A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and "is motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by the desire for private gain and, in fact, is promised, by or on behalf of a Party to the conflict, material compensation substantially in excess of that promised or paid to combatants of similar ranks and functions in the armed forces of that Party" (Additional Protocol to the Geneva Convention of August 1949). ^[1]

As a result of the assumption that a mercenary is essentially motivated by money, the term "mercenary" carries negative connotations. There is a blur in the distinction between a "mercenary" and a "foreign volunteer", when the primary motive of a soldier in a foreign army is uncertain. The armed forces of many nations have at one time or another used foreign volunteers who are motivated by political or ideological considerations to join a foreign army For instance the French Foreign Legion and the Gurkhas are not mercenaries under the laws of war, since although they may meet many of the requirements of Article 47 of the 1949 Additional Protocol, they are exempt under clauses 47(a)(c)(d)(e)&(f), but some journalists do describe them as mercenaries. The Brigade of Gurkhas is the collective term for British Army units that are composed of Nepalese soldiers The law of war (also law of armed conflict, LOAC) is Law concerning acceptable practices relating to war ^[2][3]

Contents 1 Laws of war 1.1 Municipal law 2 Gurkhas and Foreign Legionnaires 3 Private Military Companies (PMCs) 4 History 4.1 Africa 4.1.1 Ancient Egypt 4.1.2 20th century 4.1.2.1 Congo Crisis 4.1.2.2 Biafra 4.1.2.3 Angola 4.1.2.4 Sierra Leone 4.1.2.5 Equatorial Guinea 4.2 Asia 4.2.1 15th and 16th centuries 4.2.2 19th century 4.2.3 20th century 4.3 Europe 4.3.1 Classic era 4.3.2 Medieval warfare 4.3.3 15th and 16th centuries 4.3.4 17th and 18th centuries 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 Footnotes

Laws of war

See also: Laws of war

While the United States and many other countries are not signatories to the Protocol Additional GC 1977 (APGC77), it provides the most widely accepted international definition of a mercenary, albeit one not universally accepted. The law of war (also law of armed conflict, LOAC) is Law concerning acceptable practices relating to war In the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977 it is stated:

Art 47. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts ( Protocol 1) Introduction Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable Also 1977 (album by Ash. Year 1977 ( MCMLXXVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays Mercenaries

1. A mercenary shall not have the right to be a combatant or a prisoner of war.

2. A mercenary is any person who:

(a)  is specially recruited locally or abroad in order to fight in an armed conflict;

(b)  does, in fact, take a direct part in the hostilities;

(c)  is motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by the desire for private gain and, in fact, is promised, by or on behalf of a Party to the conflict, material compensation substantially in excess of that promised or paid to combatants of similar ranks and functions in the armed forces of that Party;

(d)  is neither a national of a Party to the conflict nor a resident of territory controlled by a Party to the conflict;

(e)  is not a member of the armed forces of a Party to the conflict; and

(f)  has not been sent by a State which is not a Party to the conflict on official duty as a member of its armed forces.

All the criteria (a - f) must be met, according to the Geneva Convention, for a combatant to be described as a mercenary.

According to the GC III, a captured soldier must be treated as a lawful combatant, and, therefore, is a Protected Person, with Prisoner of War (PoW) status until facing a competent tribunal (GC III Art 5). The Third Geneva Convention (or GCIII) of 1949 one of the Geneva Conventions, is a treaty agreement that primarily concerns the treatment of Prisoners of A privileged combatant is a person who takes a direct part in the hostilities of an armed conflict within the Law of war and is someone who upon capture qualifies as a Prisoner Competent Tribunal is a term used Article 5 paragraph 2 of the Third Geneva Convention, which states Should any doubt arise as to whether persons having committed That tribunal may decide that the soldier is a mercenary using criteria in APGC77 or some equivalent domestic law. At that juncture, the mercenary soldier becomes an unlawful combatant, but still must be "treated with humanity and, in case of trial, shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial", because they are still covered by GC IV Art 5. An unlawful combatant or unprivileged combatant/belligerent is a Civilian who directly engages in armed conflict under the International Humanitarian Law The Fourth Geneva Convention (or GCIV) relates to the protection of Civilians during times of War " in the hands " of an enemy and under The only exception to GC IV Art 5 is if he is a national of the authority imprisoning him, but, in which case, he would not be a mercenary soldier as defined in APGC77 Art 47. d.

If after a regular trial, a captured soldier is found to be a mercenary, then he can expect treatment as a common criminal and may face execution. As mercenary soldiers are not PoWs, they cannot expect repatriation at war's end. The best known post-World War II example of this was on June 28, 1976 when at the end of the Luanda Trial an Angolan court sentenced three Britons and an American to death, and nine other mercenaries to prison terms ranging from 16 to 30 years. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Luanda Trial was a trial held in Luanda, Angola in June and July 1976 by the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA recently The four mercenaries sentenced to death were shot by a firing squad on July 10, 1976^[4]. Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

The legal status of civilian contractors depends upon the nature of their work and their nationalities with respect to that of the combatants. If they have not "in fact, taken a direct part in the hostilities" (APGC77 Art 47. b) they are not mercenaries but civilians who have non-combat support roles and are entitled to protection under the Third Geneva Convention (GCIII 4. 1. 4).

On 4 December 1989 the United Nations passed resolution 44/34 the International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries. "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song. Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) It entered into force on 20 October 2001 and is usually known as the UN Mercenary Convention^[5]. Events 1740 - Maria Theresa takes the throne of Austria. France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. At the 72nd plenary meeting on 4 December 1989 the United Nations General Assembly passed resolution 44/34 the International Convention against the Recruitment Article 1 contains the definition of a mercenary. Article 1. 1 is similar to Article 47 of Protocol I, however Article 1. 2 broadens the definition to include a non-national recruited to overthrow a "Government or otherwise undermining the constitutional order of a State; or Undermin[e] the territorial integrity of a State;" and "Is motivated to take part therein essentially by the desire for significant private gain and is prompted by the promise or payment of material compensation. . . " — under Article 1. 2 a person does not have to take a direct part in the hostilities in a planned coup d'état to be a mercenary.

Critics have argued that the convention and APGC77 Art. 47 are designed to cover the activities of mercenaries in post colonial Africa, and do not address adequately the use of private military companies by sovereign states^[6]. Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself

The situation during the Iraq War and the continuing occupation of Iraq after the United Nations Security Council sanctioned hand over of power to the Iraqi government shows the difficulty in defining what is a mercenary soldier. The Iraq War, also known as the Second Gulf War, the Occupation of Iraq, or the War in Iraq, is an ongoing Military campaign Iraq War|2007 in Iraq|2008 in IraqThe post-invasion period in Iraq United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546 was adopted unanimously by the United Nations Security Council at its 4987th meeting on 8 June 2004 While the United States governed Iraq, any U. S. citizen working as an armed guard could not be defined a mercenary, because he was a national of a Party to the conflict (APGC77 Art 47. d). With the hand-over of power to the Iraqi government, if one does not consider the Coalition forces to be a continuing Parties to the conflict in Iraq, but that their soldiers are sent by a State which is not a Party to the conflict on official duty as a member of its armed forces (APGC77 Art 47. f), then unless U. S. citizens working as an armed guards declare themselves residents in Iraq, i. e. a resident of territory controlled by a Party to the conflict (APGC77 Art 47. d), if they are involved in a fire-fight in the continuing conflict they are mercenary soldiers. However, those who acknowledge the United States and other coalition forces to still be Parties to the conflict would insist that U. S. armed guards cannot be called mercenaries (APGC77 Art 47. d). In such cases, if no trial of accused mercenaries occurs, allegations evaporate in the heat of accusations, counter-accusations and denials.

See also privateer, Letter of marque, private military contractor. A privateer was a private Warship authorized by a country's Government by Letters of marque to attack foreign shipping A letter of marque is an official warrant or commission from a Government authorizing the designated agent to search seize or destroy specified assets A private military company ( PMC) provides specialized expertise or services of a military nature sometimes called or classified as Mercenary ("soldiers for hire"

Municipal law

The municipal laws of some countries forbid their citizens fighting in foreign wars unless they are under the control of their own national armed forces. Municipal law is an International law term used to denote the national domestic or internal Law of a sovereign State.

Austria

In Austria, anyone who voluntarily serves in the armed forces of another country automatically loses Austrian citizenship. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich

France

In 2003, France criminalized mercenary activities, as defined by the protocol to the Geneva convention for French citizens, permanent residents and legal entities. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. (Penal Code, L436-1, L436-2, L436-3, L436-4, L436-5).

Italy

In Italy, it is illegal to recruit Italians on Italian soil for fighting in behalf of a foreign government without the approval of the Italian government. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest

Switzerland

In 1927, Switzerland banned its nationals from serving as mercenaries, except for being the Vatican Swiss Guards. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Swiss Guards Swiss mercenary is the name given to those soldiers who have served as Bodyguards, ceremonial guards and palace guards at foreign European courts since

South Africa

In 1998 South Africa passed the "Foreign Military Assistance Act" that banned citizens and residents from any involvement in foreign wars, except in humanitarian operations, unless a government committee approved its deployment. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa In 2005, the legislation was reviewed by the government because of South African citizens working as security guards in Iraq during the American Iraq occupation and the consequences of the mercenary soldier sponsorship case against Mark Thatcher for the "possible funding and logistical assistance in relation to an alleged attempted coup in Equatorial Guinea" organized by Simon Mann. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Iraq War|2007 in Iraq|2008 in IraqThe post-invasion period in Iraq Sir Mark Thatcher 2nd Baronet (born 15 August 1953 is the only son of Sir Denis Thatcher and Baroness Thatcher, the former British Prime Minister The Republic of Equatorial Guinea ( República de Guinea Ecuatorial,) is a country in Central Africa. Simon Francis Mann (born 26 June 1952) is a security expert Mercenary and former British Army officer and South African citizen extradited ^[7]

United Kingdom

United Kingdom of Great Britain passed the Foreign Enlistment Act in the late 18th century, making it illegal for British subjects to join the armed forces of any state warring with another state at peace with Great Britain. The Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a State in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1800 In the Greek War of Independence British volunteers fought with the Greek rebels, which could have been illegal; it was unclear whether or not the Greek rebels were a "state" per the Foreign Enlistment Act, but the law was clarified, saying that the rebels were a state. The Greek War of Independence (1821–1829 also commonly known as the Greek Revolution (Ελληνική Επανάσταση Elliniki Epanastasi; Ottoman The government considered using the Act against British subjects fighting for the International Brigade in the Spanish Civil War and the FNLA in the Angolan Civil War (see above); nothing happened. The International Brigades were Republican Military units in the Spanish Civil War, formed of many non-state sponsored volunteers of different countries The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola is a militant organization that fought for Angolan independence from Portugal The Angolan Civil War began in Angola after the end of the war for independence from Portugal in 1975

The existence of the Atholl Highlanders, apparently Europe's only legal, private army. The Atholl Highlanders are a military Regiment. Based in Blair Atholl, Scotland, they are not part of the British Army. By a quirk of history, this is a Scottish regiment, not part of the British Army, commanded by the Duke of Atholl; today it is a primarily ceremonial uniformed force. The title Duke of Atholl, named after Atholl in Scotland, was created only one time in British history by Queen Anne in 1703 as a promotion of the very ancient title

United States

The Anti-Pinkerton Act of 1893 (5 USC 3108) forbade the US Government from using Pinkerton National Detective Agency employees, or similar private police companies. "We Never Sleep" the famous motto of the Pinkerton Agency redirects here In 1977, the US Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals interpreted this statute as forbidding the US Government's employing companies offering mercenary, quasi-military forces for hire. The United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit is a federal court with Appellate jurisdiction over the district courts in the following United States ex rel. Weinberger v. Equifax, 557 F. 2d 456, 462 (5th Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 434 U. S. 1035 (1978). There is a disagreement over whether or not this proscription is limited to the use of such forces as strikebreakers, because it is stated thus:

The purpose of the Act and the legislative history reveal that an organization was "similar" to the Pinkerton Detective Agency only if it offered for hire mercenary, quasi-military forces as strikebreakers and armed guards. It had the secondary effect of deterring any other organization from providing such services lest it be branded a "similar organization. " The legislative history supports this view and no other.

In the June 7, 1978 Letter to the Heads of Federal Departments and Agencies, the Comptroller General interpreted this decision in a way that carved out an exemption for "Guard and Protective Services. "

A US Department of Defense interim rule (effective 16 June 2006) revises DoD Instruction 3020. Events 1487 - Battle of Stoke Field, the last dying breath of the Wars of the Roses. 41 to authorize contractors, other than private security contractors, to use deadly force against enemy armed forces only in self-defense. 71 Fed. Reg. 34826. Per that interim rule, private security contractors are authorized to use deadly force when protecting their client's assets and persons, consistent with their contract's mission statement. [One interpretation is that this authorizes contractors to engage in combat on behalf of the US Government. ] It is the combatant commander's responsibility to ensure that private security contract mission statements do not authorize performance of inherently Governmental military functions, i. e. preemptive attacks or assaults or raids, et cetera.

Otherwise, civilians with US Armed Forces lose their law of war protection from direct attack, if and for such time as they directly participate in hostilities. On 18 August 2006, the US Comptroller General rejected bid protest arguments that US Army contracts violated the Anti-Pinkerton Act by requiring that contractors provide armed convoy escort vehicles and labor, weapons, and equipment for internal security operations at Victory Base Complex, Iraq. Events 293 BC - The oldest known Roman temple to Venus is founded starting the institution of Vinalia Rustica. The Comptroller General reasoned the act was unviolated, because the contracts did not require contractors to provide quasi-military forces as strikebreakers. ^[8] Yet, on 1 June 2007, the Washington Post reported: "A federal judge yesterday ordered the military to temporarily refrain from awarding the largest security contract in Iraq. Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected The Washington Post is the largest and most circulated Newspaper in Washington D The order followed an unusual series of events set off when a U. S. Army veteran, Brian X. Scott, filed a protest against the government practice of hiring what he calls mercenaries, according to sources familiar with the matter". ^[9]

The contract, worth about $475 million, calls for a private company to provide intelligence services to the US Army and security for the Army Corps of Engineers on reconstruction work in Iraq. The case, which is being heard by the US Court of Federal Claims, puts on trial one of the most controversial and least understood aspects of the Iraq war: the outsourcing of military security to an estimated 20,000 armed contractors who operate with little oversight. <^[9]

Gurkhas and Foreign Legionnaires

The better-known combat units in which foreign nationals serve in another country's armed forces are the Gurkha regiments of the British and Indian armies, and the French Foreign Legion. Prithvi Naraya Shahdev and Sri Teen Maharaja Jung Bahadur The Way of Sacrifice The Rajputs Pages 28-30 Graduate Thesis South Asian Studies Department Dr The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces. The Indian Army (Bharatiya Thalsena भारतीय थाल्सेना is one of the armed forces of India and has the responsibility for land-based

Gurkhas in the British Army swear allegiance to the British monarch, operate in formed units of the British Army and abide the rules and regulations under which all British soldiers serve;^[10] similar rules apply to Gurkhas of the Indian Army. The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces. The Indian Army (Bharatiya Thalsena भारतीय थाल्सेना is one of the armed forces of India and has the responsibility for land-based French Foreign Legionnaires are formed units of the French Foreign Legion, which deploys and fights as an organized unit of the French Army. The French Army, officially the Armée de Terre (Land Army is the land-based component of the French Armed Forces and its largest This means that as members of the armed forces of Britain, India, and France these soldiers are not mercenary soldiers per APGC77 Art 47. e and APGC77 Art 47. f.

Private Military Companies (PMCs)

Main article: Private Military Company

The Private military company (PMC) is the contemporary strand of the mercenary trade, providing logistics, soldiers, military training, and other services. A private military company ( PMC) provides specialized expertise or services of a military nature sometimes called or classified as Mercenary ("soldiers for hire" A private military company ( PMC) provides specialized expertise or services of a military nature sometimes called or classified as Mercenary ("soldiers for hire" Logistics is the management of the flow of Goods, Information and other resources including Energy and people between the point of origin and the point Thus, PMC contractors are civilians (in governmental, international, and civil organizations) authorized to accompany an army to the field; hence, the term civilian contractor. Nevertheless, PMCs may use armed force, hence defined as: "legally established enterprises that make a profit, by either providing services involving the potential exercise of [armed] force in a systematic way and by military means, and/or by the transfer of that potential to clients through training and other practices, such as logistics support, equipment procurement, and intelligence gathering". ^[11]

Private paramilitary forces are functionally mercenary armies, not security guards or advisors; however, national governments reserve the right to control the number, nature, and armaments of such private armies, arguing that, provided they are not pro-actively employed in front-line combat, they are not mercenaries. A paramilitary is a force whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military force but which are not regarded as having the same status A security guard or security officer is usually a privately and formally employed person who is paid to protect Property, assets or people That said, PMC "civilian contractors" have poor repute among professional government soldiers and officers — the US Military Command have questioned their war zone behavior. In September 2005, Brigadier General Karl Horst, deputy commander of the Third Infantry Division charged with Baghdad security after the 2003 invasion, said of DynCorp and other PMCs in Iraq: These guys run loose in this country and do stupid stuff. DynCorp International is a United States -based Private military contractor (PMC and aircraft maintenance company There's no authority over them, so you can't come down on them hard when they escalate force. . . They shoot people, and someone else has to deal with the aftermath. It happens all over the place. ^[12]

If PMC employees participate in pro-active combat, the press call them mercenaries, and the PMCs mercenary companies. In the 1990s, four news media-identified mercenary companies, and the wars were:

• Executive Outcomes - Angola, Sierra Leone, and other locations worldwide (closed 31 December 1998)
• Sandline International - Papua New Guinea, Sierra Leone (closed 16 April 2004)
• Gurkha Security Guards, Ltd - Sierra Leone. Executive Outcomes was a Private military company founded in South Africa by former Lieutenant-Colonel of the South African Defence Force Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Sandline International was a Private military company based in London, established in the early 1990s Events 1178 BC - A Solar eclipse may have marked the return of Odysseus, legendary King of Ithaca, to his kingdom "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again "
• DynCorp International - Bosnia, Somalia, Angola, Haiti, Colombia, Kosovo, Kuwait, Afghanistan (active)

In 2004 the PMC business was boosted, because the US and Coalition governments hired them for security in Iraq. DynCorp International is a United States -based Private military contractor (PMC and aircraft maintenance company In March 2004, four Blackwater USA employees escorting food supplies and other equipment were attacked and killed in Fallujah, in a videotaped attack; the killings and subsequent dismemberment were a cause for the First Battle of Fallujah. Blackwater Worldwide, formerly Blackwater USA, is a Private military company founded in 1997 by Erik Prince and Al Clark For other meanings see Fallujah (disambiguation. Fallujah (الفلوجة sometimes transliterated As part of the occupation of Iraq, the First Battle of Fallujah, Codenamed Operation Vigilant Resolve was an unsuccessful attempt by the United ^[13] Afghan war operations also boosted the business. Many PMC employees are bodyguards for heads of state such as Hamid Karzai. Hamid Karzai ( حامد کرزي, حامد کرزي) (born 24 December 1957) is the current President of Afghanistan, since December

In 2006, a U. S. congressional report listed a number of PMCs and other enterprises that have signed contracts to carry out anti-narcotics operations and related activities as part of Plan Colombia. The term Plan Colombia is most often used to refer to controversial U DynCorp was among those contracted by the State Department, while others signed contracts with the Defense Department. DynCorp International is a United States -based Private military contractor (PMC and aircraft maintenance company Other companies from different countries, including Israel, have also signed contracts with the Colombian Defense Ministry to carry out security or military activities. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. ^[14]

The United Nations disapprove of PMCs (still, the UN hired Executive Outcomes for African logistic support work). The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Controversy arose elsewhere with the scandal of Dyncorp's pedophiliac sex trafficking in Bosnia during the Balkan war of the 1990s. The question is whether or not PMC soldiers are as accountable for their war zone actions as are the Bosniak armed forces. A common argument for using PMCs (used by the PMCs themselves; Sandline's Corp's whitepapers), is that PMCs may be help combat genocide and civilian slaughter where the UN are unwilling or unable to intervene. Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group ^[15]

In February 2002, a British Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) report about PMCs noted that the demands of the military service from the UN and international civil organizations might mean that it is cheaper to pay PMCs than use soldiers. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office, commonly called the Foreign Office or the FCO, is the British government department responsible for promoting Yet, after considering using PMCs to support UN operations, the UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, decided against it. The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. Kofi Atta Annan, GCMG (born 8 April 1938 is a Ghanaian Diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations ^[16]

In October 2007 the United Nations released a two year study that stated, that although hired as "security guards", private contractors were performing military duties. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The report found that the use of contractors such as Blackwater was a "new form of mercenary activity" and illegal under International law; however the United States is not a signatory to the 1989 UN Mercenary Convention banning the use of mercenaries. International law is the term commonly used for referring to the system of implicit and explicit agreements that bind together nation-states in adherence to recognized values and standards ^[17]

History

Africa

Ancient Egypt

An early recorded use of foreign auxiliaries dates back to Ancient Egypt, the thirteenth century BC, when Pharaoh Ramesses II used 11,000 mercenaries during his battles. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Pharaoh is the title given in modern parlance to the ancient Egyptian kings of all periods A long established foreign corps in the Egyptian forces were the Medjay - a generic term given to tribal scouts and light infantry recruited from Nubia serving from the late period of the Old Kingdom through that of the New Kingdom. The Medjay (also Medjai, Mazoi, Egyptian mDAy)&ndashfrom mDA, represents the name Ancient Egyptians gave to a region in northern Sudan&ndashwhere The Old Kingdom is the name commonly given to that period in the 3rd millennium BCE when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement The New Kingdom, sometimes referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period in Ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BC and Other warriors recruited from outside the borders of Egypt included Libyan, Syrian and Canaanite contingents under the New Kingdom and Sherdens from Sardinia who appear in their distinctive horned helmets on wall paintings as body guards for Ramesses II. ^[18]

20th century

In the 20th century, mercenaries have been mostly involved in conflicts on the continent of Africa and in several cases brought about a swift end to bloody civil war by comprehensively defeating the rebel forces. There have been a number of unsavory incidents in the brushfire wars of Africa, some involving recruitment of naïve European and American men "looking for adventure" and thrusting them into combat situations where they would not survive to get paid.

Many of the adventurers in Africa who have been described as mercenaries were in fact ideologically motivated to support particular governments, and would not fight "for the highest bidder". A good example of this would be the British South Africa Police (BSAP), a paramilitary, mounted infantry force formed by the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes in 1889/1890 that evolved and continued until 1970. The British South Africa Police (BSAP was the police force of the British South Africa Company (BSAC of Cecil Rhodes which became the national police force of The British South Africa Company (BSAC was established by Cecil Rhodes through the amalgamation of the Central Search Association and the Exploring Company Ltd Cecil John Rhodes, PC DCL (5 July 1853 &ndash 26 March 1902 was an English -born Businessman mining Magnate, and Politician

Notorious mercenaries include:

• Mike Hoare was involved in the Congo Crisis in the early 1960s and a failed coup in Seychelles in 1978. Thomas Michael Hoare (b 1920 ( Mad Mike) is a Mercenary leader known for military battles in Africa and the Indian Ocean. The Congo Crisis (1960-1965 was a period of turmoil in the First Republic of the Congo that began with national independence Seychelles (seɪˈʃɛl or /seɪˈʃɛlz/ in English and seʃɛl in French) officially the Republic of Seychelles (République des Seychelles Creole
• Bob Denard was involved in numerous African campaigns in many countries, often with the covert support of France. "Colonel" Bob Denard ( April 7, 1929 &ndash October 13, 2007) born Gilbert Bourgeaud, was one of the most famous and However, his particular specialty was intervening in the Comoros. The Comoros (ˈkɒməroʊz; جزر القمر Juzur al-Qumur) officially the Union of the Comoros (Union des Comores الإتّحاد القمريّ The last time was in 1995, when he staged a coup which failed (the military of the French Government intervened to oust Denard).
• Simon Mann was involved with Executive Outcomes ventures in Angola and Sierra Leone (see below). Simon Francis Mann (born 26 June 1952) is a security expert Mercenary and former British Army officer and South African citizen extradited Executive Outcomes was a Private military company founded in South Africa by former Lieutenant-Colonel of the South African Defence Force Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. In 2004 he was found guilty in Zimbabwe of "attempting to buy weapons" (BBC 27 August) allegedly for a coup in Equatorial Guinea (see below). See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election Events 479 BC - Greco-Persian Wars: Persian forces led by Mardonius are routed by Pausanias, the Spartan The Republic of Equatorial Guinea ( República de Guinea Ecuatorial,) is a country in Central Africa.

Congo Crisis

The Congo Crisis (1960-1965) was a period of turmoil in the First Republic of the Congo that began with national independence from Belgium and ended with the seizing of power by Joseph Mobutu. The Congo Crisis (1960-1965 was a period of turmoil in the First Republic of the Congo that began with national independence The Republic of the Congo (République du Congo was an independent republic established following the independence granted to the former colony of the Belgian Congo in The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga ( October 14, 1930 September 7, 1997) known commonly as Mobutu, or Mobutu During the crisis mercenaries were employed by various factions, and also at times helped the United Nations and other peace keepers.

In 1960 and 1961 Mike Hoare worked as a mercenary commanding a unit called "4 Commando" supporting a faction in Katanga, a province trying to break away from the newly independent Congo. Thomas Michael Hoare (b 1920 ( Mad Mike) is a Mercenary leader known for military battles in Africa and the Indian Ocean. Katanga is a southern province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. A province is a territorial unit almost always an Administrative division. The Republic of the Congo (République du Congo was an independent republic established following the independence granted to the former colony of the Belgian Congo in

In 1964. Congolese Prime Minister Moïse Tshombe hired "Colonel" Mike Hoare to lead a military unit called "5 Commando" made up of about 300 men most of whom were from South Africa. Moïse Kapenda Tshombe ( November 10, 1919 – June 29, 1969) was a Congolese Politician. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The unit's mission was to fight a breakaway rebel group called Simba. Later Hoare and his mercenaries worked in concert with Belgian paratroopers, Cuban exile pilots, and CIA hired mercenaries who attempted to save 1,600 civilians (mostly Europeans and missionaries) in Stanleyville from the Simba rebels in Operation Dragon Rouge. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Paratroopers are Soldiers trained in Parachuting and generally operate as part of an airborne force. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la A missionary is a member of a Religion who works to convert those who do not share the missionary's faith someone who proselytizes. Kisangani, formerly Stanleyville or Stanleystad, (population 500000 is a City in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Central Africa The Congo Crisis (1960-1965 was a period of turmoil in the First Republic of the Congo that began with national independence This operation saved many lives. ^[19]

Biafra

Mercenaries fought for the Biafrans in the Fourth Commando Brigade during the Nigerian Civil War, (1967-1970). The Republic of Biafra was a Secessionist state in south-eastern Nigeria. The Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Nigerian-Biafran War, 6 July 1967 &ndash 13 January 1970 was a political conflict caused by the attempted Secession ^[20] Other mercenaries flew aircraft for the Biafrans. In October 1966, for example, a Royal Air Burundi DC-4M Argonaut, flown by mercenary Heinrich Wartski, also known as Henry Wharton, crashlanded in Cameroon with military supplies destined for Biafra. The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. ^[21]

In May 1969, Carl Gustaf von Rosen formed a squadron of five light aircraft known as the "Babies of Biafra", which attacked and destroyed Nigerian jet aircraft on the ground. Count Carl Gustaf Ericsson von Rosen ( August 19 1909 &ndash July 13 1977) was a Swedish pioneer aviator son of the explorer ^[22]

Angola

In the mid-1970s John Banks, a Briton, recruited mercenaries to fight for the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) against the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in the civil war that broke out when Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975. The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola is a militant organization that fought for Angolan independence from Portugal The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola - Party of Labour (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho is an Angolan political party The Angolan Civil War began in Angola after the end of the war for independence from Portugal in 1975 When captured, John Derek Barker's role as a leader of mercenaries in Northern Angola led the judges to send him to face the firing squad. Nine others were imprisoned. Three more were executed: American Daniel Gearhart was sentenced to death for advertising himself as a mercenary in an American newspaper; Andrew McKenzie and Costas Georgiou (the self styled "Colonel Callan"), who had both served in the British army, were sentenced to death for murder. Costas Georgiou ( Κώστας Γιώργιου, also Anglicized as Kostas Giorgiou alias " Colonel Callan " (1951 &ndash July 10, 1976 ^[4]

Executive Outcomes employees fought on behalf of the MPLA against UNITA in the 1990s in violation of the Lusaka Protocol. Executive Outcomes was a Private military company founded in South Africa by former Lieutenant-Colonel of the South African Defence Force The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola) is the second-largest Political party in Angola. The Lusaka Protocol, signed in Lusaka, Zambia on October 31, 1994, attempted to end the Angolan Civil War by integrating and disarming

Sierra Leone

American Robert C. MacKenzie was killed in the Malal Hills in February 1995, while commanding Gurkha Security Guards (GSG) in Sierra Leone. Robert Callen MacKenzie ( November 30, 1948 &ndash February 24, 1995) was an American professional soldier whose career included Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. GSG pulled out soon afterwards and was replaced by Executive Outcomes. Executive Outcomes was a Private military company founded in South Africa by former Lieutenant-Colonel of the South African Defence Force Both were employed by the Sierra Leone government as military advisers and to train the government soldiers. It has been alleged that the firms provided soldiers who took an active part in the fighting against the Revolutionary United Front (RUF). The Revolutionary United Front ( RUF) was a rebel army that fought a failed ten-year insurrection in Sierra Leone, starting in 1991 and ending in 2002

Equatorial Guinea

Main article: 2004 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état attempt

A fictional portrait of mercenary operations in the 1970s is Frederick Forsyth's book, The Dogs of War, which was set on the island of Malabo - renamed "Zangaro" in the novel - and given a platinum deposit. The 2004 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état attempt was an alleged Coup attempt against the government of Equatorial Guinea in order to remove its President Teodoro Frederick Forsyth, CBE (born August 25, 1938) is an English author and occasional political commentator The Dogs of War ( 1974) is a war novel by Frederick Forsyth chronicling a company of European Mercenary soldiers hired by a British industrialist Malabo (ˈmæləboʊ is the Capital and largest city of Equatorial Guinea, located on the northern coast of Bioko Island (formerly Fernando Pó on the Since the discovery of oil there in the mid-1990s, it does not need a fictional platinum deposit for it to be of interest to financiers and mercenaries. In August 2004 there was a plot, which later became known as the "Wonga Coup",^[23] to overthrow the government of Equatorial Guinea in Malabo. The Republic of Equatorial Guinea ( República de Guinea Ecuatorial,) is a country in Central Africa. Malabo (ˈmæləboʊ is the Capital and largest city of Equatorial Guinea, located on the northern coast of Bioko Island (formerly Fernando Pó on the Currently eight South African apartheid-era soldiers (the leader of whom is Nick du Toit) and five local men are in Black Beach prison on the island. Nick du Toit is an Afrikaner Arms dealer and former officer of 32 Battalion the 5th Reconnaissance Commando They are accused of being an advanced guard for a coup to place Severo Moto in power. Severo Moto Nsá (born November 6, 1943 in Equatorial Guinea) is the most notable opposition politician in Equatorial Guinea, and leader of the ^{[24] [25]}. Six Armenian aircrew, also convicted of involvement in the plot, were released in 2004 after receiving a presidential pardon. CNN reported on August 25, that:

Defendant Nick du Toit said he was introduced to Thatcher in South Africa last year by Simon Mann, the leader of 70 men arrested in Zimbabwe in March suspected of being a group of mercenaries heading to Equatorial Guinea. Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Nick du Toit is an Afrikaner Arms dealer and former officer of 32 Battalion the 5th Reconnaissance Commando ^[26]

It was planned, it is alleged, by Simon Mann (a founder of Executive Outcomes) a former SAS officer. The Special Air Service ( SAS) is a Special forces regiment within the British Army which has served as a model and inspiration for the special On 27 August 2004 he was found guilty in Zimbabwe of purchasing arms, allegedly for use in the plot. Events 479 BC - Greco-Persian Wars: Persian forces led by Mardonius are routed by Pausanias, the Spartan "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " (He admitted trying to procure dangerous weapons, but said that they were to guard a diamond mine in DR Congo. ) It is alleged that there is a paper trail from him which implicates Sir Mark Thatcher, Lord Archer and Ely Calil (a Lebanese-British oil trader). Ely Calil (born 8th December 1945 in Kano, Nigeria) is a Lebanese businessman holding British citizenship ^[27]

The BBC reported in an article entitled "Q&A: Equatorial Guinea coup plot":

The BBC's Newsnight television programme saw the financial records of Simon Mann's companies showing large payments to Nick du Toit and also some $2m coming in - though the source of this funding they say is largely untraceable. ^[28]

The BBC reported on 10 September 2004 that in Zimbabwe:

[Simon Mann], the British leader of a group of 67 alleged mercenaries accused of plotting a coup in Equatorial Guinea has been sentenced to seven years in jail. Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " . . The other passengers got 12 months in jail for breaking immigration laws while the two pilots got 16 months. . . The court also ordered the seizure of Mann's $3m Boeing 727 and $180,000 found on board. ^[29]

Asia

15th and 16th centuries

The Saika mercenary group^[30] of the Kii Province, Japan, played a significant role during the Siege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji that took place between August 1570 to August 1580. or Kishū (紀州 was a province of Japan in the part of Honshū that is today Wakayama Prefecture, as well as the southern part of The, taking place from 1570 to 1580 in Sengoku period Japan, was an eleven-year campaign by warlord Oda Nobunaga against a network of fortifications The Saikashuu were famed for the support of Ikko Buddhist sect movements and greatly impeded the advance of Oda Nobunaga's forces. ( June 23, 1534 &ndash June 21, 1582) was a major Daimyo during the Sengoku period of Japanese history

19th century

The Taiping Rebellion was deemed the worldwide second tier most bloody revolt after WWII, with a estimated death toll of 20-30 million, and took place in 17 provinces of China between 1850 and 1873. The Taiping Rebellion or Rebellion of Great Peace was a large-scale Revolt against the authority and forces of the Qing Government in China Many North-Americans and British mercenaries helped the Qing Dinasty (and the wealthy British opium trade) to survive, including Frederick Townsend Ward and Charles George Gordon, often known as "Chinese Gordon" ^[31]. Frederick Townsend Ward (1831&ndash1862 was an American sailor Mercenary and Soldier of fortune famous for his military victories for Imperial China Major-General, CB ( 28 January 1833 &ndash 26 January 1885) known as Chinese Gordon, Gordon Pasha

20th century

In the warlord period of China, many American and English mercenaries thrived such as Homer Lea, Philo Norton McGriffin,^[32], Morris Cohen, and Francis Arthur "One Armed Sutton". A warlord is a person with power who has military control over a subnational area due to Armed forces loyal to the warlord and not to a central authority Homer Lea ( November 17, 1876 — November 1, 1912) was an American an author of works on geopolitics and became military advisory Morris Cohen may refer to Morris Cohen (adventurer (1887-1970 "Morris "Two-Gun" Cohen" ^[33]

During the early stages of the Second Sino-Japanese War (before Pearl Harbor) America did not want to become overtly involved in the conflict (due to a non-aggression pact with Japan), yet felt an obligation to assist the Chinese in stopping Japanese aggression. The Second Sino-Japanese War ( July 7, 1937 to September 9, 1945) was a major war fought between the Republic of China and the Pearl Harbor is a Harbor on the Island of O{{okina}}ahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. So the United States sent Claire Chennault to assist China and created the American Volunteer Group (AVG), better known as Flying Tigers. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The pilots earned roughly $600-700 basic pay per month, plus an extra $500 per confirmed Japanese aircraft that was shot down, courtesy of the then Chinese President Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang Kai-shek ( POJ: Chiúⁿ Kài-se̍k Jyutping: zoeng2gaai3sek6 GCB ( October 31, 1887 &ndash ^[34]

During the Soviet war in Afghanistan, many warlords, including Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, the Northern League warlord Rashid Dostum can fit comfortably under that category. The Soviet war in Afghanistan, also known as the Soviet-Afghan War or just the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, was a nine-year conflict involving Gulbuddin Hekmatyar ( ګلبدین حکمتیار) (born 1947 is an Islamist Mujahideen leader and former warlord. Abdul Rashid Dostum was a former Pro-Soviet fighter during the Soviet Invasion and the current leader of Uzbek-Afghan northern provinces

Europe

Classic era

Many Greek mercenaries fought for the Persian Empire during the early classic era. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia For example:

• Xerxes I, king of Persia, who invaded Greece in 484 BC employed Greek mercenaries. Xerxes I of Persia was a King of Persia (reigned 485–465 BC of the Achaemenid dynasty. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία The best remembered is Demaratus, for his warning to Xerxes not to underestimate the Spartans before the Battle of Thermopylae. Demaratus was a king of Sparta from 515 until 491 BC of the Eurypontid line, successor to his father Ariston. The city of Sparta ( Doric Σπάρτα Attic Σπάρτη In the Battle of Thermopylae, which occurred in August 480 BC (and was detailed almost entirely by Herodotus) an alliance of Greek City-states fought
• In Anabasis, Xenophon recounts how Cyrus the Younger hired a large army of Greek mercenaries (the "Ten Thousand") in 401 BC to seize the throne of Persia from his brother, Artaxerxes II. This article is about the Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Cyrus (Kuruš the Younger, son of Darius II of Persia (Dārayavahuš and Parysatis, was a Persian prince and General. The Ten Thousand were a group of Mercenary units mainly Greek, drawn up by Cyrus the Younger to attempt to wrest the throne of the Persian Empire Artaxerxes II Mnemon ( Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠 Artaxšaçrā, Ἀρταξέρξης (ca Though Cyrus' army was victorious at the Battle of Cunaxa, Cyrus himself was killed in battle and the expedition rendered moot. The Battle of Cunaxa was fought in 401 BC between Cyrus the Younger and his elder brother Arsaces who had inherited the Persian throne as Artaxerxes Stranded deep in enemy territory, the Spartan general Clearchus and most of the other Greek generals were subsequently killed by treachery. Clearchus (Κλέαρχος the son of Rhamphias was a Spartan general and Mercenary. Xenophon played an instrumental role in encouraging "The Ten Thousand" Greek army to march north to the Black Sea in an epic fighting retreat. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey
• Memnon of Rhodes (380 – 333 BC): was the commander of the Greek mercenaries working for the Persian King Darius III when Alexander the Great of Macedonia invaded Persia in 334 BC and won the Battle of the Granicus River. Memnon of Rhodes (380 &ndash 333 BC was the commander of the Greek mercenaries working for the Persian king Darius III when Alexander the Great Darius III ( Artashata) (c 380&ndash330 BC Persian داریوش Dāriūš dɔːriˈuːʃ was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was the first of three major battles fought between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire. Alexander also employed Greek mercenaries during his campaigns. These were men who fought for him directly and not those who fought in city-state units attached to his army.
• Carthage contracted Balearic Islands shepherds as slingshooters during the Punic wars against Rome. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Balearic is the name given collectively to the group of Catalan variants spoken in the Balearic Islands, Spain. A sling is a projectile Weapon typically used to throw a blunt Projectile such as a stone The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient The vast majority of the Carthaginian military - except the highest officers, the navy, and the home guard - were mercenaries. The Sacred Band of Carthage is the name used by Greek historians to refer to an infantry unit of Carthaginian foot citizens that served in Carthaginian armies
• Members of independent Thracian tribes such as the Bessi and Dii often joined the ranks of large organized armies as mercenaries. "Thracians" also refers to modern inhabitants of Thrace, regardless of ethnicity The Bessi ( Vesi) were an independent Thracian tribe who lived in a territory ranging from Moesia to Mount Rhodope in southern Thrace The Dii (also Dioi) were an independent Thracian tribe Swordsmen, who lived among the foothills of Mount Rhodope in Thrace
• The Sons of Mars were Italian mercenaries used by the Greek kings of Syracuse until after the Punic Wars. The Mamertines ( Mamertini "sons of Mars" were mercenaries of Italian origin who had been hired from their home in Campania by Syracuse (Siracusa Sicilian: Sarausa, Classical Greek: / transliterated Syrakousai) is a historic City in The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient
• Celtic mercenaries were a staple of many ancient armies. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The king of Bythnia hired Galatians to his armies and gave them a parcel of land, which became Galatia, after their defeat, brought on by their raids and warfare against the various cities in the regions. Ancient Galatia was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia in modern Turkey. There were also the semi-mythic amsaig, noted foremost as the mercenaries of Cu Chullain, but the term advanced later as a term for various Gaelic mercenaries. The Amsaig were mercenaries of Cúchulainn. Their name in Irish means 'Wildmen' and was used later as amsach again referring to mercenaries Another figure in oral legend, Milesius was given the princess Scota after conducting a successful campaign for Ancient Egypt. In Irish mythology Míl Espáine ( Latin Miles Hispaniae, "Soldier of Hispania " later pseudo-Latinised as Milesius; also Scota, in Irish mythology, Scottish mythology, and pseudohistory is the name given to two different mythological daughters of two different Egyptian Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now

In the late Roman Empire, it became increasingly difficult for Emperors and generals to raise military units from the citizenry for various reasons: lack of manpower, lack of time available for training, lack of materials, and, inevitably, political considerations. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Therefore, beginning in the late 4th century, the empire often contracted whole bands of barbarians either within the legions or as autonomous foederati. "Barbarian" is a pejorative term for an uncivilized person either in a general reference to a member of a nation or Ethnos perceived For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," Foederatus (pl foederati) is a Latin term whose definition and usage drifted in the time between the early Roman Republic and the The barbarians were Romanized and surviving veterans were established in areas requiring population. In Linguistics, romanization (or latinization, also spelled romanisation or latinisation) is the representation of a Word or The Varangian Guard of the Byzantine Empire is the best known formation made up of barbarian mercenaries. The Varangians or Varyags ( Old Norse: Væringjar Greek: Βάραγγοι Βαριάγοι Váraggoi / Varyágoi, Ukrainian (see next section)

Medieval warfare

Byzantine Emperors followed the Roman practice and contracted foreigners especially for their personal corps guard called the Varangian Guard. This is a list of the Emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire by modern historians This article is about a military unit For alternative meanings see Corps (disambiguation. The Varangians or Varyags ( Old Norse: Væringjar Greek: Βάραγγοι Βαριάγοι Váraggoi / Varyágoi, Ukrainian They were chosen among war-prone peoples, of whom the Varangians (Vikings) were preferred. The Varangians or Varyags ( Old Norse: Væringjar Greek: Βάραγγοι Βαριάγοι Váraggoi / Varyágoi, Ukrainian Their mission was to protect the Emperor and Empire and since they did not have links to the Greeks, they were expected to be ready to suppress rebellions. One of the most famous guards was the future king Harald III of Norway, also known as Harald Hardrada ("Hardreign"), who arrived in Constantinople in 1035 and was employed as a Varangian Guard. Harald Sigurdsson (1015 &ndash September 25, 1066) later given the epithet Hardraada ( Old Norse: Haraldr harðráði, roughly translated He participated in eighteen battles and became Akolythos, the commander of the Guard, before returning home in 1043. He was killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 when his army was defeated by an English army commanded by King Harold Godwinson. The Battle of Stamford Bridge took place at the village of Stamford Bridge East Riding of Yorkshire in England on 25 September 1066 shortly after an invading Harold Godwinson, (c 1022 &ndash 14 October 1066 also known as Harold II, is widely regarded as the last Anglo-Saxon King of England before the

In England at the time of the Norman Conquest, Flemings (natives of Flanders) formed a substantial mercenary element in the forces of William the Conqueror with many remaining in England as settlers under the Normans. Contingents of mercenary Flemish soldiers were to form significant forces in England throughout the time of the Norman and early Plantagenet dynasties (11th and 12th centuries). A prominent example of these were the Flemings that fought during the English civil wars, known as the Anarchy or the Nineteen-Year Winter (AD 1135 to 1154), under the command of William of Ypres, who was King Stephen's chief lieutenant from 1139 to 1154 and who was made Earl of Kent by Stephen. The Anarchy or The Nineteen Year Winter refers to a period of English history during the reign ( 1135 &ndash 1154) of the Norman King William of Ypres styled count of Flanders (c 1090 &ndash 24 January 1164 /1165 was King Stephen of England's chief lieutenant during the English civil

In Italy, the condottiero was a military chief offering his troops, the condottieri, to city-states. Condottieri (singular condottiero, rarely condottiero) were Mercenary leaders employed by the Italian City-states from the Late Middle A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. During the ages of the Taifa kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula, Christian knights like El Cid could fight for some Muslim ruler against his Christian or Muslim enemies. A taifa (from طائفة ṭā'ifa, plural طوائف ṭawā'if) in the history of Iberia was an independent Muslim -ruled principality Rodrigo (or Ruy) Díaz de Vivar (c 1040 Vivar, near Burgos &ndash 10 July 1099, Valencia) known as The Almogavars originally fought for Catalonia and Aragon, but as the Catalan Company, they followed Roger de Flor in the service of the Byzantine Empire. The Almogavars ( Aragonese: Almogabars, Catalan: Almogàvers, Spanish: Almogávares, from Arabic: Al-Mugavari Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. Aragon ( Spanish: "Aragón") is an autonomous community of Spain. The Catalan Company of the East ( Catalan Companyia Catalana d'Orient) officially the Company of the Army of the Franks in Romania Roger de Flor (1267 &ndash April 30, 1305) also known as Rutger von Blum, was a military adventurer active in Sicily Italy and the Byzantine Empire Spanish (Catalan) and German mercenaries also had prominent role in the Serbian victory over Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbuzd 1330.

During the later Middle Ages, Free Companies (or Free Lances) were formed, consisting of companies of mercenary troops. Nation-states lacked the funds needed to maintain standing forces, so they tended to hire free companies to serve in their armies during wartime. Such companies typically formed at the ends of periods of conflict, when men-at-arms were no longer needed by their respective governments. The veteran soldiers thus looked for other forms of employment, often becoming mercenaries. Free Companies would often specialize in forms of combat that required longer periods of training that was not available in the form of a mobilized militia. The White Company^[35] commanded by Sir John Hawkwood is the best known English Free Company of the 14th century. The White Company was a famous 14th Century Italian Mercenary company led first by the German Albert Sterz and later by Englishman John Hawkwood Sir John Hawkwood (1320 &ndash 1394 was an English Mercenary or condottiero in 14th century Italy. A Welshman Owain Lawgoch (Owain of the Red Hand) formed a free company and fought for the French against the English during the Hundred Years War, before being assassinated by a Scot by the name of Jon Lamb under the orders of the English Crown in 1378 during the siege of Mortagne^[36]. Owain Lawgoch, (English "Owain of the Red Hand" French "Yvain de Galles" full name Owain ap Thomas ap Rhodri (c

See also: Bertrand du Guesclin, Scottish clan. Bertrand du Guesclin (c 1320 &ndash 13 July 1380) known as the Eagle of Brittany, was a Breton Knight and French military commander Scottish clans (from Scottish Gaelic clann, "children" give a sense of identity and shared descent to people in Scotland and to their relations

15th and 16th centuries

Pier Gerlofs Donia, a legendary folk hero, freedom fighter and warrior annex pirate, lead a group of highly trained mercenaries, the Arumer Black Heap. Pier Gerlofs Donia of Kimswerd (c1480 &ndash 1520 was a Frisian Warrior, Pirate, Freedom fighter, Folk hero, Knight A legend ( Latin, legenda, "things to be read" is a Narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to A folk hero is type of Hero, real or mythological. The single salient characteristic which makes a character a folk hero is the imprinting of the name personality Freedom fighter is a term to describe those that engage in a struggle to achieve freedom for themselves or to free others in some matter According to the Random House Dictionary, the term warrior has two meanings Piracy is Robbery committed at sea or sometimes on shore without a commission from a sovereign Nation (as distinct from Privateering They fought (mainly), against other mercenaries such as the Count of Nychlenborch, a Frisian nobleman, Burgundian-vassal and warrior by trade. Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime See also Civil war between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians The Burgundian party was a political allegiance in France that formed during the reign of A vassal (also called feodary or fedary) in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of Medieval Europe, Swiss mercenaries were sought after during the late 15th and early 16th centuries as being an effective fighting force, until their somewhat rigid battle formations became vulnerable to arquebuses and artillery being developed at about that period. Swiss mercenaries were soldiers notable for their service in foreign armies especially the armies of the Kings of France, throughout the Early Modern period of European The Arquebus (sometimes spelled harquebus, harkbus or hackbut; from Dutch haakbus, meaning "hook gun" is Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine See Swiss Guard. Swiss Guards Swiss mercenary is the name given to those soldiers who have served as Bodyguards, ceremonial guards and palace guards at foreign European courts since

It was then that the German landsknechts, colorful mercenaries with a redoubtable reputation, took over the Swiss forces' legacy and became the most formidable force of the late 15th and throughout the 16th century, being hired by all the powers in Europe and often fighting at opposite sides. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Landsknechts (singular Landsknecht, German plural Landsknechte, sometimes also in English publications were European most often German, Mercenary St Thomas More in his Utopia advocated the use of mercenaries in preference to citizens. Sir Thomas More (7 February 1478 – 6 July 1535 from 1935 Saint Thomas More, was an English Lawyer, author and statesman who in his lifetime gained De Optimo Republicae Statu deque Nova Insula Utopia (translated On the Best State of a Republic and on the New Island of Utopia) or more simply The barbarian mercenaries employed by the Utopians are thought to be inspired by the Swiss mercenaries.

At approximately the same period, Niccolò Machiavelli argued against the use of mercenary armies in his masterpiece The Prince. Il Principe ( The Prince) is a political Treatise by the Florentine public servant and political theorist His rationale was that since the sole motivation of mercenaries is their pay, they will not be inclined to take the kind of risks that can turn the tide of a battle, but may cost them their lives. He also noted that a mercenary who failed was obviously no good, but one who succeeded may be even more dangerous. He astutely pointed out that a successful mercenary army no longer needs its employer if it is more militarily powerful than its supposed superior. This explained the frequent, violent betrayals that characterized mercenary/client relations in Italy, because neither side trusted the other. He believed that citizens with a real attachment to their home country will be more motivated to defend it and thus make much better soldiers.

17th and 18th centuries

During the 17th and 18th century extensive use was made of foreign recruits in the now regimented and highly drilled armies of Europe, beginning in a systematized way with the Thirty Years' War. For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War. After the signing of the Treaty of Limerick (1691) the soldiers of the Irish Army who left Ireland for France took part in what is known as the Flight of the Wild Geese. The Treaty of Limerick ended the Williamite war in Ireland between the Jacobites and the supporters of William of Orange. Not to be confused with the 1607 Flight of the Earls. The Flight of the Wild Geese refers to the departure of an Irish Jacobite Subsequently, many made a living from working as mercenaries for continental armies, the most famous of whom was Patrick Sarsfield, who, having fallen mortally wounded at the Battle of Landen fighting for the French, said "If this was only for Ireland". Patrick Sarsfield (c 1660 &ndash 21 August 1693) created the first Earl of Lucan, Irish Jacobite and soldier belonged to The Battle of Landen (or Neerwinden) in the current Belgian province of Flemish Brabant, was a battle in the Nine Years' War, fought in the ^[37]

About a third of the infantry regiments of the French Royal Army prior to the French Revolution were recruited from outside France. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The largest single group were the twelve Swiss regiments (including the Swiss Guard). Swiss Guards Swiss mercenary is the name given to those soldiers who have served as Bodyguards, ceremonial guards and palace guards at foreign European courts since Other units were German and one Irish Brigade (the "Wild Geese") had originally been made up of Irish volunteers. For other uses see Irish Brigade. The Irish Brigade was a Brigade in the French army composed of Irish Not to be confused with the 1607 Flight of the Earls. The Flight of the Wild Geese refers to the departure of an Irish Jacobite By 1789 difficulties in obtaining genuinely Irish recruits had led to German and other foreigners making up the bulk of the rank and file. The officers however continued to be drawn from long established Franco-Irish families. During the reign of Louis XV there were also a Scottish (Royal-Écossais), a Swedish (Royal-Suédois), an Italian (Royal-Italien) and a Walloon (Horion-Liegeois) regiments recruited outside the borders of France. The Royal-Suédois ( English: The Royal Swedes was an infantry regiment in the French Army during the Ancien Régime. The foreign infantry regiments comprised about 20,000 men in 1733, rising to 48,000 at the time of the Seven Years' War and being reduced in numbers thereafter. The Seven Years' War (1756&ndash1763 involved all of the major European powers of the period causing 900000 to 1400000 deaths

The Spanish Army also made use of permanently established foreign regiments. These comprised three Irish regiments (Irlanda, Hiberni and Ultonia); one Italian (Napoles) and five Swiss (Wimpssen, Reding, Betschart, Traxer and Preux). Not to be confused with the 1607 Flight of the Earls. The Flight of the Wild Geese refers to the departure of an Irish Jacobite In addition one regiment of the Royal Guard was recruited from Walloons. The Royal Guard ( Guardia Real) is an independent unit of the Spanish Army dedicated to the military protection of H The Walloon Guards were an infantry Corps originally recruited in the region now known as Belgium, mainly in Catholic Wallonia, for the The last of these foreign regiments was disbanded in 1815, following recruiting difficulties during the Napoleonic Wars. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions One complication arising from the use of non-national troops occurred at the Battle of Bailén in 1808 when the "red Swiss" (so-called from their uniforms) of the invading French Army clashed bloodily with "blue Swiss" in the Spanish service. The Battle of Bailén was contested between the Spanish regular army, led by Generals Francisco Castaños and Theodor von Reding, and

In popular culture

Main article: Mercenaries in popular culture

Like piracy, the mercenary ethos resonates in popular films and novels with idealized notions of adventure, mystery and danger. Mercenaries in popular culture. Like Piracy, the Mercenary ethos resonates with idealized adventure mystery and danger and appears frequently in popular culture Piracy is Robbery committed at sea or sometimes on shore without a commission from a sovereign Nation (as distinct from Privateering Many are called adventurers, filibusters, soldiers of fortune, gunslingers, gunrunners, ronin, and knights errant. An adventurer or adventuress is a term that usually takes one of three meanings One whose travels are unusual and often exotic though not so unique as to qualify A filibuster is someone who engages in an unauthorized military expedition into a foreign country to foment or support a revolution Illegal arms trafficking, also known as Gunrunning is trafficking in ( Smuggling) contraband Weapons and Ammunition. A was a Samurai with no lord or master during the Feudal period (1185–1868 of Japan. A knight-errant (plural knights-errant) is a figure of medieval chivalric romance literature. A magazine ostensibly written for mercenary soldiers is Soldier of Fortune (SOF). Magazines, periodicals or serials are Publications generally published on a regular schedule containing a variety of articles, generally Soldier of Fortune magazine frequently abbreviated SOF, is a Periodical publication devoted to coverage of conflicts around the globe including The popularity of SOF led to a several similar magazines with titles such as Survive, Gung Ho!, New Breed, Eagle, Combat Illustrated, Special Weapons and Tactics, Combat and Survival, and Combat Ready that have mostly ceased publication

The film The Wild Geese (1978) is considered by reviewers to be the benchmark film about mercenaries in Africa, and it inspired other such films, including a sequel. The Wild Geese is a 1978 film about a group of Mercenaries in Africa. The film is also noteworthy in that the technical adviser was former mercenary leader Michael Hoare. Thomas Michael Hoare (b 1920 ( Mad Mike) is a Mercenary leader known for military battles in Africa and the Indian Ocean.

In the film Rambo (film) (2008) , the protagonist John Rambo teams up with a group of mercenaries, to save a group of volunteered missionaries, who are held as prisoners in Burma. Rambo (also known as Rambo IV or John Rambo) is a 2008 Action film starring Sylvester Stallone

The novel The Dogs of War by Frederick Forsyth and the film (1981) with the same name, which go into some detail about an actual if fictionalized mercenary operation in Africa in the 1960s. The Dogs of War ( 1974) is a war novel by Frederick Forsyth chronicling a company of European Mercenary soldiers hired by a British industrialist Frederick Forsyth, CBE (born August 25, 1938) is an English author and occasional political commentator The Dogs Of War is a 1981 war film based upon the novel The Dogs of War by Frederick Forsyth, with Christopher Walken and Films about mercenaries also include Man on Fire (2004), about a former mercenary hired as a bodyguard for a young girl in Mexico City who subsequently gets kidnapped; and Blood Diamond (2006), about a mercenary and diamond smuggler. Blood Diamond is an Academy Award nominated 2006 adventure Drama film co-produced and directed by Edward Zwick and Board games such as Warhammer, Dogs of War involve mercenary armies. In the fictional Warhammer Fantasy setting and particularly the Warhammer Fantasy Battle tabletop wargame Dogs of War is a collective term for various Computer game series such as Jagged Alliance and MechWarrior are about mercenaries. Jagged Alliance is a series of Turn-based tactics Computer games for the PC. Also, the game Army of Two is mainly about mercenaries and corruption in mercenary corporations. "Army of Two" is also a song by British pop-rock band Dum Dums. Another game about Mercenaries is Mercenaries: Playground Of Destruction, which is very similar to Army of Two. Mercenaries Playground of Destruction is a Third-person shooter which takes place in the near future

See also

• Mercenary War (c. 240 BC) — also called the Libyan War and the Truceless War by Polybius — was an uprising of mercenary armies formerly in the employ of Carthage, backed by Libyan settlements revolting against Carthaginian control. The Mercenary War ( c[[ 40 BC]] — also called the Libyan War and the Truceless War by Polybius — was an uprising of Mercenary Polybius (ca 203 &ndash 120 BC, Greek) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his book called The Histories Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers
• International Peace Operations Association
• Private defense agency
• Unlawful combatant#Mercenaries
• Shadow Company is an award winning film supported by both Amnesty International and Blackwater Worldwide as a "balanced" documentary presenting the history, range and modern issues surrounding the existence and use of mercenaries/PMCs

References

• Bernales-Ballesteros, Enrique; UNHCHR: Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights on use of mercenaries
• Bodin J; Les Suisses au Service de la France; Editions Albion Michael, 1988. The International Peace Operations Association (IPOA is a non-governmental trade and lobbying association representing the "peace and stability industry" sometimes referred A private defense agency (PDA is a conceptualized agency that provides personal protection and military defense services voluntarily through the Free market. An unlawful combatant or unprivileged combatant/belligerent is a Civilian who directly engages in armed conflict under the International Humanitarian Law Shadow Company is a documentary directed by Nick Bicanic and Jason Bourque and narrated by Gerard Butler. Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a Western based international Non-governmental organization which defines its mission as "to Blackwater Worldwide, formerly Blackwater USA, is a Private military company founded in 1997 by Erik Prince and Al Clark ISBN 2-226-03334-3
• Chartrand, Rene; "Louis XV's Army - Foreign Infantry"; Osprey 1997. ISBN 1-85532-623-X
• Chartrand, Rene; " Spanish Army of the Napoleonic Wars 1793-1808"; Osprey 1998. ISBN 1-1-85532-763-5
• Milliard, Todd S. ; Overcoming post-colonial myopia: A call to recognize and regulate private military companies(PDF), in Military Law Review Vol 173, June 2003. At the time of publication Major Milliard was a Judge Advocate in the Judge Advocate General's Corps, U.S. Army. Judge Advocate General's Corps, also known as JAG, can refer to the judicial arm of any of the United States Armed Forces including the Air Force

Further reading

General

• United Nations Working Group on the use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the rights of peoples to self-determination
  • Resolution 2005/2 (for 3 years)
• Mercenaries: Report of the Special Rapporteur (1998) website called Human Rights system
• PMCs Monitor: An International Organization which advocates for tighter rules
• Kennedy, Bruce. Bruce R Kennedy ( 1938 - June 28, 2007) was a businessman best known for his work as Chief Executive Officer of Alaska Airlines between Soldiers of misfortune a CNN Interactive special on mercenaries
• Pelton, Robert Young. Hunter Hammer and Heaven, Journeys to Three World's Gone Mad, ISBN 1-58574-416-6
• Scahill, Jeremy. Jeremy Scahill is an American investigative journalist with expertise on a number of global issues most notably the recent rise of private military companies ( Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army, Nation Books, 2007. Blackwater The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army is a book written by independent journalist Jeremy Scahill, published by Nation Books in 2007 ISBN 1-56025-979-5

PMCs

• Pelton, Robert Young; Licensed to Kill: Hired Guns in the War on Terror, Crown, (2006), ISBN 1400097819
• Mercenary / Private Military Companies (PMCs): Links for mercenary related articles
• José Alvear Restrepo Lawyers' Collective; Private Security Transnational Enterprises in Colombia February, 2008

Other

• Military science in western Europe in the sixteenth century. Prologue:The nature of armies in the 16th century (pdf): A given army often included numerous nationalities and languages. The normal Landsknecht regiment included one interpreter per 400 men, and interpreters were commonly budgeted for in the staffs of the field armies of the French, and of German reiter regiments as well. Fluency in multiple languages was a valuable skill for a captain, given that it was not uncommon for armies to consist of a majority of foreign nationals.

Footnotes

Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works Sir Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle, DL (22 May 1859 – 7 July 1930 was an Anglo-Scottish Author most noted for his stories about the

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