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The Merovingians (or Merovings) were a Salian Frankish dynasty that came to rule the Franks in a region largely corresponding to ancient Gaul from the mid fifth to the mid eighth century. Salians redirects here for the eleventh-century dynasty see Salian dynasty, for Roman priests see Salii. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in Anno Domini / Common Era. Their politics involved frequent civil warfare between branches of the family. During the final century of the Merovingian rule, the dynasty was increasingly pushed into a ceremonial role. The Merovingian rule was ended by a palace coup in 751 when Pepin the Short formally deposed Childeric III, beginning the Carolingian monarchy. Pepin or Pippin (714 &ndash 24 September 768) called the Short, and often known as Pepin the Younger or Pepin III, was The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolings, or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family with its origins in the

They were sometimes referred to as the "long-haired kings" (Latin reges criniti) by contemporaries, for their symbolically unshorn hair (traditionally the tribal leader of the Franks wore his hair long, as distinct from the Romans and the tonsured clergy). This article is about human Head hair. For other uses see Longhair (disambiguation or Hair Long hair is any Hairstyle Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Tonsure is the practice of some Christian churches mystics Buddhist novices and Monks and some Hindu temples of cutting the Hair from the The term Merovingian comes from medieval Latin Merovingi or Merohingi ("sons of Merovech"), an alteration of an unattested Old West Low Franconian form, akin to their dynasty's Old English name Merewīowing[1], with the final -ing being a typical patronymic suffix. Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages, primarily as a medium of scholarly exchange and as the Liturgical language of the medieval A patronym, is a component of a Personal name based on the name of one's father

Contents

Origins

The Merovingian dynasty owes its name to the semi-legendary Merovech, (Latinised as Meroveus or Merovius), leader of the Salian Franks, and emerges into wider history with the victories of his son Childeric I (reigned c. Merovech (411-457 ( Latin: Meroveus or Merovius; French: Mérovée) is the legendary founder of the Merovingian dynasty Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Salians redirects here for the eleventh-century dynasty see Salian dynasty, for Roman priests see Salii. Childeric I (c 440– c 481 was the Merovingian king of the Salian Franks from 457 until his death and the father of Clovis. 457 – 481) against the Visigoths, Saxons, and Alemanni. The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany Childeric's son Clovis I went on to unite most of Gaul north of the Loire under his control around 486, when he defeated Syagrius, the Roman ruler in those parts. Clovis I (c 466 &ndash 27 November 511) was the first King of the Franks to unite all the Frankish tribes under one ruler Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Loire ( Arpitan: Lêre, Occitan: Léger) is an administrative department in the east-central part of France occupying the Flavius Afranius Syagrius (born 430 died 486 or 487 was the son of Aegidius, the last Roman Magister militum per Gallias The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial He won the Battle of Tolbiac against the Alemanni in 496, at which time, according to Gregory of Tours, Clovis adopted his wife's Nicene Christian faith. The Battle of Tolbiac was fought between the Franks under Clovis I and the Alamanni, traditionally set in 496. The Nicene Creed (ˈnaɪsiːn is an ecumenical Christian statement of faith accepted in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Assyrian Church of Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings He subsequently went on to decisively defeat the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in the Battle of Vouillé in 507. Toulouse ( pronounced in standard French, and in the local accent ( Occitan: Tolosa, pronounced) is a city in southwest The Battle of Vouillé or Campus Vogladensis was fought in the northern Marches of Visigothic territory at a small place near Poitiers ( Gaul After Clovis' death, his kingdom was partitioned among his four sons, and over the next century this tradition of partition would continue. Even when multiple Merovingian kings ruled, the kingdom — not unlike the late Roman Empire — was conceived of as a single entity ruled collectively by several kings (in their own realms) and a turn of events could result in the reunification of the whole kingdom under a single ruler. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Leadership among the early Merovingians was probably based on mythical descent and alleged divine patronage, expressed in terms of continued military success.

History

Upon Clovis' death in 511, the Merovingian kingdom included all the Franks and all of Gaul but Burgundy. Clovis I (c 466 &ndash 27 November 511) was the first King of the Franks to unite all the Frankish tribes under one ruler Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Burgundy (Bourgogne Burgund is a region historically situated in modern-day France and Switzerland, inhabited in turn by Celts ( Gauls) To the outside, the kingdom, even when divided under different kings, maintained unity and conquered Burgundy in 534. After the fall of the Ostrogoths, the Franks also conquered Provence. The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late Provence ( Provençal Occitan: Provença in classical norm or Prouvènço in Mistralian norm is a region of southeastern France After this their borders with Italy (ruled by the Lombards since 568) and Visigothic Septimania remained fairly stable. The Lombards ( Latin Langobardi, whence the alternative names Langobards and Longobards) were a Germanic people originally from Septimania was the western region of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis that passed under the control of the Visigoths in 462 when Septimania was ceded to [2]

Internally, the kingdom was divided among Clovis' sons and later among his grandsons and frequently saw war between the different kings, who quickly allied among themselves and against one another. The death of one king would create conflict between the surviving brothers and the deceased's sons, with differing outcomes. Later, conflicts were intensified by the personal feud around Brunhilda. However, yearly warfare often did not constitute general devastation but took on an almost ritual character, with established 'rules' and norms. [3]

Eventually, Clotaire II in 613 reunited the entire Frankish realm under one ruler. Chlothar II (or Chlotar, Clothar, Clotaire, Chlotochar, or Hlothar, giving rise to Lothair; 584 &ndash 629 called Later divisions produced the stable units of Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitania. Austrasia (rarely Austria, both meaning "eastern land" formed the north-eastern portion of the Kingdom of the Merovingian Franks, comprising The territory of Neustria or Neustrasia, meaning "new land" originated in 511 made up of the regions from Aquitaine to the English Channel,

The frequent wars had weakened royal power, while the aristocracy had made great gains and procured enormous concessions from the kings in return for their support. These concessions saw the very considerable power of the king parcelled out and retained by leading comites and duces (counts and dukes). Very little is in fact known about the course of the seventh century due to a scarcity of sources, but Merovingians remained in power until the eighth century.

Clotaire's son Dagobert I (died 639), who had sent troops to Spain and pagan Slavic territories in the east, is commonly seen the last powerful Merovingian King. Dagobert I (c 603 &ndash 19 January 639) was the king of Austrasia (623&ndash634 king of all the Franks (629&ndash634 and king of Later kings are known as rois fainéants ("do-nothing kings"), despite the fact only the last two kings did nothing. The kings, even strong-willed men like Dagobert II and Chilperic II, were not the main agents of political conflicts, leaving this role to their mayors of the palace, who increasingly substituted their own interest for their king's. Dagobert II (c 650 &ndash December 23, 679) was the king of Austrasia (676 &ndash 679 the son of Sigebert III and Chimnechild of Burgundy Chilperic II (c 672 &ndash 13 February 721) born Daniel, the youngest son of Childeric II, was king of Neustria from 715 and sole Many kings came to the throne at a young age and died in the prime of life, weakening royal power further.

The conflict between mayors was ended when the Austrasians under the Pepin the Middle triumphed in 687 in the Battle of Tertry. Pepin (also Pippin, Pipin, or Peppin) of Herstal (c 635 &ndash 16 December 714) was the Mayor of the Palace The Battle of Tertry was an important engagement in Merovingian Gaul between the forces of Austrasia on one side and those of Neustria and After this, Pepin, though not a king, was the political ruler of the Frankish kingdom and left this position as a heritage to his sons. It was now the sons of the mayor that divided the realm among each other under the rule of a single king.

After Pepin's long rule, his son Charles Martel assumed power, fighting against nobles and his own stepmother. Charles "The Hammer" Martel (Carolus Martellus Charles "the Hammer" (ca His reputation for ruthlessness further undermined the king's position. During the last years of his life he even ruled without a king, though he did not assume royal dignity. His sons Carloman and Pepin again appointed a Merovingian figure-head to stem rebellion on the kingdom's periphery, but in 751, Pepin finally displaced the last Merovingian and, with the support of the nobility and the blessing of Pope Zachary, himself assumed the title of a King of the Franks. Carloman (between 706 and 716 &ndash 17 August 754 was the eldest son of Charles Martel, Major domo or Mayor of the palace and duke Pepin or Pippin (714 &ndash 24 September 768) called the Short, and often known as Pepin the Younger or Pepin III, was Childeric III (died about 753 was the last King of the Franks in the Merovingian dynasty from 743 to his deposition in 751 The deposed Merovingian was sent into a monastery, bereft of his symbolic long hair. With Pepin, the Carolingians ruled the Franks as Kings. The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolings, or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family with its origins in the

Merovingian Kingdoms
Merovingian Kingdoms

Government and law

The Merovingian king was the master of the booty of war, both movable and in lands and their folk, and he was in charge of the redistribution of conquered wealth among his followers, though these powers were not absolute. "When he died his property was divided equally among his heirs as though it were private property: the kingdom was a form of patrimony" (Rouche 1987 p 420). Some scholars have attributed this to the Merovingians lacking a sense of res publica, but other historians have criticized this view as an oversimplification. This article is about the Latin phrase For the historical state see Roman Republic; for the dialogue by Cicero see De re publica; for the former Estonian

The kings appointed magnates to be comites (counts), charging them with defense, administration, and the judgement of disputes. The French Solar Energy Authority ( Commissariat à l'Energie Solaire, ComES) a public Scientific and industrial entity was set up in Defence The term administration, as used in the context of Government, differs according to Jurisdiction. This happened against the backdrop of a newly isolated Europe without its Roman systems of taxation and bureaucracy, the Franks having taken over administration as they gradually penetrated into the thoroughly Romanised west and south of Gaul. Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government The counts had to provide armies, enlisting their milites and endowing them with land in return. These armies were subject to the king's call for military support. There were annual national assemblies of the nobles of the realm and their armed retainers which decided major policies of warmaking. The army also acclaimed new kings by raising them on its shields in a continuance of ancient practice which made the king the leader of the warrior-band. Furthermore, the king was expected to support himself with the products of his private domain (royal demesne), which was called the fisc. In the Feudal system demesne (also spelled desmesne pronounced /dəmeɪn/ or /dəmiːn/; via Old French demeine from Latin dominium) was all the land Under the Merovingians and Carolingians the fisc (Root word of "fiscal" applied to the royal Demesne which paid taxes entirely in kind This system developed in time into feudalism, and expectations of royal self-sufficiency lasted until the Hundred Years' War. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed The Hundred Years' War (Guerre de Cent Ans was a prolonged conflict lasting from 1337 to 1453 between two royal houses for the French throne vacant with the extinction of the senior Trade declined with the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, and agricultural estates were mostly self-sufficient. The remaining international trade was dominated by Middle Eastern merchants.

Merovingian law was not universal law equally applicable to all; it was applied to each man according to his origin: Ripuarian Franks were subject to their own Lex Ripuaria, codified at a late date (Beyerle and Buchner 1954), while the so-called Lex Salica (Salic Law) of the Salian clans, first tentatively codified in 511 (Rouche 1987 p 423) was invoked under medieval exigencies as late as the Valois era. The Lex Ripuaria is a 7th century collection of Germanic law, the laws of the Ripuarian Franks. Salic law ( Lat Lex Salica) was an important body of traditional Law codified for governing the Salian Franks in the Early Middle Ages See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and In this the Franks lagged behind the Burgundians and the Visigoths, that they had no universal Roman-based law. In Merovingian times, law remained in the rote memorisation of rachimburgs, who memorised all the precedents on which it was based, for Merovingian law did not admit of the concept of creating new law, only of maintaining tradition. Nor did its Germanic traditions offer any code of civil law required of urbanised society, such as Justinian caused to be assembled and promulgated in the Byzantine Empire. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or The few surviving Merovingian edicts are almost entirely concerned with settling divisions of estates among heirs.

Religion and culture

Main articles: Merovingian art and architecture and Merovingian script

Merovingian culture was so thoroughly imbued with religion that Yitzhak Hen found that a presentation of Merovingian popular culture was essentially synonymous with Merovingian religion, which he presented through written texts. Merovingian art and architecture is the art and architecture of the Merovingian dynasty of the Franks, which lasted from the 5th century to the Merovingian script was a medieval script so called because it was developed in France during the Merovingian dynasty [4] Merovingian culture certainly witnessed an extensive proliferation of saints.

Christianity was brought to the Franks by monks. The most famous of these missionaries is St. Columbanus, an Irish monk who enjoyed great influence with Queen Balthild. Not to be confused with St Columba, also Irish and partly his contemporary Saint Balthild, also known as Bathilde d'Ascagnie, Batilde, Bathylle, Bathild, Bathildis, or Bathilda (626 or 627 Merovingian kings and queens used the newly forming ecclesiastical power structure to their advantage. Monasteries and episcopal seats were shrewdly awarded to elites who supported the dynasty. Extensive parcels of land were donated to monasteries to exempt those lands from royal taxation and to preserve them within the family. The family would maintain its dominance over the monastery by appointing family members as abbots. Extra sons and daughters who could not be married off were sent to monasteries so that they would not threaten the inheritance of older children. This pragmatic use of monasteries ensured close ties between elites and monastic properties.

Numerous Merovingians who served as bishops and abbots, or who generously funded abbeys and monasteries, were rewarded with sainthood. An abbey (from Latin abbatia derived from Syriac abba "father" is a Christian Monastery or The outstanding handful of Frankish saints who were not of the Merovingian kinship nor the family alliances that provided Merovingian counts and dukes, deserve a closer inspection for that fact alone: like Gregory of Tours, they were almost without exception from the Gallo-Roman aristocracy in regions south and west of Merovingian control. Saint Gregory of Tours ( November 30, c 538 &ndash November 17, 594) was a Gallo-Roman historian and bishop of Tours This article covers the culture of Romanized areas of Gaul. For the political history of the brief "Gallic Empire" of the 3rd century see Gallic Empire The most characteristic form of Merovingian literature is represented by the Lives of the saints. Merovingian hagiography did not set out to reconstruct a biography in the Roman or the modern sense, but to attract and hold popular devotion by the formulas of elaborate literary exercises, through which the Frankish Church channeled popular piety within orthodox channels, defined the nature of sanctity and retained some control over the posthumous cults that developed spontaneously at burial sites, where the life-force of the saint lingered, to do good for the votary. Hagiography ( is the study of Saints. A hagiography, from Greek (hağios (ἅγιος "holy" or "saint" and graphē (γραφή [5] The vitae et miracula, for impressive miracles were an essential element of Merovingian hagiography, were read aloud on saints’ feast days. A miracle is an event believed to be caused by interposition of Divine intervention by a Supernatural being in the Universe by which the ordinary operation Many Merovingian saints, and the majority of female saints, were local ones, venerated only within strictly circumscribed regions; their cults were revived in the High Middle Ages, when the population of women in religious orders increased enormously. Judith Oliver noted five Merovingian female saints in the diocese of Liège who appeared in a long list of saints in a late thirteenth-century psalter-hours. The Bishopric of Liège or Prince-Bishopric of Liège was a state of the Holy Roman Empire in the Low Countries in present Belgium [6] The characteristics they shared with many Merovingian female saints may be mentioned: Regenulfa of Incourt, a seventh-century virgin in French-speaking Brabant of the ancestral line of the dukes of Brabant fled from a proposal of marriage to live isolated in the forest, where a curative spring sprang forth at her touch; Ermelindis of Meldert, a sixth-century virgin descended from Pepin I, inhabited several isolated villas; Begga of Andenne, the mother of Pepin II, founded seven churches in Andenne during her widowhood; the purely legendary "Oda of Amay" was drawn into the Carolingian line by spurious genealogy in her thirteenth-century vita, which made her the mother of Arnulf, Bishop of Metz, but she has been identified with the historical Saint Chrodoara;[7] finally, the widely-venerated Gertrude of Nivelles, sister of Begga in the Carolingian ancestry, was abbess of a nunnery established by her mother. The Duchy of Brabant was formally erected in 1183/1184 The title " Duke of Brabant " was created by the German Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in favor of Pepin (also Peppin, Pipin, or Pippin) of Landen (c 580 &ndash 27 February 640) also called the Elder or A villa was originally an Upper-class Country house, though since its origins in Roman times the idea and function of a villa has evolved considerably Note There is a similarly named Saint Bega, also known as Saint Bee sometimes confused with Saint Begga Pepin (also Pippin, Pipin, or Peppin) of Herstal (c 635 &ndash 16 December 714) was the Mayor of the Palace Saint Arnulf of Metz was born of an important Frankish family at an uncertain date around 582 Saint Gertrude of Nivelles (626 – March 17, 659) was abbess of the Benedictine monastery of Nivelles, in present-day Belgium. The vitae of six late Merovingian saints that illustrate the political history of the era have been translated and edited by Paul Fouracre and Richard A. Gerberding, and presented with Liber Historiae Francorum, to provide some historical context. Liber historiae Francorum ("The book of the history of the Franks " is a book that briefly starts as secondary source for early Franks in the [8]

Merovingian saints of more than local cult

Queens and abbesses

Bishops and abbots

Historiography and sources

"The story of the Franks, especially of the earlier Franks, is rich in fable but poor in history. Arnulf (variants include Arnold Arnoul Arnoulf) may refer to Arnulf of Metz, saint (582 - 640 Arnulf of Eynesbury, saint "
—Preface to Lewis Sergeant's The Franks

There exists a limited number of contemporary sources for the history of the Merovingian Franks, but those which have survived cover the entire period from Clovis' succession to Childeric's deposition. First and foremost among chroniclers of the age is the canonised bishop of Tours, Gregory of Tours. Canonization is the act by which a particular Christian church declares a deceased person to be a Saint and is included in the canon or list of recognized saints Saint Gregory of Tours ( November 30, c 538 &ndash November 17, 594) was a Gallo-Roman historian and bishop of Tours His Decem Libri Historiarum is a primary source for the reigns of the sons of Clotaire II and their descendants until Gregory's own death.

The next major source, far less organised than Gregory's work, is the Chronicle of Fredegar, begun by Fredegar but continued by unknown authors. The Chronicle of Fredegar is a Chronicle that recounts the events of Frankish Gaul from 584 to around 641 The Chronicle of Fredegar is a Chronicle that recounts the events of Frankish Gaul from 584 to around 641 It covers the period from 584 to 641, though its continuators, under Carolingian patronage, extended it to 768, after the close of the Merovingian era. The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolings, or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family with its origins in the It is the only primary narrative source for much of its period. The only other major contemporary source is the Liber Historiae Francorum, an anonymous adaptation of Gregory's work apparently ignorant of Fredegar's chronicle: its author(s) ends with a reference to Theuderic IV's sixth year, which would be 727. Liber historiae Francorum ("The book of the history of the Franks " is a book that briefly starts as secondary source for early Franks in the Theuderic IV (or Theuderich, Theoderic, or Theodoric; in French, Thierry) was the Merovingian King of the Franks It was widely read; though it was undoubtedly a piece of Arnulfing work, and its biases cause it to mislead (for instance, concerning the two decades between the controversies surrounding mayors Grimoald the Elder and Ebroin: 652-673). The Pippinids or Arnulfings are the members of a family of Frankish nobles whose select scions served as Mayor of the Palace, de facto rulers of the Frankish kingdoms Grimoald I (616-656 called the Elder (in French, Grimaud) was the Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia from 643 to 656 Ebroin (died 680 or 681 was the Frankish Mayor of the palace of Neustria on two occasions firstly from 658 to his deposition in 673 and secondly from

Aside from these chronicles, the only surviving reservoires of historiography are letters, capitularies, and the like. Clerical men such as Gregory and Sulpitius the Pious were letter-writers, though relatively few letters survive. Sulpitius (Sulpicius the Pious or the Débonnaire, born at Vatan ( Diocese of Bourges) of noble parents before the end of the sixth century Edicts, grants, and judicial decisions survive, as well as the famous Lex Salica, mentioned above. From the reign of Clotaire II and Dagobert I survive many examples of the royal position as the supreme justice and final arbiter. There also survive biographical Lives of saints of the period, for instance Saint Eligius and Leodegar, written soon after their subjects' deaths. Saint Eligius or Loye ( French: Éloi) (ca 588-590 - December 1, 659 or 660 is the Patron saint of goldsmiths and other Saint Leodegar or Leger, Bishop of Autun (c 615 &ndash Sarcing Somme October 2, 679) was the great opponent of Ebroin &mdash

Finally, archaeological evidence cannot be ignored as a source for information, at the very least, on the modus vivendi of the Franks of the time. Among the greatest discoveries of lost objects was the 1653 accidental uncovering of Childeric I's tomb in the church of Saint Brice in Tournai. Tournai (in Dutch Doornik, in Latin: Tornacum) is a Walloon City and municipality of Belgium The grave objects included a golden bull's head and the famous golden insects (perhaps bees, cicadas, aphids, or flies) on which Napoleon modelled his coronation cloak. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. In 1957, the sepulchre of Clotaire I's second wife, Aregund, was discovered in Saint Denis Basilica in Paris. Aregund, Aregunda, Arnegund, Aregonda, or Arnegonda was the wife of Clotaire I, King of the Franks, and the mother of The Basilica of Saint Denis ( French: Basilique de Saint-Denis, or simply Basilique Saint-Denis) is the burial site of almost all the French Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city The funerary clothing and jewellery were reasonably well-preserved, giving us a look into the costume of the time.

Numismatics

Byzantine coinage was in use in Francia before Theudebert I began minting his own money at the start of his reign. Byzantine currency, money used in the Eastern Roman Empire after the fall of the West consisted of mainly two types of Coins the Gold solidus Theudebert I ( French: Thibert or Théodebert) (c 500 &ndash 547 or 548 was the Merovingian king of Austrasia from 533 to his death He was the first to issue distinctly Merovingian coinage. The solidus and triens were minted in Francia between 534 and 679. The solidus (the Latin word for solid) was originally a Gold coin issued by the Romans. The triens (plural trientes) was an Ancient Roman Bronze Coin produced during the Roman Republic valued at one-third of an as The denarius (or denier) appeared later, in the name of Childeric II and various non-royals around 673–675. The Roman Currency system included the denarius (plural denarii) after 211 BC a small Silver coin, The denier was a French Coin created by Charlemagne in the Early Middle Ages. Childeric II (c 653 &ndash 675 was the king of Austrasia from 662 and of Neustria and Burgundy from 673 until his death making him sole King of A Carolingian denarius replaced the Merovingian one, and the Frisian penning, in Gaul from 755 to the eleventh century. The Pfennig (abbreviation Pf) is an old German coin or note which existed from the 9th century until the introduction of the Euro

Merovingian coins are on display at the Monnaie de Paris in Paris. The Monnaie de Paris (Paris Mint) or more administratively speaking the "Direction of Coins and Medals" is an administration of the

Merovingians in popular culture

References

Notes

  1. ^ Babcock, Philip (ed). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc. , 1993: 1415
  2. ^ Archibald R. Lewis, "The Dukes in the Regnum Francorum, A.D. 550-751." Speculum 51. 3 (July 1976, pp. 381-410) p 384.
  3. ^ Guy Halsall, Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450-900 (Routledge, London, 2003)
  4. ^ Yitzhak Hen , Culture and Religion in Merovingian Gaul, A. D. 481-751 (New York: Brill) 1995.
  5. ^ J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, The Frankish Church,, V:"The Merovingian Saints" (1983), pp. 75-94.
  6. ^ Judith Oliver, "'Gothic' Women and Merovingian Desert Mothers" Gesta 32. 2 (1993), pp. 124-134.
  7. ^ Oliver 1993:127.
  8. ^ Paul Fouracre and Richard A. Gerberding, Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640-720 (Manchester University) 1996.

External links

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