 3500 BC. ^[12] Dogs, however, were the primary source of animal protein in ancient Mesoamericans,^[13] and dog bones are common in midden deposits throughout the region.

Societies of this region did hunt certain wild species to complement their diet. These animals included deer, rabbit, birds and various types of insects. A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. Rabbits are small Mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. They also hunted in order to gain luxury items such as cat fur and bird plumage. ^[14]

Mesoamerican cultures that lived in the lowlands and coastal plains settled down in agrarian communities somewhat later than did highland cultures due to the fact that there was a greater abundance of fruits and animals in these areas which made a hunter-gatherer lifestyle more attractive. ^[15] Fishing also was a major provider of food to lowland and coastal Mesoamericans creating a further disincentive to settle down in permanent communities.

Recent reports ^[16] suggest that Mesoamericans in central America used cocoa beans to help produce beer: the chocolate was a by-product of the beans used to brew the beer. The practise may date to at least 3,100 to 3,200 years before present ^[17]. It also is apparent that the masticated cocoa beans were ground up after fermentation and added to the beer, giving it a chocolate taste.

Architecture

Main article: Mesoamerican architecture

Political organization

Ceremonial centers were the nuclei of Mesoamerican settlements. Mesoamerican architecture is the set of architectural traditions produced by Pre-Columbian cultures and civilizations of Mesoamerica, traditions which are K'inich Kan B'alam II, also (formerly known as Chan Bahlum II, ( May 23, 635 - February 20, 702) was king of the Pre-Columbian Palenque ( Bàak' in Modern Maya) is a Maya archeological site near the Usumacinta River in the Mexican state of Chiapas A stele (from Greek:, stēlē, ˈstiːli plural stelae,, stēlai, ˈstiːlaɪ also found Latinised singular stela The temples provided spatial orientation, which was imparted to the surrounding town. The cities with their commercial and religious centers were always political entities, somewhat similar to the European city-state, and each person could identify themself with the city in which they lived. A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty.

The ceremonial centers were always built to be visible. The pyramids were meant to stand out from the rest of the city, to represent its gods and their powers. Another characteristic feature of the ceremonial centers is historic layers. All of the ceremonial edifices were built in various phases, one on top of the other, to the point that what we now see is usually the last stage of construction. Ultimately, the ceremonial centers were the architectural translation of the identity of each city, as represented by the veneration of their gods and masters. Stelae were common public monuments throughout Mesoamerica, and served to commemorate notable successes, events and dates associated with the rulers and nobility of the various sites. A stele (from Greek:, stēlē, ˈstiːli plural stelae,, stēlai, ˈstiːlaɪ also found Latinised singular stela

Economy

See also: Trade in Maya civilization

Given that Mesoamerica was broken into numerous and diverse ecological niches, none of the societies that inhabited the area in were self-sufficient. During the height of the Maya civilization, trade was a crucial factor in maintaining cities For this reason, from the last centuries of the Archaic period onward, regions compensated for the environmental inadequacies by specializing in the extraction of certain abundant natural resources and then trading them for necessary unavailable resources through established commercial trade networks. In the sequence of North American Pre-Columbian cultural stages first proposed by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips in 1958 the Archaic period

The following is a list of some of the specialized resources traded from the various Mesoamerican sub-regions and environmental contexts:

• Pacific lowlands - cotton and cochineal. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Cochineal is the name of both Crimson or Carmine Dye and the cochineal insect ( Dactylopius coccus) a scale
• Maya lowlands and the Gulf Coast – cacao, vanilla, jaguar skins, birds and bird feathers (especially quetzal and macaw). CACAO is a research Java Virtual Machine developed at Vienna University of Technology. Vanilla is a Flavoring derived from Orchids of the genus Vanilla native to Mexico. The jaguar (Panthera onca,, or—especially in British English — is a New World Mammal of the Felidae family and one of Quetzals are strikingly colored Birds of the Trogon family ( Trogonidae) found in tropical regions of the Americas. Macaws are small to large often colourful New World Parrots Of the many different Psittacidae (true parrots genera, six are classified as
• Central Mexico – Obsidian (Pachuca). Pachuca, formally Pachuca de Soto ( La Bella Airosa, en The windy beauty) is the capital of the Mexican state of Hidalgo
• Guatemalan highlands – Obsidian (San Martin Jilotepeque, El Chayal, and Ixtepeque), pyrite, and jade from the Motagua River valley. Obsidian is a naturally formed Volcanic Glass that was an important part of the Material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica Obsidian is a naturally formed Volcanic Glass that was an important part of the Material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica Obsidian is a naturally formed Volcanic Glass that was an important part of the Material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica Jade is an Ornamental stone. The term jade is applied to two different rocks that are made up of different Silicate minerals. The Motagua River is a 486 km long river in Guatemala. It rises in central Guatemala to the north-east of Guatemala City and runs north-east to east to the Gulf
• Coastal areas – salt, dry fish, shell, and dyes. Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two A dye can generally be described as a Colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied

Currency

Sea shells from both coastal areas were used as currency during the Preclassic. A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is Later, cacao was used as a standard currency used in diverse commercial transactions. CACAO is a research Java Virtual Machine developed at Vienna University of Technology. At the time of conquest, a well made cotton tunic or shirt in the main markets would sell for about 30-50 cacao beans. Gold was not used as valuable object until the Postclassic, but even then, 1 load of Jade was worth 4 loads of Gold. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Jade is an Ornamental stone. The term jade is applied to two different rocks that are made up of different Silicate minerals.

Common characteristics of Mesoamerican culture

Calendrical systems

Main article: Mesoamerican calendars

See also: Maya calendar and Aztec calendar

For agriculturally-based people, historically the year has been divided into four seasons. Mesoamerican calendars are the calendrical systems devised and used by the Pre-Columbian cultures of Mesoamerica. The Maya calendar is a system of distinct Calendars and Almanacs used by the Maya civilization of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and by The Aztec calendar is the Calendar system that was used by the Aztecs as well as other Pre-Columbian peoples of central Mexico. These included the two solstices and the two equinoxes which could be thought of as the four "directional pillars" that support the year. Solstices occur twice a year when the tilt of the Earth's axis is most oriented toward or away from the Sun, causing the Sun to reach its northernmost and southernmost extremes An equinox is the event of the Sun passing over the Earth's equator in its annual cycle These four times of the year were, and still are, considered important as they indicate seasonal changes which obviously had a direct impact on the lives of an agricultural society. In the case of the agricultural Maya, the seasonal markers were avidly watched and duly recorded. They prepared almanacs recording past and recent solar and lunar eclipses, the phases of the moon, the periods of Venus and Mars, the movements of various other planets, and conjunctions of celestial bodies. A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some portion of the Earth's shadow The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University These almanacs also made future predictions concerning celestial events. These tables are highly accurate and indicate a significant level of knowledge among Mesoamerica astronomers. Historically Astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky while Astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena [4]PDF (46. 8 KiB)

Among the many types of Maya calendars which were maintained, the most important included a 260-day cycle, a 365-day cycle which approximated the solar year, a cycle which recorded lunation periods of the Moon, and a cycle which tracked the synodic period of Venus. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International The orbital period is the time taken for a given object to make one complete Orbit about another object Philosophically, the Maya believed that knowing the past meant knowing the cyclical influences that create the present, and by knowing the influences of the present one can see the cyclical influences of the future. The 260 cycle was used as a tool to govern agriculture, observe religious holidays, and mark the position of the stars, but was mainly used for divinatory purposes, and to give names to newborns.

The names given to the days, months, and years in the Mesoamerican calendar came, for the most part, from animals, flowers, heavenly bodies and cultural concepts that held symbolic significance in Mesoamerican culture. This calendar was used throughout the history of Mesoamerican by nearly every culture. Even today, several Maya groups in Guatemala, including the K'iche', Q'eqchi' and Kaqchikel, and the Mixe people of Oaxaca, continue using modernized forms of the Mesoamerican calendar. This page is about the Native American people for other uses the dish see Quiché (disambiguation. The Kaqchikel (in modern orthography formerly also spelled Cakchiquel) are one of the indigenous Maya peoples of the midwestern highlands in Guatemala The Mixe or Mije (always pronounced) is an indigenous group inhabiting the eastern highlands of the Mexican state of Oaxaca.

Writing systems

Main article: Mesoamerican writing systems

See also: Mesoamerican literature and Maya script

The Mesoamerican scripts deciphered to date are logosyllabic combining the use of logograms with a syllabary, and they are often called hieroglyphic scripts. Maya codices (singular Codex) are folding Books stemming from the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization, written in Maya hieroglyphic Mesoamerica, like Mesopotamia, China, and Egypt, is one of the few places in the world where writing has developed independently The traditions of indigenous Mesoamerican literature extend back to the oldest-attested forms of early Writing in the Mesoamerican region which date from The Maya script, also known as Maya hieroglyphs, was the writing system of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica, presently The Maya script, also known as Maya hieroglyphs, was the writing system of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica, presently A logogram, or logograph, is a Grapheme which represents a word or a Morpheme (a meaningful unit of language A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate Syllables which make up Words A symbol in a syllabary typically represents an optional Hieroglyph ( Greek grc-Grek ἱερογλύφος " sacred carving " or hieroglyphics ( = grc-Grek τὰ ἱερογλυφικά Five or six different scripts have been documented in Mesoamerica but archaeological dating methods make it difficult to establish which was earliest and hence the forebear from which the others developed. The best documented and deciphered Mesoamerican writing system, and hence the most widely known, is the classic Maya script. The Maya script, also known as Maya hieroglyphs, was the writing system of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica, presently Others include the Olmec, Zapotec, and Epi-Olmec systems. Cascajal Block is a writing tablet-sized Serpentine slab which has been dated to the early first millennium BCE incised with hitherto unknown characters that may represent The Isthmian script is a very early Mesoamerican writing system in use in the area of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec from perhaps 500 BCE to 500 CE although An extensive Mesoamerican literature has been conserved partly in indigenous scripts and partly in the postconquest transcriptions in the Latin script. The traditions of indigenous Mesoamerican literature extend back to the oldest-attested forms of early Writing in the Mesoamerican region which date from

The other glyphic writing systems of Mesoamerica, and their usage, have been the subject of much debate. A glyph is an element of writing Two or more glyphs representing the same symbol whether interchangeable or context-dependent are called Allographs the abstract unit they The ongoing discussion is whether or not non-Maya Mesoamerican writing systems can be considered examples of true written language or whether it is best understood as a pictographic convention used to express ideas, specifically religious ones, but not representing the phonetic reality of the language in which they might be read. A pictogram ( also spelled pictogramme) or pictograph is a Symbol representing a Concept, object, activity place or event

Mesoamerican writing was practiced on a number of different mediums, including large stone monuments such as stelae, carverd directly onto architecture, carved or painted over stucco (e. A stele (from Greek:, stēlē, ˈstiːli plural stelae,, stēlai, ˈstiːlaɪ also found Latinised singular stela g. , murals), and on pottery. A mural is a Painting on a wall ceiling or other large permanent surface Pottery is the Ceramic ware made by potters It also refers to a group of materials that includes Earthenware, Stoneware The Maya codices were produced on amate paper produced from bark. Maya codices (singular Codex) are folding Books stemming from the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization, written in Maya hieroglyphic Amatl (āmatl amate or papel amate) is a form of Paper that was manufactured in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. No Mesoamerican society has had widespread literacy, and literacy and use of writing systems have been restricted to the classes of scribes and painters, and the nobility.

The ballgame

Main article: Mesoamerican ballgame

The Mesoamerican ballgame was a sport with ritual associations played for over 3000 years by nearly all pre-Columbian peoples of Mesoamerica. The Mesoamerican ballgame was a Sport with ritual associations played for over 3000 years by the Pre-Columbian peoples of Mesoamerica. Uaxactun (waʃakˈtun is an ancient ruin of the Maya civilization, located in the Petén Basin region of the Maya lowlands in the present-day department The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, and a modern version of the game, ulama, continues to be played in a few places. Ulama is a ball game played in a few communities in the Mexican state of Sinaloa.

Over 1300 ballcourts have been found throughout Mesoamerica. Mesoamerican ballcourt is a large Masonry structure of a type used in Mesoamerica for over 2700 years to play the Mesoamerican ballgame, particularly the ^[18] They vary considerably in size, but they all feature long narrow alleys, with side-walls against which the balls could bounce.

The rules of the ballgame are not known, but it was probably similar to volleyball, where the object is to keep the ball in play. In the most well-known version of the game, the players would strike the ball with their hips, although some versions allowed the use of forearms or employed rackets, bats, or handstones. The ball was made of solid rubber, and weighed up to 4 kg or more, with sizes that differed greatly over time or according to the version played. ^[19]

While the game was played casually for simple recreation, including by children and perhaps even women, the game also had important ritual aspects, and major formal ballgames would be held as ritual events, often featuring human sacrifice.

Medicine and science

Medicine

Mesoamerican science and learning can be thought of as existing along two principal axes: those of the magical mind and the logical mind, which, despite being distinct, managed to coexist. In the field of medicine there were two schools: one was the shamanist tradition, where shaman is understood as being a priestly healer who dealt with certain ailments, the most common of which was the loss of the soul. In order to cure his patients, the shaman turned to psychotropic drugs (peyote, tobacco, red beans mixed with mescaline) and magical manipulations (incantations, offerings). Lophophora williamsii (loʊˈfɒfərə wɪlˈjæmsiaɪ lō-fof′ŏ-ră will-yăm′sē-ī better known by its common name Peyote, (from the Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Mescaline or 345-trimethoxyphenethylamine is a naturally-occurring Psychedelic Alkaloid of the Phenethylamine class

The other school of medicine consisted of pragmatic knowledge. In Mesoemerica there were healers who knew how to deal with fractures, treat and dress wounds, and were even able to perform certain obstetric procedures. Obstetrics (from the Latin obstare, "to stand by" is the surgical speciality dealing with the care of a woman and her offspring during Pregnancy They also knew how to treat using plants, and successfully used the active ingredient in aspirin, which at that time was already known, and extracted from willow bark. Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid (ASA (əˌsɛtɨlsælɨˌsɪlɨk ˈæsɨd is a Salicylate drug, often used as an Analgesic to relieve Medicine was practiced by priests who inherited their position and received extensive education. The Mayas sutured wounds with human hair, reduced fractures, and used casts. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas They were skillful dental surgeons and made prostheses from jade and turquoise and filled teeth with iron pyrite. Three clinical diseases, pinta, leishmaniasis, and yellow fever, and several psychiatric syndromes were described. Leishmaniasis is a Disease caused by Protozoan Parasites that belong to the genus Leishmania and is transmitted by the bite of certain Yellow fever (also called yellow jack, black vomit or sometimes American Plague) is an acute viral disease Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric In Medicine and Psychology, the term syndrome refers to the association of several clinically recognizable features signs (observed by a physician Tuberculosis, although wide spread both in North and South America, has not been documented in Mesoamerica, with the exception of 3 skeletons near today's Mexico City, it can be due to a wide spread of Iron deficiency common among the Mesoamericans, according to a recent (2006) study by AK Wilbur, JE Buikstra, from Arizona State University. Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common The ceramic figurines depicting dwarfs, and other diseased people are common, as well as maternal breast feeding and pregnancy.

Arithmetic

See also: Maya numerals

Mesoamerican arithmetic treated numbers as having both literal and symbolic value, the result of the dualistic nature that characterized Mesoamerican ideology. The Pre-Columbian Maya civilization used a Vigesimal ( base - twenty) Numeral system. Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone A number is an Abstract object, tokens of which are Symbols used in Counting and measuring. Dualism denotes a state of two parts The word's origin is the Latin duo, "two". . As mentioned, the Mesoamerican numbering system was vigesimal (i. e. , based on the number 20).

In representing numbers, a series of bars and dots were employed. Dots had a value of one, and bars had a value of five. This type of arithmetic was combined with a symbolic numerology: '2' was related to origins, as all origins can be thought of as doubling; '3' was related to household fire; '4' was linked to the four corners of the universe; '5' expressed instability; '9' pertained to the underworld and the night; '13' was the number for light, '20' for abundance, and '400' for infinity. The concept of zero was also used, and its representation at the Late Preclassic occupation of Tres Zapotes is one of the earliest uses of zero in human history. Tres Zapotes is a Mesoamerican Archaeological site located in the south-central Gulf Lowlands of Mexico in the Papaloapan River plain

One of the great contributions to arithmetic, above all that of the Mexica, was the invention of the nepohualtzitzin, an abacus used to quickly carry out mathematical operations. An abacus, also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool used primarily by Asians for performing arithmetic processes The device, made of wood, string, and grains of maize, is also known as the "Aztec computer".

Mythology and worldview

See also: Aztec religion, Olmec mythology, Maya religion, and Maya mythology

The shared traits in Mesoamerican mythology are characterized by their common basis as a religion that although in many Mesoamerican groups developed into complex polytheistic religious systems, retained some shamanistic elements. Aztec religion is a Mesoamerican religion combining elements of Polytheism, Shamanism and Animism within a framework of Astronomy and calendrics Mythology of the Olmec people significantly influenced the social development and mythological world view of Mesoamerica. Nowadays the Maya religion of Chiapas and Yucatan (Mexico Guatemala Belize and western Honduras is full of tensions between the traditional ancestral religion the 're-invention Maya mythology is part of Mesoamerican mythology and comprises all those Mayan tales in which personified forces of nature deities and the heroes interacting with these play the main ^[20]

The great breadth of the Mesoamerican pantheon of deities is due to the incorporation of ideological and religious elements from the first primitive religion of Fire, Earth, Water and Nature. A pantheon (from Greek Πάνθειον - pantheion, literally "a temple of all gods " neut See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always Astral divinities (the sun, stars, constellations, and Venus) were adopted, and represented in anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, and anthropozoomorphic sculptures, and in day-to-day objects.

The qualities of these gods and their attributes changed with the passage of time and with cultural influences from other Mesoamerican groups. The gods are at once three different cosmic entities, and at the same time just one. An important characteristic of Mesoamerican religion was the dualism among the divine entities. The gods represented the confrontation between opposite poles: the positive, exemplified by light, the masculine, force, war, the sun, etc. ; and the negative, exemplified by darkness, the feminine, repose, peace, the moon, etc.

The typical Mesoamerican cosmology sees the world as separated into a day world governed by the sun and an underworld to which the dying sun goes at night to be reborn again the following morning, and united by a Ceiba tree (Yaxche' in Mayan). Ceiba (includes Chorisia is the name of a genus of many species of large Trees found in tropical areas including Mexico, Central and The geographic vision is also tied to these concepts and the cardinal points as well as certain geographical features in nature are linked to different parts of this cosmovision. For example caves are extremely important geographical features as are mountains and cenotes (natural wells), because they are seen as connecting the upper and the nether worlds. A cenote (pronounced in Mexican Spanish and in English, plural cenotes; from Yucatec Maya dzonot) is a type of Sinkhole The influence of this cosmovision on most mesoamerican societies was so strong as to be crucial in cityplanning and architecture. Mesoamerican architecture is the set of architectural traditions produced by Pre-Columbian cultures and civilizations of Mesoamerica, traditions which are .

Sacrifice

Among the Mesoamerican cultures, sacrifice was a deeply symbolic and highly ritualized activity with strong religious and political significance. Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" The various kinds of sacrifice were performed within a range of cultural contexts, from mundane everyday activities to those activities performed by elites and ruling lineages, the aim of which were the maintenance of sociocultural and political structure.

Sacrifice symbolized the renewal of the divine cosmic energy and the continuation of life. Its ability to do so is based on two intertwined concepts that are common to most Mesoamerican belief systems (in one form or another). The first is the notion that the gods had given life to mankind by sacrificing parts of their own bodies. The second is that blood, which often signified life among Mesoamerican belief systems, was partially made up of the blood of the gods (who sacrificed it and gave it to humans while creating life). Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells ��such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products Thus, in order to maintain the order of their universe, most Mesoamerican groups believed that blood and life had to be given back to the gods.

As mentioned, blood signified life, and was the liquid that satisfied the thirst of the gods (which varied depending on the culture) and revitalized them. Blood would not only revitalize the gods, but also the earth, plants (especially the maize harvest), and animals (e. g. , the jaguar and the eagle, both highly symbolic animals). Eagles are large birds of prey which are members of the Bird order Falconiformes and family Accipitridae, and belong to several genera Blood was viewed as necessary for life as water, both in the terrestrial world and the world of the gods, and to replenish it to the gods was an obligation. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life.

Generally, sacrifice can be divided into two types: autosacrifice and human sacrifice. Bloodletting was the Ritualized self-cutting or piercing of an individual’s body that served a number of ideological and Cultural functions within ancient Human sacrifice is the act of Homicide (the Killing of one or several Human beings in the context of a Religious ritual ( ritual killing The different forms of sacrifice are reflected in the imagery used to evoke ideological structure and sociocultural organization in Mesoamerica. In the Maya area, for example, stele depict bloodletting rituals performed by ruling elites, eagles and jaguars devouring human hearts, jade circles or necklaces that represented hearts, and plants and flowers that symbolized both nature and the blood that provided life. Imagery also showed pleas for rain or pleas for blood, with the same intention – to replenish the divine energy.

Autosacrifice

See also: Bloodletting in Mesoamerica

Autosacrifice, also called bloodletting, is the ritualized practice of drawing blood from oneself. Bloodletting was the Ritualized self-cutting or piercing of an individual’s body that served a number of ideological and Cultural functions within ancient Bloodletting (or blood-letting, in modern medicine referred to as phlebotomy) was a tremendously popular medical practice from antiquity up to the late It is commonly seen or represented through iconography as performed by ruling elites in highly ritualized ceremonies, but it is easily practiced among mundane sociocultural contexts (i. e. , non-elites could perform autosacrifice). The act was typically performed with obsidian prismatic blades or stingray spines, and blood was drawn from piercing or cutting the tongue, earlobes, and/or genitals (among other locations). Obsidian is a naturally occurring Glass formed as an extrusive Igneous rock. In Archaeology, a prismatic blade is a long narrow specialized Lithic flake with parallel margins Dasyatidae is a family of rays, cartilaginous marine Fishes related to Skates and Sharks Dasyatids are common in tropical Dasyatidae is a family of rays, cartilaginous marine Fishes related to Skates and Sharks Dasyatids are common in tropical The tongue is the large bundle of Skeletal muscles on the floor of the Mouth that manipulates Food for chewing and swallowing (deglutition On the Ear of Humans and many other animals the earlobe('lobulus auriculæ' sometimes simply lobe or lobule) is the soft lower part of the external ear A sex organ, or primary sexual characteristic, as narrowly defined is any of the anatomical parts of the body which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute Another form of autosacrifice was conducted by pulling a rope with attached thorns through the tongue or earlobes. The blood produced was then collected on paper held in a bowl.

Autosacrifice was not limited to male rulers, as their female counterparts often performed these ritualized activities. They are typically shown in performing the rope and thorns technique. A recently discovered queen's tomb in the Classic Maya site of Waka (also known as El Perú) had a ceremonial stingray spine placed in her genital area, suggesting that women also performed bloodletting in their genitalia. El Perú (also known as Waka') is a Pre-Columbian Maya Archeological site occupied during the Preclassic and Classic

Human Sacrifice

See also: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

What importance did the sacrifice have in the social and religious aspects of Mesoamerican Culture? First, it showed death transformed into the divine. Human sacrifice was an aspect of historical Aztec culture/religion although the extent of the practice is debated by scholars Death is the consequence of a human sacrifice, but it is not the end; it is but the continuation of the cosmic cycle. Death creates life – divine energy is liberated through death and returns to the gods, who are then able to create more life. Secondly, it justifies war, since the most valuable sacrifices are obtained through conflict. The death of the warrior is the greatest sacrifice, and gives the gods the energy to go about their daily activities, such as the bringing of rain. Warfare and the capturing of prisoners became a method of social advancement, and a religious cause. Finally, it justifies the control of power by the two ruling classes, the priests and the warriors. The priests control the religious ideology, and the warriors supply the sacrifice.

Astronomy

Mesoamerican astronomy included a broad understanding of the cycles of planets and other celestial bodies. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Special importance was given to the sun, moon, and Venus as the morning and evening star. The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University

Observatories were built at a number of sites, including the round observatory at Ceibal and the “Observatorio” at Xochicalco. Xochicalco ("sho-chee-cal-co") is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in the western part of the Mexican state of Morelos. Often, the architectural organization of Mesoamerican sites was based on precise calculations derived from astronomical observations. Well-known examples of these include the El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza and the Observatorio at Xochicalco. El Castillo ( Spanish for "The Castle " is the nickname of a spectacular Mesoamerican step-pyramid that dominates the center Xochicalco ("sho-chee-cal-co") is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in the western part of the Mexican state of Morelos. A unique and common architectural complex found among many Mesoamerican sites are E-Groups, which are aligned so as to serve as astronomical observatories. E-Groups are unique architectural complexes found among a number of ancient Maya settlements The name of this complex is based on Uaxactun’s “Group E,” the first known observatory in the Maya area. Uaxactun (waʃakˈtun is an ancient ruin of the Maya civilization, located in the Petén Basin region of the Maya lowlands in the present-day department Perhaps the earliest observatory documented in Mesoamerica is that of the Monte Alto culture. Monte Alto is an Archaeological site on the Pacific Coast in what is now Guatemala. This complex consisted of 3 plain stelae and a temple oriented with respect to the Pleiades. The Pleiades (ˈpliːədiːz or /ˈplaɪədiːz/ also known as M 45, the '''Seven Sisters''', Seven Stars, SED, Matariki

The symbolism of space and time

It has been argued that among Mesoamerican societies the concepts of space and time are associated with the four cardinal compass points and linked together by the calendar (Duverger 1999). Space is the extent within which Matter is physically extended and objects and Events have positions relative to one another For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of The word Calendar consist of two words 1 Cal ( in Pashto means Year in Hindi and Persian is Sal- also means Year Dates or events were always tied to a compass direction, and the calendar specified the symbolic geographical characteristic peculiar to that period. Resulting from the significance held by the cardinal directions, many Mesoamerican architectural features, if not entire settlements, were planned and oriented with respect to directionality.

In Maya mythology, each cardinal point was assigned a specific color and a specific jaguar deity (Bacab). Maya mythology is part of Mesoamerican mythology and comprises all those Mayan tales in which personified forces of nature deities and the heroes interacting with these play the main They are as follows:

• Hobnil - Bacab of the East, associated with the color red and the Kan years. This is a name list of Maya gods and supernatural beings, mainly taken from the Books of Chilam Balam (CHB Lacandon ethnography (LAC Landa (L and Popol Vuh (PV The Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST internal designation HT-7U is an experimental Superconducting Tokamak Magnetic fusion energy
• Can Tzicnal - Bacab of the North, assigned the color white and the Muluc years,
• Zac Cimi - Bacab of the West, associated with the color black and the Ix years. This is a name list of Maya gods and supernatural beings, mainly taken from the Books of Chilam Balam (CHB Lacandon ethnography (LAC Landa (L and Popol Vuh (PV This is about the direction for other uses see North (disambiguation. This is a name list of Maya gods and supernatural beings, mainly taken from the Books of Chilam Balam (CHB Lacandon ethnography (LAC Landa (L and Popol Vuh (PV This article refers to the cardinal direction for other uses see West (disambiguation.
• Hozanek - Bacab of the South, associated with the color yellow and the Cauac years. This is a name list of Maya gods and supernatural beings, mainly taken from the Books of Chilam Balam (CHB Lacandon ethnography (LAC Landa (L and Popol Vuh (PV South is one of Cardinal directions and is opposite to the North.

Later cultures such as the Kaqchikel and Quiché maintain the association of cardinal directions with each color, but utilized different names. The Kaqchikel (in modern orthography formerly also spelled Cakchiquel) are one of the indigenous Maya peoples of the midwestern highlands in Guatemala This page is about the Native American people for other uses the dish see Quiché (disambiguation.

Among the Aztec, the name of each day was associated with a cardinal point (thus conferring symbolic significance), and each cardinal direction was associated with a group of symbols. Below are the symbols and concepts associated with each direction:

• East – crocodile, the serpent, water, cane, and movement. A crocodile is any Species belonging to the family Crocodylidae (sometimes classified instead as the Subfamily Crocodylinae) Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. The East was linked to the world priests and associated with vegetative fertility, or, in other words, tropical exuberance.
• North – wind, death, the dog, the jaguar, and flint (or chert). Wind is the flow of Air or other Gases that compose an Atmosphere (including but not limited to the Earth's) Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific Flint (or flintstone) is a hard sedimentary Cryptocrystalline form of the Mineral Quartz, categorized as a variety of Chert Chert (ˈtʃɝt is a fine-grained Silica -rich Microcrystalline, Cryptocrystalline or Microfibrous Sedimentary rock that may contain The north contrasts the east in that it is conceptualized as dry, cold, and oppressive. It is considered to be the nocturnal part of the universe, and includes the dwellings of the dead. The dog (xoloitzcuintle) has a very specific meaning, as it is the one who accompanies the deceased during the trip to the lands of the dead and helps them cross the river of death that leads into nothingness.
• West - the house, the deer, the monkey, the eagle, and rain. House generally refers to a Shelter or Building that is a Dwelling or place for Habitation by Human beings. A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. A monkey is any member of either the New World monkeys or Old World monkeys two of the three groupings of Simian Primates the third group being Eagles are large birds of prey which are members of the Bird order Falconiformes and family Accipitridae, and belong to several genera Rain is Liquid precipitation. On Earth it is the condensation of atmospheric Water vapor into drops heavy enough to fall often making it to The west was associated with the cycles of vegetation, specifically the temperate high plains that experience light rains, and the change of seasons. *
• South – rabbit, the lizard, dried herbs, the buzzard, and flowers. Rabbits are small Mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world Lizards are a large and widespread group of Reptiles of the order Squamata, with nearly 5000 species and ranging across all continents except A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like The New World vulture family Cathartidae contains seven Species found in warm and temperate areas of the Americas. A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also It is related on the one hand to the luminous Sun and the noon heat, and on the other with rain filled with alcoholic drink. The rabbit, the principal symbol of the west, was associated with farmers and with pulque. Pulque, or octli, is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermented juice of the Maguey, and is a traditional native beverage

Political and religious art

See also: Maya art

Mesoamerican artistic expression was conditioned by ideology and generally related to focusing on themes of religion and/or sociopolitical power. Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around them including the behavior of other people This is largely based on the fact that most works that survived the Spanish conquest were public monuments. These monuments were typically erected by rulers who sought to visually legitimize their sociocultural and political position; by doing so, they intertwined their lineage, personal attributes and achievements, and legacy with religious concepts. As such, these monuments were specifically designed for public display and took many forms, including stele, sculpture, architectural reliefs, and other types of architectural elements (e. A stele (from Greek:, stēlē, ˈstiːli plural stelae,, stēlai, ˈstiːlaɪ also found Latinised singular stela A relief is a Sculptured Artwork where a modeled form is raised (or alternatively lowered from a flattened background without being disconnected from it g. , roofcombs). Other themes expressed include tracking time, glorifying the city, and veneration of the gods – all of which were tied into explicitly aggrandizing the abilities and the reign of the ruler who commissioned the artwork.

Another type of pre-Hispanic art that was produced for its inner, rather than outward, meaning. It is differentiated from the first type in that its value is related not so much in what is visually depicts, but rather in what it represents. Earthenware (ceramic vessels) are an example of this type of artistic expression, and were symbolic due to the origin of their source material; they were often in burial rituals and as the invisible faces of statues. The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικός ( keramikos)

See also

• Middle America (Americas)

Footnotes

References

• Carmack, Robert M. ; Janine L. Gasco and Gary H. Gossen (1996). Legacy of Mesoamerica, The: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-337445-9.  

• Coe, Michael D. [1962] (1994). Michael D Coe (born 1929 is an American Archaeologist, Anthropologist, epigrapher and Author. Mexico: from the Olmecs to the Aztecs, 4th edition, Revised and Enlarged, New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27722-2.  

• Diehl, Richard A. (2004). The Olmecs: America's First Civilization. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28503-9.  

• Diamond, Jared (1999). TemplateInfobox writer --> Jared Mason Diamond (b 10 September, 1937) is an American Evolutionary biologist Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. Guns Germs and Steel The Fates of Human Societies is a 1997 book by Jared Diamond, professor of Geography and Physiology at UCLA New York: W W Norton & Co. . ISBN 0-393-31755-2.  

• Duverger, Christian (1999). Mesoamérica, arte y antropología. . Paris. : CONACULTA, Landucci Editores. . ISBN 970-18-3751-7.   (Spanish)

• Fernández, Tomás; and Jorge Belarmino (2003). La escultura prehispánica de mesoamérica. Barcelona: Lunwerg Editores. ISBN 84-9785-012-2.   (Spanish)

• Filloy Nadal, Laura (2001). "Rubber and Rubber Balls in Mesoamerica", in E. Michael Whittington (Ed. ): The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame. New York: Thames & Hudson, pp. 20-31. ISBN 0-500-05108-9.  

• Fuente, Beatrice de la (2001). De Mesoamérica a la Nueva España. Oviedo, Spain: Consejo de Comunidades Asturianas. ISBN 84-505-9611-4.   (Spanish)

• Gamio, Manuel (1922). La Población del Valle de Teotihuacán: Representativa de las que Habitan las Regiones Rurales del Distrito Federal y de los Estados de Hidalgo, Puebla, México y Tlaxcala, 2 vols. in 3, Mexico City: Talleres Gráficos de la Secretaría de Educación Pública.   (Spanish)

• Kirchhoff, Paul (1943). Paul Kirchhoff ( 17 August, 1900 –1972 was a German Anthropologist, most noted for his seminal work in defining and elaborating the Culture "Mesoamérica. Sus Límites Geográficos, Composición Étnica y Caracteres Culturales". Acta Americana 1 (1): pp. 92–107.   (Spanish)

• Kuehne Heyder, Nicola; and Joaquín Muñoz Mendoza (2001). Mesoamérica: acercamiento a una historia. Granada, Spain. : Diputación Provincial de Granada. ISBN 84-7807-008-7.   (Spanish)

• Leyenaar, Ted (2001). ""The Modern Ballgames of Sinaloa: a Survival of the Aztec Ullamaliztli"", in E. Michael Whittington (Ed. ): The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame. New York: Thames & Hudson, pp. 97-115. ISBN 0-500-05108-9.  

• López Asutin, Alfredo; and Leonardo López Luján (1996). El pasado indígena. Mexico City: El Colegio de México. ISBN 968-16-4890-0.   (Spanish)

• Miller, Mary Ellen (2001). Mary Ellen Miller (b December 30, 1952) is an American Art historian and academic at Yale University. El arte de mesoamérica. "Colecciones El mundo del arte". . Barcelona. : Ediciones Destino. . ISBN ISBN 84-233-3095-8. .   (Spanish)

• O'Brien, Patrick (General Editor) (2005). Oxford Atlas of World History. New York: Oxford University Press.  

• Palerm, Ángel (1972). Agricultura y civilización en Mesoamérica. Mexico: Secretaría de Educación Pública. ISBN 968-13-0994-4.   (Spanish)

• Sahagún, Bernardino de (1950-82). Bernardino de Sahagún (1499 &ndash October 23 1590) was a Franciscan missionary to the Aztec ( Nahua) people of Mexico in Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble (eds. ): Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, 13 vols. The Florentine Codex is the name given to 12 books created under the supervision of Bernardino de Sahagún between approximately 1540 and 1585 in 12, Santa Fe: School of American Research. ISBN 0-87480-082-X.  

• Taladoire, Eric (2001). "The Architectural Background of the Pre-Hispanic Ballgame", in E. Michael Whittington (Ed. ): The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame. New York: Thames & Hudson, pp. 97-115. ISBN 0-500-05108-9.  

• Weaver, Muriel Porter (1993). The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica, 3rd ed. , San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-01-263999-0.  

• West, Robert C. ; and John P. Augelli (1989). Middle America: Its Lands and Peoples, 3rd ed. , Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-582271-8.  

• Wolf, Eric Robert (1967). Pueblos y culturas de Mesoamérica. Biblioteca Era.   (Spanish)

• Several Authors (1999). Historia General de Guatemala. ISBN 84-88522-07-4.  

• This article draws heavily on the corresponding article in the Spanish-language Wikipedia, which was accessed in the version of 29 May 2006. Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined It was translated by the Spanish Translation of the Week collaboration.

External links

• Mesoweb.com - an comprehensive site for Mesoamerican civilizations
• Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc.
• Mesoamerican Peace Project
• Selected bibliography concerning war in Mesoamerica (Spanish)
• WAYEB - European Association of Mayanists
• National Museum of Anthropology and History (Mexico) (Spanish)
• Museum of the Templo Mayor (Mexico) (Spanish)
• Maya Culture

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