Neuropsychology
Topics
Brain-computer interfaces • Traumatic Brain Injury Brain regions • Clinical neuropsychology Cognitive neuroscience • Human brain Neuroanatomy • Neurophysiology Phrenology • Common misconceptions
Brain functions
arousal • attention consciousness • decision making executive functions • language learning • memory motor coordination • sensory perception planning • problem solving thought
People
Arthur L. Benton • David Bohm António Damásio • Phineas Gage Norman Geschwind • Elkhonon Goldberg Donald O. Hebb • Kenneth Heilman Muriel D. Lezak • Benjamin Libet Rodolfo Llinás • Alexander Luria Brenda Milner • Karl Pribram Oliver Sacks • Roger Sperry • H.M. • K.C.
Tests
Bender-Gestalt Test Benton Visual Retention Test Clinical Dementia Rating Continuous Performance Task Glasgow Coma Scale Hayling and Brixton tests Lexical decision task Mini-mental state examination Stroop effect Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Wisconsin card sorting task
Tools
Johari Window
Mind and Brain Portal
This box: view • talk • edit

In psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and subsequently retrieve information. Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors A brain-computer interface (BCI sometimes called a direct neural interface or a brain-machine interface, is a direct communication pathway between a human or animal Traumatic brain injury (TBI also called intracranial injury, occurs when Physical trauma injures the Brain. Anatomical regions of the brain are listed vertically following hierarchies that are standard in Neuroanatomy. Clinical neuropsychology is a sub-specialty of clinical Psychology that specialises in the diagnostic assessment and treatment of patients with Brain injury or Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS Neuroanatomy is the science for localizing function in the Human brain. Neurophysiology (from Greek grc νεῦρον neuron, "nerve" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία Phrenology (from Greek: φρήν phrēn, "mind" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" is a defunct field of study once The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS Wikipedia articles related to Brain Function Visual system Auditory system Olfactory system Arousal is a physiological and psychological state of being awake Attention is the Cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the Decision making can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes ( cognitive process) leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives The executive system is a theorized Cognitive system in Psychology that controls and manages other cognitive processes In the Philosophy of language, a natural language (or ordinary language) is a Language that is spoken or written in phonemic-alphabetic or phonemically-related In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans Gross motor coordination addresses the Gross motor skills walking running climbing jumping crawling lifting one's head sitting up etc In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. Planning in Organizations and Public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a Plan; and the psychological process of Problem solving forms part of thinking. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions problem solving has been defined as higher-order Cognitive Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both David Joseph Bohm ( December 20 1917, Wilkes-Barre Pennsylvania – October 27 1992, London) was an American António Rosa Damásio, GOSE, pron. ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (b Phineas P Gage (July 9? 1823 – May 21? 1860 was a railroad worker now remembered for his incredible survival of a Traumatic brain injury which destroyed one or both of Norman Geschwind (1926-1984 can be considered the father of modern Behavioral neurology in America Elkhonon Goldberg (b 1946 Riga, Latvia) is a Neuropsychologist and Cognitive neuroscientist known for his work in hemispheric specialization Donald Olding Hebb ( July 22, 1904 &ndash August 20, 1985) was a Canadian Psychologist who was influential in the area of Neuropsychology Kenneth M Heilman is an American Behavioral neurologist. Biography Early life and career Kenneth Heilman was born and raised in Brooklyn Muriel Deutsch Lezak is an American neuropsychologist best known for her book Neuropsychological Assessment, widely accepted as the standard in the field Benjamin Libet ( April 12, 1916 - July 23, 2007) was a researcher in the Physiology department of the University of California Rodolfo R Llinás (b Bogotá, Colombia in 1934 is the Thomas and Suzanne Murphy Professor of Neuroscience and Chairman of the department of Physiology & Neuroscience Alexander Romanovich Luria Александр Романович Лурия ( July 16, 1902 - August 14, 1977) was a famous Soviet Dr Brenda Milner CC FRS (born 15 July 1918, Manchester England) has contributed extensively to the research literature Karl H Pribram (born February 25, 1919 in Vienna Austria) is a professor at Georgetown University and George Mason University Oliver Wolf Sacks, CBE (born July 9, 1933, London is a British Neurologist residing in the United States who has written popular books about Roger Wolcott Sperry ( August 20, 1913 – April 17, 1994) was a neuropsychologist, neurobiologist and Nobel laureate who KC (Also known as Patient KC) is a famous patient in Neuropsychology who suffers from Anterograde amnesia and temporally graded Retrograde amnesia Neuropsychological tests are specifically designed tasks used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular Brain structure or pathway The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test, or simply the Bender-Gestalt test, is a Psychological test first developed by child Neuropsychiatrist Lauretta The Benton Visual Retention Test (or simply Benton Test) is an individually administered test for ages 8-adult that measures Visual perception and Visual memory The Clinical Dementia Rating or CDR is a numeric scale used to quantify the severity of Symptoms of Dementia (i A Continuous Performance Task/Test, or CPT, is a Psychological test which measures a person's sustained and selective Attention and impulsivity The Glasgow Coma Scale or GCS, sometimes also known as the Glasgow Coma Score is a neurological scale which aims to give a reliable objective The Hayling and Brixton tests are Neuropsychological tests of Executive function created by psychologists Paul W The lexical decision task is a procedure used in many Psychology and Psycholinguistics experiments The mini-mental state examination ( MMSE) or Folstein test is a brief 30-point questionnaire test that is used to assess Cognition. Demonstration Say aloud the colors of each of these words as fast Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS is a general test of intelligence ( IQ) published in February 1955 as a revision of the Wechsler - Bellevue test The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST is a Neuropsychological test of "set-shifting" i A Johari window is a cognitive psychological tool created by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955 in the United States used to help people better understand Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Traditional studies of memory began in the realms of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing the memory. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language A mnemonic device (nəˈmɒnɪk is a Memory aid Commonly met mnemonics are often verbal something such as a very short poem or a special word used to help a person remember The late nineteenth and early twentieth century put memory within the paradigms of cognitive psychology. The word paradigm ( Greek:παράδειγμα (paradigmacomposite from para- and the verb δείχνυμι "to show" as a whole -roughly- meaning "example" Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language In recent decades, it has become one of the principal pillars of a branch of science called cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary link between cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system

Contents 1 Processes 2 Classification 2.1 Sensory 2.2 Short-term 2.3 Long-term 3 Models 3.1 Multi-store (Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model) 3.2 Working memory 3.3 Levels of processing 4 Classification by information type 5 Classification by temporal direction 6 Physiology 7 Disorders 8 Memorization 9 Improving memory 10 Memory Tasks 11 Cultural references 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 External links

Processes

There are several ways to classify memories, based on duration, nature and retrieval of information. From an information processing perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory:

• Encoding or registration (processing and combining of received information)
• Storage (creation of a permanent record of the encoded information)
• Retrieval or recall (calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity)

Classification

A basic and generally accepted classification of memory is based on the duration of memory retention, and identifies three distinct types of memory: sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. In the study of Memory, encoding is the processing of physical sensory input into one's Memory. The human Memory has three processes of memory storage and these include encoding, storage and retrieval. Recollection is the retrieval of Memory. It is not a passive process people employ Metacognitive strategies to make the best use of their memory and priming Sensory Memory is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased Short-term memory, sometimes referred to as "primary" "working" or "active" Memory, is said to hold a small amount of information for about 20 Long-term memory ( LTM) is Memory that can last as little as a few days or as long as decades

Sensory

Sensory memory corresponds approximately to the initial 200 - 500 milliseconds after an item is perceived. A millisecond (from Milli- and Second; abbreviation ms is one thousandth of a Second. The ability to look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation, or memorization, is an example of sensory memory. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can actually report. The first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were conducted by George Sperling using the "partial report paradigm. George Sperling studies Cognitive psychology. He documented the existence of Iconic memory (one of the Sensory memory subtypes " Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of 4. After a brief presentation, subjects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments, Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Because this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display, but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the "whole report" procedure) before they decayed. This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.

Short-term

Some of the information in sensory memory is then transferred to short-term memory. Short-term memory allows one to recall something from several seconds to as long as a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller, when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, "The magical number 7±2"). George Armitage Miller, born February 3, 1920 in Charleston, West Virginia) is a professor of Psychology at Princeton University "The Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information" is a 1956 paper by the cognitive psychologist George A Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically on the order of 4-5 items, and we know that memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, if presented with the string:

FBIPHDTWAIBM

people are able to remember only a few items. However, if the same information is presented in the following way:

FBI PHD TWA IBM

people can remember a great deal more letters. This is because they are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of letters. Beyond finding meaning in the abbreviations above, Herbert Simon showed that the ideal size for chunking letters and numbers, meaningful or not, was three. Herbert Alexander Simon ( June 15, 1916 February 9, 2001) was an American Political scientist whose research ranged This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to remember phone numbers as several chunks of three numbers with the final four-number groups generally broken down into two groups of two.

Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad (1964)^[1] found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of words that were acoustically similar (e. g. dog, hog, fog, bog, log).

Long-term

The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally have a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is available for a certain period of time, but is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). For example, given a random seven-digit number, we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory. While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966)^[2] discovered that after 20 minutes, test subjects had the least difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e. g. big, large, great, huge).

Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe. The frontal lobe is an area in the Brain of Mammals It is located at the front of each Cerebral hemisphere and positioned anterior to (in front of the The parietal lobe is a lobe in the Brain. It is positioned above (superior to the Occipital lobe and behind (posterior to the Frontal lobe. Long-term memories, on the other hand, are maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain. The hippocampus is essential to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself. The hippocampus is a part of the Forebrain, located in the medial Temporal lobe. Rather, it may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning.

One of the primary functions of sleep is improving consolidation of information, as it can be shown that memory depends on getting sufficient sleep between training and test, and that the hippocampus replays activity from the current day while sleeping.

Models

Models of memory provide abstract representations of how memory is believed to work. Below are several models proposed over the years by various psychologists. Note that there is some controversy as to whether there are several memory structures, for example, Tarnow (2005) finds that it is likely that there is only one memory structure between 6 and 600 seconds.

Multi-store (Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model)

The multi-store model (also known as Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model) was first recognised in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model, Multi-store model or Multi-memory model is a Psychological model proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson

The multi-store model has been criticized for being too simplistic. For instance, long-term memory is believed to be actually made up of multiple subcomponents, such as episodic and procedural memory. It also proposes that rehearsal is the only mechanism by which information eventually reaches long-term storage, but evidence shows us capable of remembering things without rehearsal.

(See also: Memory consolidation)

Working memory

In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed a working memory model which replaced the concept of general short term memory with specific, active components. Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed a Model of Working Memory in 1974 in an attempt to describe a more accurate model of Short-term memory. In this model, working memory consists of three basic stores: the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. In 2000 this model was expanded with the multimodal episodic buffer. ^[3]

The central executive essentially acts as attention. It channels information to the three component processes: the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer.

The phonological loop stores auditory information by silently rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous loop; the articulatory process (the "inner voice") continuously "speaks" the words to the phonological store (the "inner ear"). The phonological loop has a very limited capacity, which is demonstrated by the fact that it is easier to remember a list of short words (e. g. dog, wish, love) than a list of long words (e. g. association, systematic, confabulate) because short words fit better in the loop. However, if the test subject is given a task that ties up the articulatory process (saying "the, the, the" over and over again), then a list of short words is no easier to remember.

The visuo-spatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial information. It is engaged when performing spatial tasks (such as judging distances) or visual ones (such as counting the windows on a house or imagining images).

The episodic buffer is dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information and chronological ordering (e. g. , the memory of a story or a movie scene). The episodic buffer is also assumed to have links to long-term memory and semantical meaning.

The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two different tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e. g. , two visual), and the aforementioned word-length effect. However, the concept of a central executive as noted here has been criticized as inadequate and vague.

Levels of processing

Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the method and depth of processing that affects how an experience is stored in memory, rather than rehearsal.

• Organization - Mandler (1967) gave participants a pack of word cards and asked them to sort them into any number of piles using any system of categorization they liked. When they were later asked to recall as many of the words as they could, those who used more categories remembered more words. This study suggested that the act of organizing information makes it more memorable.
• Distinctiveness - Eysenck and Eysenck (1980) asked participants to say words in a distinctive way, e. g. spell the words out loud. Such participants recalled the words better than those who simply read them off a list.
• Effort - Tyler et al. (1979) had participants solve a series of anagrams, some easy (FAHTER) and some difficult (HREFAT). The participants recalled the difficult anagrams better, presumably because they put more effort into them.

Classification by information type

Anderson (1976)^[4] divides long-term memory into declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit) memories. Declarative memory is the aspect of human Memory that stores Facts It is so called because it refers to memories that can be consciously discussed or declared Procedural memory is the long-term Memory of Skills and procedures or "how to" knowledge ( Procedural knowledge)

Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in that some conscious process must call back the information. Declarative memory is the aspect of human Memory that stores Facts It is so called because it refers to memories that can be consciously discussed or declared Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the Recollection is the retrieval of Memory. It is not a passive process people employ Metacognitive strategies to make the best use of their memory and priming It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved. Explicit memory is the conscious intentional recollection of previous experiences and information

Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into semantic memory, which concerns facts taken independent of context; and episodic memory, which concerns information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place. Semantic memory refers to the Memory of meanings Understandings and other concept-based Knowledge unrelated to specific experiences Episodic memory is the Memory of unique personal experiences ( Events Times Places associated Emotions and other conception-based Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France". Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. Autobiographical memory - memory for particular events within one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory. An autobiographical memory is a personal representation of general or specific events and personal facts Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. Visual memory is a part of Memory preserving some characteristics of our Senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image. Visual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon. Priming in Psychology refers to activating parts of particular representations or associations in Memory just before carrying out an action or task [1]

In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. Procedural memory is the long-term Memory of Skills and procedures or "how to" knowledge ( Procedural knowledge) Implicit memory is a type of memory in which previous experiences aid in the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Many observers throughout history have argued that there are influences on Consciousness from other parts of the Mind. Procedural memory involved in motor learning depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia. Motor learning is the process of improving the Motor skills the smoothness and accuracy of movements The cerebellum ( Latin: "little brain" is a region of the Brain that plays an important role in the integration of sensory perception The basal ganglia (or basal nuclei) are a group of nuclei in the Brain interconnected with the Cerebral cortex, Thalamus and

So far, nobody has been able to successfully isolate the time dependence of these suggested memory structures.

Classification by temporal direction

A further major way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in the past, retrospective memory, or whether the content is to be remembered in the future, prospective memory. Retrospective memory refers to remembering information from the past Prospective memory may be defined as remembering to remember (Winograd 1988 or remembering to perform an intended action Thus, retrospective memory as a category includes semantic memory and episodic/autobiographical memory. Semantic memory refers to the Memory of meanings Understandings and other concept-based Knowledge unrelated to specific experiences Episodic memory is the Memory of unique personal experiences ( Events Times Places associated Emotions and other conception-based An autobiographical memory is a personal representation of general or specific events and personal facts In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future intentions, or remembering to remember (Winograd, 1988). Prospective memory may be defined as remembering to remember (Winograd 1988 or remembering to perform an intended action Prospective memory can be further broken down into event- and time-based prospective remembering. Time-based prospective memories are triggered by a time-cue, such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Event-based prospective memories are intentions triggered by cues, such as remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related to the action (as the mailbox example is), and lists, sticky-notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around the finger are all examples of cues that are produced by people as a strategy to enhance prospective memory.

Physiology

Overall, the mechanisms of memory are not completely understood. Brain areas such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. The hippocampus is a part of the Forebrain, located in the medial Temporal lobe. The la amygdalae ( Latin, also la corpus amygdaloideum, singular la amygdala, from Greek el αμυγδαλή grc-Latn amygdalē, 'almond' The mammillary bodies (mamillary bodies are a pair of small round bodies located on the undersurface of the Brain, that form part of the Limbic system. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved in emotional memory. Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specific brain regions. In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans Learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by long-term potentiation and long-term depression. Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands In Neuroscience, long-term potentiation ( LTP) is the long-lasting improvement in communication between two Neurons that results from stimulating them Long-term depression (LTD in Neurophysiology, is the weakening of a neuronal Synapse that lasts from hours to days

Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory loss and problems with memory storage^[5].

Disorders

Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia (from Greek) is a condition in which Memory is disturbed There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Other neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease can also affect memory and cognition. Alzheimer's disease ( AD) also called Alzheimer disease or simply Alzheimer's, is the most common form of Dementia. Hyperthymesia, or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder which affects an individual's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored. Hyperthymesia or hyperthymestic syndrome is a condition where the affected individual has a superior autobiographical Memory. ^[6]

While not a disorder, a common temporary failure of word retrieval from memory is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. The tip of the tongue ( TOT or Tot) A phenomenon (from Greek φαινόμενoν, pl φαινόμενα - phenomena) is any observable occurrence Sufferers of Nominal Aphasia (also called Anomia), however, do experience the Tip of the Tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due to damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain.

Impaired memory can be a symptom of hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism is the disease state in humans and animals caused by insufficient production of Thyroid hormone by the Thyroid gland.

Memorization

Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim. Rote learning is the method most often used. Rote learning is a Learning technique which avoids understanding of a subject and instead focuses on memorization. Methods of memorizing things have been the subject of much discussion over the years with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius using visual alphabets. Cosmos Rossellius (died 1578 was a Florentine Dominican Monk whoe wrote a book about Memory. The spacing effect shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In psychology the spacing effect refers fact that humans more easily remember items in a list when they are studied a few times over a long period of time (" Spaced In contrast to this is cramming which is intensive memorization in a short period of time. Cram schools are specialized Schools that train their Students to meet particular goals most commonly to pass the Entrance examinations of High schools Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones.

In March 2007 German researchers found they could use odors to re-activate new memories in the brains of people while they slept and the volunteers remembered better later. ^[7]

Tony Noice, an actor, director, teacher and cognitive researcher, and his psychologist wife Helga, have studied how actors remember lines and found that their techniques can be useful to non-actors as well. ^[8]

At the Center for Cognitive Science at The Ohio State University, researchers have found that memory accuracy of adults is hurt by the fact that they know more than children and tend to apply this knowledge when learning new information. The Ohio State University ( OSU) is a Coeducational public Research university in the state of Ohio. A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects The findings appeared in the August 2004 edition of the journal Psychological Science.

Improving memory

The best way to improve memory seems to be to increase the supply of oxygen to the brain, which may be accomplished with aerobic exercises; walking for three hours each week suffices, as does swimming or bicycle riding. ^[9]Ageing with Grace. David Snowden, 2001, 4th Estate, London.

Such aerobic exercises have helped elderly people switch between mental tasks, concentrate better, and improve short-term memory. (see Ageing with Grace, cited above). Exercise increases the number of connections between neurons, which is responsible for improved memory.

The International Longevity Center [2] released in 2001 a report [3] which includes in pages 14-16 recommendations for keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age. Some of the recommendations are to stay intellectually active through learning, training or reading, to keep physically active so to promote blood irrigation to the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep time regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability and to observe good nutrition.

Memory Tasks

• Paired Associate Learning - when one learns to associate one specific word with another. For example when given a word such as "safe" one must learn to say another specific word, such as green. This is stimulus and response. ^[10]
• Free Recall- during this task a subject would be asked to study a list of words and then sometime later they will be asked to recall or write down as many words that they can remember. ^[11]
• Recognition- subjects are asked to remember a list of words or pictures, after which point they are asked to identify the previously presented words or pictures from among a list of alternatives that were not presented in the original list. ^[12]

Cultural references

• Marcel Proust's novels deal extensively with memory. Valentin Louis Georges Eugène Marcel Proust (maʁsɛl pʁust (10 July 1871 &ndash 18 November 1922 was a French Novelist Essayist and Critic
• The independent film Memento emulates the experience anterograde amnesia (that is, of not being able to convert short-term memories into long-term memories). Memento is a Psychological thriller Film written and directed by Christopher Nolan, adapted from his brother Jonathan 's short Anterograde amnesia is a loss of Memory of what happens after the event that caused the Amnesia; it is different from Retrograde amnesia, where memories
• In 1993 taxi driver Tom Morton, who knew over 16,000 telephone numbers in Lancashire, beat the British Olympia Telephone Exchange computer with his recall while being interviewed by Esther Rantzan and Adrain Mills on the Popular BBC magazine Programme That's Life!. Lancashire is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in the North West of England, bounded to the west by the Irish Sea That's Life! was a magazine-style Television series on BBC between 1973 and 1994, presented by Esther Rantzen [4]
• The short stories of Philip K. Dick and the movies based on those works deal extensively with the nature of memory and the consequences to society if memories can be artificially generated. Philip Kindred Dick (December 16 – March 2) was an American Science fiction Novelist and Short story Writer.
• Strange Days is a film about memory. Strange Days is the title of a 1995 Science fiction Film directed by Kathryn Bigelow and produced and co-written by James Cameron New technology allows people to record all the sensory data associated with their experiences. Playing back one of these recordings is like exactly reliving moments. Lenny, the character played by Ralph Fiennes, has a storyline revolving around memories. Ralph Nathaniel Twisleton-Wykeham-Fiennes ( "rafe fines" born 22 December 1962) is a British Actor.
• Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind is a film that deals with the meanings of love and memory when main character Joel gets the memories of his ex-girlfriend Clementine erased by fictitious company Lacuna. Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind is a 2004 American drama and Romantic comedy by French director Michel
• "Funes el memorioso" is a short story by Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges. It tells the story of Funes, who remembers every tiny detail of everything he observes or thinks and is unable to forget anything.
• The Animus in the video game Assassin's Creed extracts memories from the DNA of the user, passed on from descendant to descendant, allowing the user to replay those memories as if he were there himself. Assassin's Creed is a Video game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft.

See also

• Memory and aging
• Autobiographical memory
• Cellular memory
• Cultural memory
• Eidetic memory
• Emotion and memory
• Episodic memory
• False memory
• Forgetting curve
• Genetic memory
• Involuntary memory
• List of memory biases
• Memory inhibition
• Memory-prediction framework
• Method of loci
• Mnemonic
• Muscle memory
• Synaptic plasticity

Notes

References

External links

• The Works of Endel Tulving
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
• Memory-related resources from the National Institutes of Health. "NIH" redirects here For other meanings of NIH see NIH (disambiguation.
• Scientific American Magazine (February 2005 Issue) Making Memories Stick
• Aristotle's On Memory and Reminiscence
• The World Memory Sports Council Information about the World Memory Championships
• Learning & Memory - online, peer-reviewed journal with many free access articles
• WNYC - Radio Lab: Memory and Forgetting Show #304 Friday, June 8, 2007
• Learning disabilities and memory

Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic