Mental disorder Classification and external resources
MeSH	D001523

Mental disorder or mental illness are terms used to refer to a psychological or physiological pattern that occurs in an individual and is usually associated with distress or disability that is not expected as part of normal development or culture. Medical Subject Headings ( MeSH) is a huge Controlled vocabulary (or metadata system for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books The recognition and understanding of mental disorders has changed over time. Definitions, assessments, and classifications of mental disorders can vary, but guideline criterion listed in the ICD, DSM and other manuals are widely accepted by mental health professionals. The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's Mental health or to treat Mental illness. Categories of diagnoses in these schemes may include dissociative disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, eating disorders, developmental disorders, personality disorders, and many other categories. Dissociative disorders are defined a conditions that involve disruptions or breakdowns of memory awareness identity and/or perception A mood disorder is the term given for a group of diagnoses in the DSM IV TR classification system where a disturbance in the person's emotional mood is hypothesised Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal pathological anxieties Fears and Phobias In clinical usage "fear" Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic An eating disorder is a compulsion to eat or avoid eating that negatively affects both one's physical and mental health Developmental disorders are disorders that occur at some stage in a Child 's development often retarding the development Personality disorder, formerly referred to as a Character Disorder is a class of mental disorders characterized by rigid and on-going patterns of feeling thinking and behavior In many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause of mental disorders, although they are widely understood in terms of a diathesis-stress model and biopsychosocial model. The diathesis-stress model is a Psychological theory that explains Behavior as both a result of biological and genetic factors ("nature" The biopsychosocial model is a general model or approach Mental disorders have been found to be common, with over a third of people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria at some point in their life. Mental health services may be based in hospitals or in the community. Mental health professionals diagnose individuals using different methodologies, often relying on case history and interview. A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's Mental health or to treat Mental illness. Psychotherapy and psychiatric medication are two major treatment options, as well as supportive interventions. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Psychiatric medication is a licenced Psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the Mental state and used to treat Mental disorders Usually utilized Treatment may be involuntary where legislation allows. Several movements campaign for changes to mental health services and attitudes, including the Consumer/Survivor Movement. The Consumer/Survivor/Ex-Patient Movement, also known as the User/Survivor Movement is a diverse association of individuals (and organizations representing them who are either currently There are widespread problems with stigma and discrimination. Social stigma is severe social disapproval of personal characteristics or Beliefs that are against cultural norms. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is

Contents 1 History 2 Classification 3 Disorders 4 Causes 5 Diagnosis 6 Treatment 6.1 Psychotherapy 6.2 Medication 6.3 Other 7 Prognosis 8 Prevalence 9 Professions and fields 10 Stigma of Mental Illness 11 Movements 12 Laws and policies 13 Perception and discrimination 13.1 Media 13.2 General public 13.3 Violence 13.4 Employment 14 See also 15 Notes 15.1 Further reading 16 External links

History

Main article: History of mental disorders

A number of mental disturbances, such as melancholy, hysteria and phobia, were described long ago in Ancient Greece and Rome, while others such as schizophrenia may not have been recognized. See also Mental disorder The history of mental disorder spans prehistoric times ancient civilisations the Middle Ages the early modern period the enlightenment Hysteria in its colloquial use describes a state of Mind, one of unmanageable Fear or Emotional excesses Phobias Phobias (in the clinical meaning of the term are the most common form of Anxiety disorders An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn ^[1] Hippocrates considered the idea that mental illness may be related to biology. Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca ^[2]

Psychiatric theories and treatments for mental illness developed in Muslim psychology and Islamic medicine in the medieval Islamic world from the 8th century, where the first psychiatric hospitals were built. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is ^[3] The Baghdad Hospital was run by the Persian physician Rhazes. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Unlike most ancient and medieval societies which believed mental illness to be caused by either demonic possession or as punishment from a God, Islamic neuroethics held a more sympathetic attitude towards the mentally ill, as exemplified in Sura 4:5 of the Qur'an, which considers the mentally ill to be unfit to manage property but must be treated humanely and be kept under care by a guardian. Demonic possession is often the term used to describe the control over a human form by Satan himself or one of his assigned advocates God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Neuroethics is most commonly understood to be the subcategory of Bioethics concerned with Neuroscience and Neurotechnology. Sura An-Nisa ( Arabic: سورة النساء, Sūratu an-Nisā, "The Women " is the fourth chapter of the The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran A humane society may be a group that aims to stop human or animal Suffering due to Cruelty or other reasons although in many countries it is now used mostly for societies ^[4]

Medieval Europe had focused on demonic possession as the explanation of aberrant behavior. Demonic possession is often the term used to describe the control over a human form by Satan himself or one of his assigned advocates ^[5] Paracelsus used the word lunatic to describe behavior thought to be caused by the lunar effect. Paracelsus (11 November or 17 December 1493 in Einsiedeln Switzerland – 24 September 1541 in Salzburg, Austria) was an alchemist, The lunar effect is a Theory which overlaps into Sociology, Psychology and Physiology suggesting that there is correlation between specific ^[6] Many other terms for mental disorder that found their way into everyday use have been traced to initial use in the 16th and 17th centuries. ^[7] Shakespeare and his contemporaries frequently depicted mental disorders in their plays. ^[8] Conditions of "shell shock" came to be recognized in war veterans. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units From the early study of mental illness through individuals such as Philippe Pinel, Sigmund Freud, and Alois Alzheimer, much has changed in the development and understanding of mental illness and continues to change today. Philippe Pinel ( April 20, 1745 - October 25, 1826) was a French physician who was instrumental in the development of a more humane psychological Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Aloysius "Alois" Alzheimer (14 June 1864 - 19 December 1915 was a German Psychiatrist and Neuropathologist and a colleague of Emil Kraepelin

At the start of the 20th century there were only a dozen officially recognized mental health conditions. . By 1952 there were 192 and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) today lists 374. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association

Classification

Main article: Classification of mental disorders

The definition and classification of mental disorder is a key issue for the mental health professions and for users and providers of mental health services. See also Mental disorder The classification of mental disorders, also known as psychiatric nosology or taxonomy is a key aspect of Psychiatry and other A definition is a statement of the meaning of a Word or Phrase. A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's Mental health or to treat Mental illness. Most international clinical documents use the term "mental disorder" rather than "mental illness". There is no single definition and the inclusion criteria are said to vary depending on the social, legal and political context. A definition is a statement of the meaning of a Word or Phrase. In general, however, a mental disorder has been characterized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological pattern that occurs in an individual and is usually associated with distress, disability or increased risk of suffering. Suffering, or pain, is an individual's basic Affective experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with harm or threat of harm There is often a criterion that a condition should not be expected to occur as part of a person's usual culture or religion. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The term "serious mental illness" (SMI) is sometimes used to refer to more severe and long-lasting disorder. A broad definition can cover mental disorder, mental retardation, personality disorder and substance dependence. Personality disorder, formerly referred to as a Character Disorder is a class of mental disorders characterized by rigid and on-going patterns of feeling thinking and behavior According to the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV substance dependence is defined as "When an individual The phrase "mental health problems" may be used to refer only to milder or more transient issues. Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder.

There are currently two widely established systems that classify mental disorders - Chapter V of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), produced by the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association The American Psychiatric Association (APA is the main Professional organization of Psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the Both list categories of disorder and provide standardized criteria for diagnosis. They have deliberately converged their codes in recent revisions so that the manuals are often broadly comparable, although significant differences remain. Other classification schemes may be in use more locally, for example the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders. The Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders ( CCMD) published by the Chinese Society of Psychiatry (CSP is a clinical guide used in China for the diagnosis of Other manuals may be used by those of alternative theoretical persuasions, for example the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual. The Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual ( PDM) is a diagnostic handbook similar to the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems

Some approaches to classification do not employ distinct categories based on cut-offs separating the abnormal from the normal. They are variously referred to as spectrum, continuum or dimensional systems. There is a significant scientific debate about the relative merits of a categorical or a non-categorical system. There is also significant controversy about the role of science and values in classification schemes, and about the professional, legal and social uses to which they are put.

Disorders

There are many different categories of mental disorder, and many different facets of human behavior and personality that can become disordered. ^{[9][10][11][12]}

The state of anxiety or fear can become disordered, so that it is unusually intense or generalized over a prolonged period of time. Anxiety is a physiological and psychological state characterized by Cognitive, Somatic, Emotional and Behavioral components Fear is an Emotional response to Threats and Danger. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific Stimulus, such as Commonly recognized categories of anxiety disorders include specific phobia, Generalized anxiety disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Post-traumatic stress disorder. Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal pathological anxieties Fears and Phobias In clinical usage "fear" Phobias Phobias (in the clinical meaning of the term are the most common form of Anxiety disorders An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health Generalized anxiety disorder ( GAD) is an Anxiety disorder that is characterized by excessive uncontrollable and often irrational worry about everyday things that Social phobia (DSM-IV 30023 also known as social anxiety disorder (DSM-IV 300 Panic Disorder is a Psychological condition characterized by recurring Panic attacks in combination with significant behavioral change lasting at least a month Agoraphobia is an Anxiety disorder, often precipitated by the fear of having a Panic attack in a setting from which there is no easy means of escape Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD is a Chronic Anxiety disorder most commonly characterized by obsessive Distressing Intrusive thoughts Post traumatic stress disorder It is a severe and ongoing emotional reaction to Relatively long lasting affective states can also become disordered. Affect, like the adjective affective, refers to the experience of feeling or Emotion. Mood disorder involving unusually intense and sustained sadness, melancholia or despair is know as Clinical depression (or Major depression), and may more generally be described as Emotional dysregulation. A mood disorder is the term given for a group of diagnoses in the DSM IV TR classification system where a disturbance in the person's emotional mood is hypothesised Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression Emotional dysregulation, in contrast to Emotional self-regulation, is a term used in the Mental health community Milder but prolonged depression can be diagnosed as dysthymia. Dysthymia (pronounced /dɪsˈθaɪmiə/ is a Mood disorder that falls within the depression spectrum. Bipolar disorder involves abnormally "high" or pressured mood states, known as mania or hypomania, alternating with normal or depressed mood. Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition This article is an expansion of a section entitled '''Hypomania''' from within the main article Bipolar disorder. Whether unipolar and bipolar mood phenomena represent distinct categories of disorder, or whether they usually mix and merge together along a dimension or spectrum of mood, is under debate in the scientific literature. ^[13]

Patterns of belief, language use and perception can become disordered. Psychotic disorders centrally involving this domain include Schizophrenia and Delusional disorder. Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Delusional disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a psychotic Mental illness that involves holding one or more non-bizarre Delusions in the absence Schizoaffective disorder is a category used for individuals showing aspects of both schizophrenia and affective disorders. Schizoaffective disorder is a Psychiatric Diagnosis of neurobiological illness. Schizotypy is a category used for individuals showing some of the traits associated with schizophrenia but without meeting cut-off criteria. Schizotypy is a psychological concept which describes a continuum of personality characteristics and experiences related to Psychosis and in particular

The fundamental characteristics of a person that influence his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors across situations and time - can be seen as disordered due to being abnormally rigid and maladaptive. Categorical schemes list a number of different personality disorders, such as those classed as eccentric (e. Personality disorder, formerly referred to as a Character Disorder is a class of mental disorders characterized by rigid and on-going patterns of feeling thinking and behavior g. Paranoid personality disorder, Schizoid personality disorder, Schizotypal personality disorder), those described as dramatic or emotional (Antisocial personality disorder, Borderline personality disorder, Histrionic personality disorder, Narcissistic personality disorder) or those seen as fear-related (Avoidant personality disorder, Dependent personality disorder, Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder). Paranoid personality disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis characterized by Paranoia and a pervasive long-standing suspiciousness and generalized mistrust of Schizotypal personality disorder, or simply schizotypal disorder, is a Personality disorder that is characterized by a need for Social isolation, odd Antisocial personality disorder ( APD) is a Mental disorder.It is defined by the American Psychiatric Association 's Diagnostic and Statistical Borderline personality disorder ( BPD) is a psychiatric diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM-IV Personality Histrionic personality disorder (HPD) is a Personality disorder characterized by a pattern of excessive emotionality and Attention -seeking including an Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD is a Personality disorder defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the diagnostic classification Avoidant personality disorder (APD or AvPD or Anxious personality disorder (APD is a Personality disorder from the DSM handbook characterized by Dependent personality disorder (DPD formerly known as asthenic personality disorder, is a Personality disorder that is characterized by a pervasive psychological

There may be an emerging consensus that personality disorders, like personality traits in the normal range, incorporate a mixture of more acute dysfunctional behaviors that resolve in relatively short periods, and maladaptive temperamental traits that are relatively more stable. ^[14] Non-categorical schemes may rate individuals via a profile across different dimensions of personality that are not seen as cut off from normal personality variation, commonly through schemes based on the Big Five personality traits. In Psychology, the "Big Five" personality traits are five broad factors or dimensions of personality developed through lexical analysis ^[15]

Other disorders may involve other attributes of human functioning. Eating practices can be disordered, at least in relatively rich industrialized areas, with either compulsive over-eating or under-eating or binging. In general terms eating (formally ingestion) is the process of consuming Food to provide for the Nutritional needs of an Animal, particularly Categories of disorder in this area include Anorexia nervosa and Bulimia nervosa or Binge eating disorder. Anorexia Nervosa is a psychiatric Diagnosis that describes an Eating disorder characterized by low Body weight and Body image distortion Bulimia nervosa is an Eating disorder characterized by recurrent Binge eating, followed by compensatory behaviors referred to as "purging" Binge eating disorder ( BED) is a Psychiatric disorder in which a subject shows the following symptoms Periodically does not exercise control over consumption Sleep disorders such as Insomnia also exist and can disrupt normal sleep patterns. A sleep disorder (somnipathy is a medical disorder of the Sleep patterns of a person or animal Insomnia is a symptom of a sleeping disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep despite the opportunity Sleep is a Natural state of bodily rest observed throughout the animal kingdom Sexual and gender identity disorders, such as Dyspareunia or Gender identity disorder or ego-dystonic homosexuality. Sexual dysfunction or sexual malfunction (see also Sexual function) is difficulty during any stage of the Sexual act (which includes desire, Dyspareunia is painful Sexual intercourse, due to medical or psychological causes Gender identity disorder (GID is the formal diagnosis used by Psychologists and Physicians to describe persons who experience significant gender dysphoria (discontent Egodystonic sexual orientation is an Egodystonic condition The World Health Organization lists egodystonic sexual orientation in the ICD-10, under "Psychological People who are abnormally unable to resist urges, or impulses, to perform acts that could be harmful to themselves or others, may be classed as having an impulse control disorder, including various kinds of Tic disorders such as Tourette's Syndrome, and disorders such as Kleptomania (stealing) or Pyromania (fire-setting). Tic disorders are defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM based on type (motor or phonic and duration of Tics (sudden rapid nonrhythmic Tourette syndrome (also called Tourette's syndrome, Tourette's disorder, Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, GTS or more commonly simply Tourette's Kleptomania ( Greek: κλέπτειν, kleptein "to steal" μανία, " Mania " is the condition of not being able Pyromania is an impulse to deliberately start fires to relieve tension and typically includes gratification or relief afterward Substance-use disorders include Substance abuse disorder. Substance abuse is the overindulgence in and dependence of a Drug or other chemical leading to effects that are detrimental to the individual's physical and mental health Addictive gambling may be classed as a disorder. Inability to sufficiently adjust to life circumstances may be classed as an Adjustment disorder. In Psychology, adjustment disorder (AD is a classification of mental disorder that is a psychological response from an identifiable stressor or group of stressors that causes The category of adjustment disorder is usually reserved for problems beginning within three months of the event or situation and ending within six months after the stressor stops or is eliminated. People who suffer severe disturbances of their self-identity, memory and general awareness of themselves and their surroundings may be classed as having a Dissociative identity disorder, such as Depersonalization disorder or Dissociative Identify Disorder itself (which has also been called multiple personality disorder, or "split personality". Dissociative Identity Disorder ( DID) as defined by the American Psychiatric Association 's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM Depersonalization Disorder ( DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders 300 ). Factitious disorders, such as Munchausen syndrome, also exist where symptoms are experienced and/or reported for personal gain. Factitious disorders are conditions in which a person acts as if he or she has an illness by deliberately producing feigning or exaggerating symptoms Munchausen syndrome is a Psychiatric disorder in which those affected fake disease illness or psychological trauma in order to draw attention or sympathy to themselves

Disorders appearing to originate in the body, but thought to be mental, are known as somatoform disorders, including Somatization disorder. Somatization disorder (also Briquet's disorder or in antiquity hysteria) is a psychiatric diagnosis applied to patients who chronically and persistently There are also disorders of the perception of the body, including Body dysmorphic disorder. Body dysmorphic disorder ( BDD) (previously known as Dysmorphophobia and sometimes referred to as Body dysmorphia) is a psychiatric disorder Neurasthenia is a category involving somatic complaints as well as fatigue and low spirits/depression, which is officially recognized by the ICD-10 but not by the DSM-IV. Neurasthenia is a psycho-pathological term first used by George Miller Beard in 1869 to denote a condition with symptoms of fatigue, Anxiety, Headache ^[16] Memory or cognitive disorders, such as amnesia or Alzheimer's disease exist. Amnesia (from Greek) is a condition in which Memory is disturbed Alzheimer's disease ( AD) also called Alzheimer disease or simply Alzheimer's, is the most common form of Dementia.

Some disorders are thought to usually first occur in the context of early childhood development, although they may continue into adulthood. The category of Specific developmental disorder may be used to refer to circumscribed patterns of disorder in particular learning skills, motor skills, or communication skills. Specific developmental disorders categorizes specific Learning disabilities and developmental disorders affecting coordination Disorder which appears more generalized may be classed as pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) also known as autism spectrum disorders (ASD); these include autism, Asperger's, Rett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder and other types of PDD whose exact diagnosis may not be specified. The diagnostic category pervasive developmental disorders (PDD as opposed to Specific developmental disorders (SDD refers to a group of five disorders characterized The autism spectrum, also called autism spectrum disorders (ASD or autism spectrum conditions (ASC with the word autistic sometimes replacing autism Language development. The terminology Asperger syndrome (also called Asperger's syndrome, Asperger's disorder, Asperger's or AS) is the Autism spectrum disorder (ASD Rett syndrome (also called Rett disorder) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is classified as a Pervasive developmental disorder by the DSM-IV. Childhood disintegrative disorder ( CDD) also known as Heller's syndrome and disintegrative psychosis, is a rare condition characterized by late onset (>3 Pervasive Developmental Disorder - Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS is one of the Pervasive developmental disorders and Autism spectrum disorders PDD-NOS is a Other disorders mainly or first occurring in childhood include Reactive attachment disorder; Separation Anxiety Disorder; Oppositional Defiant Disorder; Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Reactive attachment disorder ( RAD) is described in clinical literature as a severe and relatively uncommon Attachment disorder that can affect children Separation anxiety is a psychological condition in which an individual has excessive Anxiety regarding separation from home or from people to whom the individual has Oppositional defiant disorder is a psychiatric category listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders where it is described as an ongoing pattern of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD is a neurobehavioral developmental disorder affecting about 3-5% of the world's population

Causes

Main article: Causes of mental disorders

Numerous factors have been linked to the development of mental disorders. See also Mental disorder The causes of mental disorders are complex and interact and vary according to the particular disorder and individual In many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause currently established. A common view held is that disorders often result from genetic vulnerabilities combining with environmental stressors (Diathesis-stress model). The diathesis-stress model is a Psychological theory that explains Behavior as both a result of biological and genetic factors ("nature" An eclectic or pluralistic mix of models may be used to explain particular disorders. Scientific pluralism is the view that some phenomena observed in science require multiple explanations to account for their nature The primary paradigm of contemporary mainstream Western psychiatry is said to be the biopsychosocial (BPS) model - incorporating biological, psychological and social factors - although this may not be applied in practice. The biopsychosocial model is a general model or approach Biopsychiatry has tended to follow a biomedical model, focusing on "organic" or "hardware" pathology of the brain. Biological psychiatry, or biopsychiatry is an approach to Psychiatry that aims to understand Mental disorder in terms of the biological function Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Psychoanalytic theories have been popular but are now less so. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Evolutionary psychology may be used as an overall explanatory theory. Evolutionary psychology ( EP) attempts to explain mental and psychological traits ��such as Memory, Perception, Attachment theory is another kind of evolutionary-psychological approach sometimes applied in the context for mental disorders. Attachment theory, originating in the work of John Bowlby, is a Psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory that provides a descriptive A distinction is sometimes made between a "medical model" or a "social model" of disorder and related disability.

Genetic studies have indicated that genes often play an important role in the development of mental disorders, via developmental pathways interacting with environmental factors. History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance The reliable identification of connections between specific genes and specific categories of disorder has proven more difficult.

Environmental events surrounding pregnancy and birth have also been implicated. Pregnancy ( Latin graviditas) is the carrying of one or more offspring known as a Fetus or Embryo, inside the Uterus of a Female Birth is the act or process of bearing or bringing forth Offspring. Traumatic brain injury may increase the risk of developing certain mental disorders. Traumatic brain injury (TBI also called intracranial injury, occurs when Physical trauma injures the Brain. There have been some tentative inconsistent links found to certain viral infections, to substance misuse, and to general physical health. Substance abuse is the overindulgence in and dependence of a Drug or other chemical leading to effects that are detrimental to the individual's physical and mental health

Abnormal functioning of neurotransmitter systems has been implicated, including serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine and glutamate systems. See Chemical synapse for an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article Differences have also been found in the size or activity of certain brains regions in some cases. Psychological mechanisms have also been implicated, such as cognitive and emotional processes, personality, temperament and coping style. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours In psychology temperament is the innate aspect of an individual's personality such as Introversion or Extroversion.

Social influences have been found to be important, including abuse, bullying and other negative or stressful life experiences. Abuse refers to the use or treatment of something (a person item substance concept or vocabulary that is harmful Bullying is the act of intentionally causing harm to others through verbal Harassment, physical Assault, or other more subtle methods of Coercion The specific risks and pathways to particular disorders are less clear, however. Aspects of the wider community have also been implicated, including employment problems, socioeconomic inequality, lack of social cohesion, problems linked to migration, and features of particular societies and cultures. Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. Socioeconomics or socio-economics is the study of the relationship between economic activity and Social life. In Mathematics, an inequality is a statement about the relative size or order of two objects or about whether they are the same or not (See also equality Human migration denotes any movement by Humans from one locality to another sometimes over long distances or A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic

Diagnosis

Many mental health professionals, particularly psychiatrists, seek to diagnose individuals by ascertaining their particular mental disorder. A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's Mental health or to treat Mental illness. Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything Some professionals, for example some clinical psychologists, may avoid diagnosis in favor of other assessment methods such as formulation of a client's difficulties and circumstances. Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing ^[17] The majority of mental health problems are actually assessed and treated by family physicians during consultations, who may refer on for more specialist diagnosis in acute or chronic cases. Routine diagnostic practice in mental health services typically involves an interview (which may be referred to as a mental status examination), where judgements are made of the interviewee's appearance and behavior, self-reported symptoms, mental health history, and current life circumstances. The mental status examination (or mental state examination in the UK and Australia abbreviated MSE, is an important part of the clinical assessment process The views of relatives or other third parties may be taken into account. A physical examination to check for ill health or the effects of medications or other drugs may be conducted. Psychological testing is sometimes used via paper-and-pen or computerized questionnaires, which may include algorithms based on ticking off standardized diagnostic criteria, and in relatively rare specialist cases neuroimaging tests may be requested, but these methods are more commonly found in research studies than routine clinical practice. Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of samples of behavior in order to infer generalizations about a given individual In Mathematics, Computing, Linguistics and related subjects an algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions often used for Calculation ^[18][19] Time and budgetary constraints often limit practicing psychiatrists from conducting more thorough diagnostic evaluations. ^[20] It has been found that most clinicians evaluate patients using an unstructured, open-ended approach, with limited training in evidence-based assessment methods, and that inaccurate diagnosis may be common in routine practice. ^[21]

Comorbidity is very usual with mental disorders, i. In Medicine, comorbidity (literally "additional Morbidity " is either * The presence of one or more disorders (or diseases in addition to e. same person can suffer one or more disorder. The work for fifth version of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) ^[22] has raised some questions about dimensional diagnostic criteria compared to categorical diagnostic criteria. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association Journal of Abnormal Psychology (Vol 114, Issue 4) ^[23] devoted a whole issue to discuss about categorical and dimensional diagnostic criteria. In short it the argument is that diagnosis of mental disorder can be based on several overlapping dimensions and not categorical and/or two-dimensional classes. One possibility in diagnosis is to have several (>2) dimensions overlapping and that it is harder to describe. In the following picture idea is that multiple dimension lines are crossed with one diagnostic line and the combination of crossing points is basis for a diagnosis.

In practical clinical settings it might be problematic to find several disorders in different dimensions and also differentiate the position of specific disorder in its dimensional axis like the picture indicates.

Treatment

Main article: Treatment of mental disorders

Mental health services may be based in hospitals, clinics or the community. See also Mental disorder The treatment of mental disorders includes various forms of Psychotherapy, Psychiatric medication, and other practices Often an individual may engage in different treatment modalities. They may be under case management (sometimes referred to as "service coordination"), use inpatient or day treatment, utilize a psychosocial rehabilitation program, and/or take part in an Assertive Community Treatment program. Case management is an area of practice within several Healthcare professions Partial hospitalization is a type of program used to treat Mental illness and Substance abuse. The Clubhouse Model of Psychosocial Rehabilitation is a comprehensive and dynamic program of 'treatment' for people with severe and persistent Mental illness. Assertive community treatment, or ACT, is a highly intensive and integrated approach for community mental health service delivery Individuals may be treated against their will in some cases, especially if assessed to be at high risk to themselves or others. Services in some countries are increasingly based on a Recovery model that supports an individual's journey to regain a meaningful life. The Recovery Model is an approach to Mental disorder or Substance dependence (and/or from being labeled in those terms that emphasizes and supports each

Psychotherapy

A major option for many mental disorders is psychotherapy. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living There are several main types. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is widely used and is based on modifying the patterns of thought and behavior associated with a particular disorder. See also Cognitive Therapy Cognitive Behavioral Therapy ( CBT) is an umbrella-term for psychotherapeutic systems that deal with cognitions interpretations Psychoanalysis, addressing underlying psychic conflicts and defenses, has been a dominant school of psychotherapy and is still in use. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Systemic therapy or family therapy is sometimes used, addressing a network of signicant others as well as an individual. Systemic therapy is a School of psychology which seeks to address people not an individual level as had been the focus of earlier forms of therapy but as people in relationship Family therapy, also referred to as couple and family therapy and family systems therapy, is a branch of Psychotherapy that works with families Some psychotherapies are based on a humanistic approach. Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis. There are a number of specific therapies used for particular disorders, which may be offshoots or hybrids of the above types. Mental health professionals often employ an eclectic or integrative approach. A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's Mental health or to treat Mental illness. Integrative Psychotherapy involves the fusion of different schools of Psychotherapy. Much may depend on the therapeutic relationship, and there may be problems with trust, confidentiality and engagement. The therapeutic relationship, also called the helping alliance the therapeutic alliance and the working alliance refers to the relationship between a Mental health professional Trust is a relationship of reliance A trusted party is presumed to seek to fulfill policies, ethical codes Law and their previous promises NOTICE TO WOULD-BE-ROMEOS***************

Medication

A major option for many mental disorders is psychiatric medication. Psychiatric medication is a licenced Psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the Mental state and used to treat Mental disorders Usually utilized There are several main groups. Antidepressants are used for the treatment of clinical depression as well as often for anxiety and other disorders. An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression There are a number of antidepressants beginning with the tricylics, moving through a wide variety of drugs that modify various facets of the brain chemistry dealing with intercellular communication. Beta-blockers, developed as a heart medication, is also used as an antidepressant. Anxiolytics are used for anxiety disorders and related problems such as insomnia. An anxiolytic is a drug prescribed for the treatment of Symptoms of Anxiety. Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal pathological anxieties Fears and Phobias In clinical usage "fear" Mood stabilizers are used primarily in bipolar disorder. This article refers to the medication For other uses see Stabilizer. Lithium A(a metal) and Lamictal (an epileptic drug) are notable for treating both mania and depression. The others, mainly targeting mania rather than depression, are a wide variety of epilepsy medications and antipsychotics. Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition Antipsychotics are used for psychotic disorders, notably for positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Antipsychotics are a group of Psychoactive drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat Psychosis, which is typified by Schizophrenia. Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Stimulants are commonly used, notably for ADHD. Stimulant drugs are Drugs that temporarily increase alertness and awareness Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD is a neurobehavioral developmental disorder affecting about 3-5% of the world's population Despite the different conventional names of the drug groups, there can be considerable overlap in the kinds of disorders for which they are actually indicated. There may also be off-label use. Off-label use is the practice of prescribing drugs for a purpose outside the scope of the drug's approved label most often concerning the drug's indication. There can be problems with adverse effects and adherence. In Medicine, an adverse effect is a harmful and undesired effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as Chemotherapy or Surgery. Compliance (or Adherence) is a medical term that is used to indicate a patient's correct following of medical advice

Other

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is sometimes used in severe cases when other interventions for severe intractable depression have failed. Psychosurgery, best known as the form known as a "frontal lobotomy", is no longer generally used. For the Tourniquet album refer to Psycho Surgery. Psychosurgery is a subset of Neurosurgery ( Surgery Psychoeducation may be used to provide people with the information to understand and manage their problems. Psychoeducation refers to the education offered to people who live with a psychological disturbance Creative therapies are sometimes used, including music therapy, art therapy or drama therapy. Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which the therapist uses music and all of its facets&mdashphysical emotional mental social aesthetic and spiritual&mdashto help clients to improve Art therapy is a form of Expressive therapy that uses art materials such as paints chalk and markers Dramatherapy (often written drama therapy in the United States is the use of theatre techniques to facilitate personal growth and promote health Lifestyle adjustments and supportive measures are often used, including peer support, self-help and supported housing or employment. Peer support occurs when people provide emotional or practical help to each other Self-help or self-improvement refers to self-guided improvement—economically intellectually or emotionally—most frequently with a substantial psychological or spiritual Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. Some advocate dietary supplements based on published randomized double-blind, placebo controlled trials^[24]. Many things have been found to help at least some people. A placebo effect may play a role in any intervention. Placebo is a substance or procedure a patient accepts as medicine or therapy but which has no specific therapeutic activity

Prognosis

There is substantial variation over time between disorders, and between individuals. Functional ability may also vary across different domains. There may be remission of symptoms, but also relapse. A relapse (etymologically "who falls again" occurs when a person is affected again by a condition that affected them in the past Rates of recovery vary. A number of individual and social factors have been linked to prognosis.

Despite often being characterized in purely negative terms, mental disorders can involve above-average creativity, non-conformity, goal-striving, meticulousness, or empathy. ^[25] The public perception of the level of disability associated with mental disorders can change. ^[26]

Prevalence

WHO estimated that about 450 million people worldwide currently suffer from some form of mental or behavioural disorder. ^[27] One in four people will suffer from mental illness at some time in life, according to a report from the WHO. ^[28][29]

Numerous large-scale surveys of the prevalence of mental disorders in adults in the general population have been carried out since the 1980s based on self-reported symptoms assessed by standardized structured interviews, usually carried out over the phone. In Epidemiology, the prevalence of a Disease in a Statistical population is defined as the total number of cases of the disease in the population at a given Mental disorders have been found to be common, with over a third of people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria at some point in their life. ^[30] The World Health Organization is currently undertaking a global survey of 26 countries in all regions of the world, based on ICD and DSM criteria. The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases [1] The first published figures on the 14 country surveys completed to date, indicate that, of those disorders assessed, anxiety disorders are the most common in all but 1 country (prevalence in the prior 12-month period of 2. 4% to 18. 2%) and mood disorders next most common in all but 2 countries (12-month prevalence of 0. 8% to 9. 6%), while substance disorders (0. 1%-6. 4%) and impulse-control disorders (0. 0%-6. 8%) were consistently less prevalent. The United States, Colombia, the Netherlands and Ukraine tended to have higher prevalence estimates across most classes of disorder, while Nigeria, Shanghai and Italy were consistently low, and prevalence was lower in Asian countries in general. Cases of disorder were rated as mild (prevalence of 1. 8%-9. 7%), moderate (prevalence of 0. 5%-9. 4%) and serious (prevalence of 0. 4%-7. 7%). ^[31] However, these are widely believed to be underestimates, due to poor diagnosis (especially in countries without affordable access to mental health services) and low reporting rates, in part because of the predominant use of self-report data, rather than semi-structured instruments such as the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID); actual lifetime prevalence rates for mental disorders are estimated to be between 65% and 85%. The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-I is a semistuctured interview for making most of the major DSM-IV Axis I psychiatric diagnoses

A review that pooled surveys in different countries up to 2004 found overall average prevalence estimates for any anxiety disorder of 10. 6% (in the 12 months prior to assessment) and 16. 6% (in lifetime prior to assessment), but that rates for individual disorders varied widely. Women had generally higher prevalence rates than men, but the magnitude of the difference varied. ^[32] A review that pooled surveys of mood disorders in different countries up to 2000 found 12-month prevalence rates of 4. 1% for major depressive disorder (MDD), 2% for dysthymic disorder and 0. 72% for bipolar 1 disorder. The average lifetime prevalence found was 6. 7% for MDD (with a relatively low lifetime prevalence rate in higher-quality studies, compared to the rates typically highlighted of 5%-12% for men and 10%-25% for women), and rates of 3. 6% for dysthymia and 0. 8% for Bipolar 1. ^[33]

Previous widely cited large-scale surveys in the United States were the Epidemiological Catchment Area (ECA) survey and subsequent National Comorbidity Survey (NCS). The NCS was replicated and updated between 2000 and 2003 and indicated that, of those groups of disorders assessed, nearly half of Americans (46. 4%) reported meeting criteria at some point in their life for either a DSM-IV anxiety disorder (28. 8%), mood disorder (20. 8%), impulse-control disorder (24. 8%) or substance use disorders (14. 6%). Half of all lifetime cases had started by age 14 years and 3/4 by age 24 years. ^[34] In the prior 12-month period only, around a quarter (26. 2%) met criteria for any disorder - anxiety disorders 18. 1%; mood disorders 9. 5%; impulse control disorders 8. 9%; and substance use disorders 3. 8%. A substantial minority (23%) met criteria for more than two disorders. A minority (22. 3%) of cases were classed as serious, 37. 3% as moderate and 40. 4% as mild. ^[35][36]

A 2004 cross-European study found that approximately one in four people reported meeting criteria at some point in their life for one of the DSM-IV disorders assessed, which included mood disorders (13. 9%), anxiety disorders (13. 6%) or alcohol disorder (5. 2%). Approximately one in ten met criteria within a 12-month period. Women and younger people of either gender showed more cases of disorder^[37]

A 2005 review of 27 studies have found that 27% of adult Europeans is or has been affected by at least one mental disorder in the past 12 months. It was also found that the most frequent disorders were anxiety disorders, depressive, somatoform and substance dependence disorders. ^[38]

A 2005 review of prior surveys in 46 countries on the prevalence of schizophrenic disorders, including a prior 10-country WHO survey, found an average (median) figure of 0. 4% for lifetime prevalence up to the point of assessment and 0. 3% in the 12-month period prior to assessment. A related figure not given in other studies (known as lifetime morbid risk), reported to be an accurate statement of how many people would theoretically develop schizophrenia at any point in life regardless of time of assessment, was found to be “about seven to eight individuals per 1,000. ” (0. 7/0. 8%). The prevalence of schizophrenia was consistently lower in poorer countries than in richer countries (though not the incidence) but the prevalence did not differ between urban/rural areas or men/women (although incidence did). Incidence is a measure of the risk of developing some new condition within a specified period of time ^[39]

Studies of the prevalence of personality disorders (PDs) have been fewer and smaller-scale, but a broader Norwegian survey found a similar overall prevalence of almost 1 in 7 (13. 4%), based on meeting personality criteria over the prior five year period. Rates for specific disorders ranged from 0. 8% to 2. 8%, with rates differing across countries, and by gender, educational level and other factors^[40] A US survey that incidentally screened for personality disorder found an overal rate of 14. 79%. ^[41]

Approximately 7% of a preschool pediatric sample were given a psychiatric diagnosis in one clinical study, and approximately 10% of 1- and 2-year-olds receiving developmental screening have been assessed as having significant emotional/behavioral problems based on parent and pediatrician reports. ^[42]

Professions and fields

Main article: Mental health professional

A number of professions have developed that specialise in the treatment of mental disorders, including the medical speciality of psychiatry (including psychiatric nursing)^[43][44][45], the division of psychology known as clinical psychology^[46], Social Work^[47], as well as Mental Health Counselors, Marriage and Family Therapists, Psychotherapists, Counselors and Public Health professionals. A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's Mental health or to treat Mental illness. The term profession is applied to those persons who have specialized and technical skill or knowledge which they apply for a fee to certain tasks that ordinary and unqualified people cannot Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing Social work is a discipline involving the application of Social theory and research methods to study and improve the lives of people groups and societies Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society organisations Those with personal experience of using mental health services are also increasingly involved in researching and delivering mental health services and working as mental health professionals. ^{[48][49][50][51]} The different clinical and scientific perspectives draw on diverse fields of research and theory, and different disciplines may favor differing models, explanations and goals. ^[25]

Stigma of Mental Illness

A large proportion of individuals who suffer from the symptoms of a mental illness will avoid seeking treatment for their symptoms because of the social stigma[2] associated with having a mental illness. Social stigma is severe social disapproval of personal characteristics or Beliefs that are against cultural norms. The US Surgeon General acknowledged this in 1999:

Powerful and pervasive, stigma prevents people from acknowledging their own mental health problems, much less disclosing them to others^[52].

As a result many people feel the need to keep their mental illness a secret, and will deny the symptoms that they are experiencing. Two thirds of the people who would benefit from treatment for a mental illness do not receive treatment^[53]. As with many physical illnesses, the prognoses of a mental illness can worsen the longer that a mental illness remains untreated. The added anxiety of fearing a mental illness diagnoses can also be detrimental to an individual's mental health, this effect can greatly exacerbate an anxiety disorder or mood disorder. Efforts are being undertaken worldwide to eliminate the stigma of mental illness ^[54].

Movements

The Consumer/Survivor Movement (also known as user/survivor movement) is made up of individuals (and organizations representing them) who are clients of mental health services or who consider themselves "survivors" of mental health services. The Consumer/Survivor/Ex-Patient Movement, also known as the User/Survivor Movement is a diverse association of individuals (and organizations representing them who are either currently The movement campaigns for improved mental health services and for more involvement and empowerment within mental health services, policies and wider society. ^[55][56][57] Patient advocacy organizations have expanded with increasing deinstitutionalization in developed countries, working to challenge the stereotypes, stigma and exclusion associated with psychiatric conditions. A Patient Advocate acts as a liaison between patient and healthcare provider Deinstitutionalisation (from de-institution-alisation is the process of replacing long-stay mental institutions with less isolated Community mental health services A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group An antipsychiatry movement fundamentally challenges mainstream psychiatric theory and practice, including the reality or utility of psychiatric diagnoses of mental illnesses. See also Psychiatry See also Biopsychiatry controversy Anti-psychiatry refers to a post-1960s configuration of groups and theoretical constructs ^{[58][59] [60]}

Laws and policies

Three quarters of countries around the world have mental health legislation. Compulsory admission to mental health facilities (also known as Involuntary commitment or sectioning), is a controversial topic. Involuntary commitment is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a Mental health law to commit a person to a Mental hospital, Insane asylum Involuntary commitment is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a Mental health law to commit a person to a Mental hospital, Insane asylum From some points of view it can impinge on personal liberty and the right to choose, and carry the risk of abuse for political, social and other reasons; from other points of view, it can potentially prevent harm to self and others, and assist some people in attaining their right to healthcare when unable to decide in their own interests. ^[61]

All human-rights orientated mental health laws require proof of the presence of a mental disorder as defined by internationally accepted standards, but the type and severity of disorder that counts can vary in different jurisdictions. The two most often utilized grounds for involuntary admission are said to be serious likelihood of immediate or imminent danger to self or others, and the need for treatment. Applications for someone to be involuntarily admitted may usually come from a mental health practitioner, a family member, a close relative, or a guardian. Human-rights-orientated laws usually stipulate that independent medical practitioners or other accredited mental health practitioners must examine the patient separately and that there should be regular, time-bound review by an independent review body. ^[61] An individual must be shown to lack the capacity to give or withhold informed consent (i. e. to understand treatment information and its implications). Proxy consent (also known as substituted decision-making) may be given to a personal representative, a family member or a legally appointed guardian, or patients may have been able to enact an advance directive as to how they wish to be treated. Advance health care directives or advance directives are instructions given by individuals specifying what actions should be taken for their health in the event that they are ^[61] The right to supported decision-making may also be included in legislation. ^[62] Involuntary treatment laws may be extended to those living in the community, for example Community Treatment Orders (CTOs) are used in New Zealand, Australia and 38 states in the US and are being planned in the UK. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located ^[63]

The World Health Organization reports that in many instances national mental health legislation takes away the rights of persons with mental disorders rather than protecting rights, and is often outdated. ^[61] In 1991, the United Nations adopted the Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness and the Improvement of Mental Health Care, which established minimum human rights standards of practice in the mental health field. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security In 2006 the UN formally agreed the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities to protect and enhance the rights and opportunities of disabled people, including those with psychosocial disabilities^[64]

The term insanity, sometimes used colloquially as a synonym for mental illness, is often used technically as a legal term. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an International human rights instrument of the United Nations intended to protect the rights and dignity Traditionally insanity or madness is the behaviour whereby a person flouts societal norms and may become a danger to himself and others A colloquialism is an expression not used in formal speech, writing or Paralinguistics. This article deals with the general meaning of the term "synonym"

Perception and discrimination

Media

Main article: Mental disorders in art and literature

Media coverage of mental illness comprises predominantly negative depictions, for example, of incompetence, violence or criminality, with far less coverage of positive issues such as accomplishments or human rights issues. Mental disorders have often been featured in art and literature Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled ^[65][66][67] Such negative depictions, including in children's cartoons, are thought to contribute to stigma and negative attitudes in the public and in those with mental health problems themselves, although more sensitive or serious cinematic portrayals have increased in prevalence. ^[68][69]

General public

The general public have been found to hold a strong stereotype of dangerousness and desire for social distance from individuals described as mentally ill. ^[70]

Violence

The public fear of violence due to mental illness is a contentious topic. One US national survey indicated that a far higher percentage of Americans rated individuals described as displaying the characteristics of a mental disorder (for example Schizophrenia or Substance Use Disorder) as "likely to do something violent to others" compared to those described as being 'troubled'. ^[71] Research indicates, on balance, a higher than average number of violent acts by some individuals with certain diagnoses, notably antisocial or psychopathic personality disorders, but conflicting findings about specific symptoms (for example links between psychosis and violence in community settings) - but the mediating factors of such acts are most consistently found to be mainly socio-demographic and socio-economic factors such as being young, male, of lower socio-economic status and, in particular, substance abuse (including alcohol). Male (♂ refers to the sex of an organism or part of an organism which produces small mobile Gametes called spermatozoa. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon ^[72][73][25] Findings consistently indicate that it is many times more likely that people diagnosed with a serious mental illness living in the community will be the victim rather than the perpetrator of violence. ^[72][74] Violence by or against individuals with mental illness typically occurs in the context of complex social interactions (including in atmosphere of mutually high "expressed emotion"), including within a family setting,^[75] as well as being an issue in healthcare settings^[76] and the wider community. Expressed emotion (EE a qualitative measure of the 'amount' of emotion displayed typically in the family setting usually by a family or care takers ^[77]

Employment

Employment discrimination is reported to play a significant part in the high rate of unemployment among those with a diagnosis of mental illness^[78] Schemes to combat stigma have been prioritized by global and national psychiatric organizations, but their methods and outcomes have been criticized as counterproductive. Employment discrimination refers to discriminatory employment practices such as bias in hiring promotion job assignment termination and compensation and various types of Unemployment occurs when a person is available to work and currently seeking work but the person is without work. ^[79]

See also

• Psychopathology
• Mental disorder defence
• Mental health
• Mental retardation
• List of mentally ill monarchs
• DSM-IV Codes
• Self-help groups for mental health
• Mental disorders and gender
• Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID)
• Anti-psychiatry

Notes

Further reading

• Atkinson, J. The Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica is a Scandinavian Peer reviewed Scientific journal containing Original research, Systematic (2006) Private and Public Protection: Civil Mental Health Legislation, Edinburgh, Dunedin Academic Press
• Hockenbury, Don and Sandy (2004). Discovering Psychology. Worth Publishers. ISBN 0-7167-5704-4.  
• Roy Porter, Madness. Roy Porter ( 31 December 1946 &mdash 3 March 2002) was a British Historian noted for his work on the History of medicine A Brief History, Oxford University Press 2003
• Wiencke, Markus (2006) Schizophrenie als Ergebnis von Wechselwirkungen: Georg Simmels Individualitätskonzept in der Klinischen Psychologie. In David Kim (ed. ), Georg Simmel in Translation: Interdisciplinary Border-Crossings in Culture and Modernity (pp. 123-155). Cambridge Scholars Press, Cambridge, ISBN 1-84718-060-5

External links

• NIMH.NIH.gov - 'Working to improve mental health through biomedical research on mind, brain, and behavior', National Institute of Mental Health (United States)
• NIMHE.org.uk - 'Responsible for supporting the implementation of positive change in mental health and mental health services', National Institute for Mental Health (United Kingdom)

The National Institute of Mental Health ( NIMH) is part of the federal government of the United States and the largest research organization in the world specializing in The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The National Institute of Mental Health ( NIMH) is part of the federal government of the United States and the largest research organization in the world specializing in The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located

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