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Medieval Warfare is the warfare of the Middle Ages. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Military history is a Humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict in the history of humanity Prehistoric warfare is War conducted in the era before Writing, and before the establishments of large social entities like States Historical warfare sets Ancient warfare is War as conducted from the beginnings of recorded History to the end of the ancient period Early Modern warfare is associated with the start of the widespread use of Gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive Industrial warfare is a period in the History of warfare ranging roughly from the start of the Industrial Revolution to the beginning of the Information Age Modern warfare, although present in every Historical period of Military history, is generally used to refer to the concepts, methods and Battlespace is a unified strategy to integrate and combine Armed forces for the Military theatre of operations, including air, information Air power redirects here for electrical and mechanical energy supplied by air movement see Wind power Information warfare is the use and management of information in pursuit of a competitive advantage over an opponent Land warfare, sometimes also called ground combat is the term used to describe military operations eventuating in Combat that take place predominantly on the land surface of Naval warfare is Combat in and on Seas Oceans or any other major bodies of water such as large Lakes and wide Rivers History Space warfare is combat that takes place in Outer space, ie outside the Atmosphere. A weapon is a Tool used either in Hunting, or attack or defence in Combat for the purpose of subduing enemy personnel or to destroy enemy weapons Armoured warfare or tank warfare is the use of Armoured fighting vehicles in Modern warfare. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine Biological warfare (BW — known as a germ warfare, biological weapons and bioweaponry — is the use of any Pathogen ( Bacterium The Cavalry (from French cavalerie) is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as Soldiers or Warriors who fought mounted on Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. Electronic warfare ( EW) is the use of the Electromagnetic spectrum to effectively deny the use of this medium by an adversary while optimizing its use by friendly The Infantry is the oldest and most numerous of the Combat Arms in the Armed forces, and consists A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. The US Department of Defense defines psychological warfare ( PSYWAR) as" The planned use of Propaganda and other Psychological actions Military tactics ( Greek: Taktikē, the art of organizing an army are the techniques for using weapons or military units in combination for engaging and defeating This article is about the military strategy For the Israeli-Egyptian conflict see War of Attrition, for the game theoretical model see War of attrition (game Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Maneuver warfare, also spelled manoeuvre warfare, is the term used by military theorists for a concept of Warfare that advocates attempting to Total war is a conflict of unlimited scope in which a Belligerent engages in a total mobilization of all available resources at his disposal Trench warfare is a form of warfare where both combatants have fortified positions and fighting lines are static Military strategy is a National defence policy implemented by Military organisations to pursue desired strategic goals Derived from the Greek Economic warfare is the term for economic policies followed as a part of Military operations during Wartime The purpose of economic warfare is to capture Grand strategy is military Strategy at the level of movement and use of an entire Nation state or Empire 's resources A military organization is a way of structuring the armed forces of a State as a need to offer Military capability required by the National defence policy A military organization is a way of structuring the armed forces of a State as a need to offer Military capability required by the National defence policy Military rank is a system of hierarchical relationships in Armed forces or civil institutions organized along military lines A military organization is a way of structuring the armed forces of a State as a need to offer Military capability required by the National defence policy Military Logistics is the art and science of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces This article lists military technology items devices and methods Materiel (from the French "matériel" for equipment or hardware related to the word Material) is a term used in English to refer to the Military supply chain management is a cross-functional approach to procuring, producing and delivering products and services The broad This is an index to articles listing Battles. List of battles (alphabetical gives a global list See also Military History Antiquity Albania Agron ( 250 BC - 230 BC) The first king to unite the Illyrian This is a list of missions operations and projects Missions in support of other missions are not listed independently A Siege is a prolonged Military Assault and Blockade on a City or Fortress with the intent of conquering by force or Attrition See also List of military writers. Friedrich von Bernhardi Ivan Bloch John Boyd, inventor of the OODA Loop This is a listing of lists of Wars, sorted by country date region and type of conflict This article lists and summarizes War crimes committed since the Hague Convention of 1907. There is a bewildering array of Weapons far more than would be useful in list form This is a list of military writers, alphabetical by last name In Europe, technological, cultural, and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics and the role of cavalry and artillery. Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking Military tactics ( Greek: Taktikē, the art of organizing an army are the techniques for using weapons or military units in combination for engaging and defeating The Cavalry (from French cavalerie) is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as Soldiers or Warriors who fought mounted on Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine Similar patterns of warfare existed in other parts of the world. In China, weapons employing gunpowder date back to the tenth century, and the first permanent standing Chinese navy was established in the early twelfth century by the Song Dynasty. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

The Middle East and North Africa used very different methods and equipment as was used in Europe, and there occurred a considerable amount of technological exchange and tactical adaptation between the different cultures. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan In Japan the Medieval warfare period is considered by many to have stretched into the eighteenth century. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. In Africa along the Sahel and Sudan, states like the Kingdom of Sennar and Fulani Empire employed Medieval tactics and weapons through the nineteenth century. See also Sahel Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. The Sahel or Sahel Belt (from Arabic ساحل sāḥil For the country in north-east Africa see Sudan. The Sudan, from the Arabic bilâd as-sûdân or "land of the The Funj sultanate of Sinnar, also Sennar, was a Sultanate in the north of Sudan, named Funj after the ethnic group of its dynasty or Sinnar (or Sennar The Sokoto Caliphate is an Islamic spiritual community in Nigeria, led by the Sultan of Sokoto, Sa’adu Abubakar.

Contents

Strategy and tactics

Employment of forces

The experience level and tactical manoeuvring ability of medieval armies varied widely, depending on the period and region. For larger battles, pre-battle planning typically consisted of a council of the war leaders, which could either be the general laying down a plan or a noisy debate between the different leaders, depending on how much authority the general possessed. Battlefield communications before the advent of strict lines of communication were naturally very difficult. Communication was done through musical signals, audible commands, messengers, or visual signals such raising a standard, banner, or flag.

The infantry, including missile troops, would typically be employed at the outset of the battle to break open infantry formations while the cavalry attempted to defeat its opposing number. When one side gained superiority in cavalry (or had it at the outset of battle) it could attempt to exploit the loss of cohesion in the opposing infantry lines caused by the infantry conflict to hit the opposing infantry and attempt to rout it. This could often be difficult, and careful timing would be necessary for a direct cavalry assault, as an ordered infantry line would often be able to beat off the cavalry attacks. Pure infantry conflicts would be drawn-out affairs.

Cannons were introduced to the battlefield in the later medieval period. However, their very poor rate of fire (which often meant that only one shot was fired in the course of an entire battle) and their inaccuracy made them more of a psychological force multiplier than an effective anti-personnel weapon.

Later on in medieval warfare, once hand cannons were introduced, the rate of fire improved only slightly, but the cannons became far easier to aim, largely because they were smaller and much closer to their wielder. Their users could be easily protected, because the cannons were lighter and could be moved far more quickly. However, real field artillery did not become truly effective or commonly employed until well into the early modern period.

Retreat

A hasty retreat could cause greater casualties than an organized withdrawal, because the fast cavalry of the winning side's rearguard would intercept the fleeing enemy while their infantry continued their attack. In most medieval battles, more soldiers were killed during the retreat than in battle, since mounted knights could quickly and easily dispatch the archers and infantry who were no longer protected by a line of pikes as they had been during the previous fighting. A pike is a Pole weapon, a very long thrusting Spear used two-handed and used extensively by Infantry both for attacks on enemy foot soldiers and as

Fortifications

Breakdowns in centralized states led to the rise of a number of groups that turned to large-scale pillage as a source of income. Most notably the Vikings (but also Arabs, Mongols and Magyars) raided significantly. A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. As these groups were generally small and needed to move quickly, building fortifications was a good way to provide refuge and protection for the people and the wealth in the region.

These fortifications evolved over the course of the Middle Ages, the most important form being the castle, a structure which had become synonymous with the Medieval era to many. Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for A castle is a defensive structure seen as one of the main symbols of the Middle Ages. The castle served as a protected place for the local elites. Inside a castle they were protected from bands of raiders and could send mounted warriors to drive the raiders from the area, or to disrupt the efforts of larger armies to supply themselves in the region by gaining local superiority over foraging parties that would be impossible against the whole enemy host.

Fortifications had a great many advantages. They provided refuge from armies too large to face in open battle. The ability of the heavy cavalry to dominate a battle on an open field was useless against fortifications. Building siege engines was a time-consuming process, and could seldom be effectively done without preparations before the campaign. Many sieges could take months, if not years, to weaken or demoralize the defenders sufficiently. Fortifications were an excellent means of ensuring that the elite could not be easily dislodged from their lands - as a French nobleman once commented on seeing enemy troops ravage his lands from the safety of his castle, "they can't take the land with them".

Siege warfare

In the Medieval period besieging armies used a wide variety of siege engines including: scaling ladders; battering rams; siege towers and various types of catapults such as the mangonel, onager, ballista, and trebuchet. A siege engine is a device that is designed to Break or circumvent City walls and other Fortifications in Siege warfare. A battering ram is a Siege engine originating in ancient times to break open Fortification walls or doors A siege tower (or in the Middle Ages a Belfry) is a specialized Siege engine, constructed to protect assailants and ladders while approaching A catapult is any one of a number of non-handheld mechanical devices used to throw a Projectile a great distance without the aid of an explosive substance—particularly various A mangonel was a type of Catapult or Siege machine used in the medieval period to throw projectiles at a castle 's walls The onager was a post-classical Roman Siege engine, which derived its name from the kicking action of the machine similar to that of an Onager (wild ass The ballista ( Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα - ballistra, from - βάλλω ballō, "to throw" plural ballistae A trebuchet or trebucket is a Siege engine that was employed in the Middle Ages either to smash Masonry Walls or to throw Siege techniques also included mining. Mining, undermining, or sapping was a Siege method used since antiquity against a Walled city, Fortress or Castle

Advances in the prosecution of sieges encouraged the development of a variety of defensive counter-measures. In particular, medieval fortifications became progressively stronger — for example, the advent of the concentric castle from the period of the Crusades — and more dangerous to attackers — witness the increasing use of machicolations and murder-holes, as well the preparation of hot or incendiary substances. Medieval fortification is the military aspect of Medieval technology that covers the development of Fortification construction and use in Europe A concentric castle (or multiple castle) is a Castle within a castle with two or more concentric rings of Curtain walls and in cases no central The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents A machicolation is a Floor opening between the supporting Corbels of a Battlement, through which stones and lethally hot liquids and substances A murder-hole is a hole in the Ceiling of a Gateway or passageway in a Fortification through which the defenders can fire throw or pour dangerous or noxious Early thermal weapons were devices or substances used in Warfare during the classical and medieval periods (approx 8th century BC until the mid-16th Arrow slits, concealed doors for sallies, and deep water wells were also integral to resisting siege at this time. Designers of castles paid particular attention to defending entrances, protecting gates with drawbridges, portcullises and barbicans. A drawbridge is a type of Movable bridge typically associated with the entrance of a Castle. A portcullis is a latticed Grille or Gate made of wood metal or a combination of the two A barbican (from medieval Latin barbecana, "outer fortification of a city or castle" a general Romanic word perhaps from Arabic or Wet animal skins were often draped over gates to retard fire. Moats and other water defenses, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders. A moat is deep broad Trench, usually filled with Water, that surrounds a structure installation or town normally to provide it with a preliminary line of

In the European Middle Ages, virtually all large cities had city walls — Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is an impressive and well-preserved example — and more important cities had citadels, forts or castles. See also List of cities with defensive walls A defensive wall is a Fortification used to defend a city or settlement from potential aggressors ||-||-||-||-||-||-||} Dubrovnik (ˈdǔbro̞ːʋniːk Dalmatian: Ragusa; Latin: Ragusium, also Rhausium, Rhaugia; Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern A citadel is a fortress for protecting a Town, sometimes incorporating a Castle. Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for A castle is a defensive structure seen as one of the main symbols of the Middle Ages. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. Complex systems of underground tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia. This is an article on the city of Tábor in the Czech Republic. Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Against these would be matched the mining skills of teams of trained sappers, who were sometimes employed by besieging armies. Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body A sapper is an individual engineer soldier usually in British or Commonwealth military service

Until the invention of gunpowder-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender. Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes With the invention of gunpowder, the traditional methods of defense became less and less effective against a determined siege.

See also: Mining (military)

Organization

Knights

Main article: Knight

A medieval knight was a usually mounted and armoured soldier, often connected with nobility or royalty, although (especially in north-eastern Europe) knights could also come from the lower classes, and could even be unfree persons. Mining, undermining, or sapping was a Siege method used since antiquity against a Walled city, Fortress or Castle Knight is the English term for a social position originating in the Middle Ages. A soldier is a general English term that refers to a member of a land component of National Armed forces. Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime A royal family is the extended family of a monarch. Generally the head of a royal family is a king or queen regnant The cost of their armor, horses, and weapons was great; this, among other things, helped gradually transform the knight, at least in western Europe, into a distinct social class separate from other warriors. Armour (or armor) is protective covering most commonly manufactured from metals to prevent damage from being inflicted to an individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact Horses in the Middle Ages differed in size build and breed to the modern Horse, and A weapon is a Tool used either in Hunting, or attack or defence in Combat for the purpose of subduing enemy personnel or to destroy enemy weapons During the crusades, holy orders of Knights fought in the Holy Land (see Knights Templar, the Hospitallers, etc. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Solomonici commonly known as the Knights Templar or the Order The Knights Hospitaller (also known as the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St ).

Heavy cavalry

Main article: Heavy cavalry

Heavily armed cavalry, armed with lances and a varied assortment of hand weapons played a significant part in the battles of the Middle Ages. Heavy cavalry is the late 19th century Misnomer for Cavalry troops that from the late 17th to late 19th centuries usually wore armour and were mounted on largest The term lance has become a catchall for a variety of different Pole weapons based on the Spear. A personal weapon is a weapon that can be carried and employed by a single person although its use may be restricted to specialist members of attack or defense teams The heavy cavalry mainly consisted of wealthy knights and noblemen who could afford the equipment. Heavy cavalry was the difference between victory and defeat in many key battles. Their thunderous charges could break the lines of most infantry lines, making them a valuable asset to all medieval armies.

Costumes of Roman and German Soldiers From Miniatures on different Manuscripts, from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries.
Costumes of Roman and German Soldiers From Miniatures on different Manuscripts, from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries.

Infantry

Main article: Infantry in the Middle Ages

The role of infantry has been ignored in the past by writers who focused on the role of knights and heavy cavalry. Infantry in the Middle Ages were soldiers who fought on foot during the Middle Ages. Infantry were recruited and trained in a wide variety of manners in different regions of Europe all through the Middle Ages, and probably always formed the most numerous part of a medieval field army. Many infantrymen in prolonged wars would be mercenaries. Most armies contained significant numbers of spearmen, archers and other unmounted soldiers. In sieges, perhaps the most common element of medieval warfare, infantry units served as garrison troops and archers, among other positions. Near the end of the Middle Ages, with the advancements of weapons and armour, the infantryman became more important to an army.

Recruiting

In the earliest Middle Ages it was the obligation of every noble to respond to the call to battle with his own equipment, archers, and infantry. This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time, but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities. The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would typically be.

As central governments grew in power, a return to the citizen armies of the classical period also began, as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool. England was one of the most centralized states in the Middle Ages, and the armies that fought the Hundred Years' War were mostly paid professionals. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The Hundred Years' War (Guerre de Cent Ans was a prolonged conflict lasting from 1337 to 1453 between two royal houses for the French throne vacant with the extinction of the senior In theory, every Englishman had an obligation to serve for forty days. Forty days was not long enough for a campaign, especially one on the continent. Thus the scutage was introduced, whereby most Englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army. The tax of scutage or escuage, in the law of England under the Feudal system, allowed a knight to "buy out" of the military service due to the However, almost all high medieval armies in Europe were composed of a great deal of paid core troops, and there was a large mercenary market in Europe from at least the early twelfth century.

As the Middle Ages progressed in Italy, Italian cities began to rely mostly on mercenaries to do their fighting rather than the militias that had dominated the early and high medieval period in this region. A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by These would be groups of career soldiers who would be paid a set rate. Mercenaries tended to be effective soldiers, especially in combination with standing forces, but in Italy they came to dominate the armies of the city states. This made them considerably less reliable than a standing army. Mercenary-on-mercenary warfare in Italy also led to relatively bloodless campaigns which relied as much on manoeuvre as on battles.

The knights were drawn to battle by feudal and social obligation, and also by the prospect of profit and advancement. Those who performed well were likely to increase their landholdings and advance in the social hierarchy. The prospect of significant income from pillage and ransoming prisoners was also important. For the mounted knight Medieval Warfare could be a relatively low risk affair. Nobles avoided killing each other for several reasons—for one thing, many were related to each other, had fought alongside one another, and they were all (more or less) members of the same elite culture; for another, a noble's ransom could be very high, and indeed some made a living by capturing and ransoming nobles in battle. Ransom is the practice of holding a prisoner to extort money or property to secure their release or it can refer to the sum of money involved Even peasants, who did not share the bonds of kinship and culture, would often avoid killing a nobleman, valuing the high ransom that a live capture could bring, as well as the valuable horse, armour and equipment that came with him. However, this is by no means a rule of medieval warfare. It was quite common, even at the height of "chivalric" warfare, for the knights to suffer heavy casualties during battles.

Varlet or Squire carrying a Halberd with a thick Blade; and Archer, in Fighting Dress, drawing the String of his Crossbow with a double-handled Winch.--From the Miniatures of the "Jouvencel," and the "Chroniques" of Froissart, Manuscripts of the Fifteenth Century (Imperial Library of Paris).
Varlet or Squire carrying a Halberd with a thick Blade; and Archer, in Fighting Dress, drawing the String of his Crossbow with a double-handled Winch. --From the Miniatures of the "Jouvencel," and the "Chroniques" of Froissart, Manuscripts of the Fifteenth Century (Imperial Library of Paris).

Equipment

Personal equipment for

Weapons

Medieval weapons consisted of many different types of ranged and hand-held objects:

Armour

Horses

Artillery

Supplies and logistics

As Napoleon famously said, an army marches on its stomach, a weakness that has applied to all military campaigns in history. Knight is the English term for a social position originating in the Middle Ages. The Infantry is the oldest and most numerous of the Combat Arms in the Armed forces, and consists A sapper is an individual engineer soldier usually in British or Commonwealth military service Archery is the practice of using a bow or Crossbow to shoot Arrows Archery has historically been used in Hunting and Combat and has A bow is a Weapon that projects arrows powered by the elasticity of the bow The arming sword (also sometimes called a knight's or knightly sword) is the single handed Cruciform Sword of the High Middle Ages A crossbow is a Weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles often called bolts The term claymore (ˈkleɪmɔr or /kleɪˈmɔr/ from Scottish Gaelic claidheamh mòr, "great sword" may refer to one of two distinct types A dagger (from Vulgar Latin: 'daca' - a Dacian Knife) is a typically double-edged blade used for Stabbing or thrusting The flail is a medieval weapon made of one (or more weights attached to a handle with a hinge or chain. The Greatsword or grete Swerd is referenced today mostly as an extremely large or powerful weapon like the Zweihänder, in comparison with less sizable A hammer is a tool meant to deliver an impact to an object The most common uses are for driving nails fitting parts and breaking up objects The Horseman's pick was a weapon used by Cavalry units during the Middle Ages in Europe The term lance has become a catchall for a variety of different Pole weapons based on the Spear. The bill was a Polearm used by infantry in Europe in the Viking Age by Vikings and Anglo-Saxons as well as in the 14th 15th and To see other senses of this word see Longbow (disambiguation. The Longsword is a type of European Sword used during the Late medieval and Renaissance periods approximately 1350 to 1550 (with early and late use reaching A mace is a simple Weapon that uses a heavy head on the end of a handle to deliver powerful blows A shield is a protective device meant to intercept attacks The term often refers to a device that is held in the hand as opposed to Armour or a Bullet proof vest This is an article about a particle accelerator For uses of spear, see Spear or Spear (disambiguation. A pike is a Pole weapon, a very long thrusting Spear used two-handed and used extensively by Infantry both for attacks on enemy foot soldiers and as Poleaxe may refer to Poleaxe A polearm weapon from medieval times Pole-Axe an event from the television series Gladiators Mail (also maille, often given as chain mail or chain maille) is a type of Armour or jewellery that consists of small metal rings linked Armour (or armor) is protective covering most commonly manufactured from metals to prevent damage from being inflicted to an individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact Scale armour (armor, Lorica squamata, lorica plumata consists of many small scales attached to a backing material of either leather or Cloth. Plate armour is personal Armour made from large Metal plates worn on the Chest and sometimes the entire Body. Lamellar Armour is a kind of personal armour consisting of small plates ( lames) which are laced together in parallel rows Horses in the Middle Ages differed in size build and breed to the modern Horse, and The destrier is the most well-known war horse of the medieval era. A courser is a swift and strong horse frequently used during the Middle Ages as a warhorse. The term rouncey (also spelt rouncy or rounsey) was used during the Middle Ages to refer to an ordinary all-purpose horse. A siege engine is a device that is designed to Break or circumvent City walls and other Fortifications in Siege warfare. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Medieval armies were supplied much as earlier armies had been. With the advent of castle-building and the extended siege, supply problems had to be solved on a scale seldom seen before, as armies had to stay in one spot for months, or even years.

Plunder and foraging

The usual method for solving logistical problems for smaller armies was foraging or "living off the land". As medieval campaigns were often directed at well-populated settled areas, a travelling army would forcibly commandeer all available resources from the land they passed through, from food to raw materials to equipment. Living off the land is not very easy when there is no food ready to eat, so there was, in theory at least, a prescribed "campaign season" that aimed to conduct warfare at a predictable time, when there would be both food on the ground and relatively good weather. This season was usually from spring to autumn, as by early-spring all the crops would be planted, thus freeing the male population for warfare until they were needed for harvest time in late-autumn. As an example, in many European countries serfs and peasants were obliged to perform around 45 days of military service per year without pay, usually during this campaign season when they were not required for agriculture. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture

Plunder in itself was often the objective of a military campaign, to either pay mercenary forces, seize resources, reduce the fighting capacity of enemy forces, or as a calculated insult to the enemy ruler. Examples are the Viking attacks across Europe, or the highly destructive English chevauchées across northern France during the Hundred Years' War. A chevauchée ( French for "promenade" or "horse charge" depending on context was a method in Medieval warfare for weakening the enemy The Hundred Years' War (Guerre de Cent Ans was a prolonged conflict lasting from 1337 to 1453 between two royal houses for the French throne vacant with the extinction of the senior

Supply trains

Supply chains are more a feature of modern warfare than medieval warfare. Due to the impossibility of maintaining a real front in premodern warfare, the supplies had to be carried with the army and/or transported to it while under guard. However, a supply source moving with the army was necessary for any large-scale army to operate. Medieval supply trains are often found in illuminations and even poems of the period.

River and sea travel proved to be the easiest ways to transport supplies. During his invasion of the Levant, Richard I of England was forced to supply his army as it was marching through a barren desert. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Richard I (8 September 1157 &ndash 6 April 1199 was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death By marching his army along the shore, Richard was regularly resupplied by ships travelling along the coast. Likewise, as in Roman times, armies would frequently follow rivers while their supplies were being carried by barges. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Supplying armies by mass land-transport would not become practical until the invention of rail transport and the internal combustion engine. "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a

The baggage train provided an alternative supply method that was not dependent on access to a water-way. However, it was often a tactical liability. Supply chains forced armies to travel more slowly than a light skirmishing force and were typically centrally placed in the army, protected by the infantry and outriders. Attacks on an enemy's baggage when it was unprotected — as for instance the French attack on the English train at Agincourt, highlighted in the play Henry V—could cripple an army's ability to continue a campaign. The Battle of Agincourt was an English victory against a larger French army in the Hundred Years' War. This was particularly true in the case of sieges, when large amounts of supplies had to be provided for the besieging army. To refill its supply train, an army would forage extensively as well as resupply itself in cities or supply points - border castles were frequently stocked with supplies for this purpose.

Famine and disease

Main article: Medieval demography

A failure in logistics often resulted in famine and disease for a medieval army, with corresponding deaths and loss of morale. Medieval Demography is the study of human Demography in Europe during the Middle Ages. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Morale, also known as esprit de corps when discussing the morale of a group is an intangible term used for the capacity of people to maintain Belief in A besieging force could starve while waiting for the same to happen to the besieged, which meant the siege had to be lifted. With the advent of the great castles of high medieval Europe however, this problem was typically something commanders prepared for on both sides, so sieges could be long, drawn-out affairs.

Epidemics of diseases such as smallpox, cholera, typhoid, and dysentery often swept through medieval armies, especially when poorly supplied or sedentary. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Cholera, sometimes known as Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera, is an infectious Gastroenteritis caused by the Bacterium Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, bilious fever, Yellow Jack or commonly just typhoid, is an illness caused by the Bacterium Dysentery (formerly known as flux or the bloody flux) is an infection of the digestive system that results in severe Diarrhea containing mucus and blood In a famous example, in 1347 the bubonic plague erupted in the besieging Mongol army outside the walls of Caffa, Crimea where the disease then spread throughout Europe as the Black Death. Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia

For the inhabitants of a contested area, famine often followed protracted periods of warfare, because foraging armies ate any food stores they could find, reducing or depleting reserve stores. In addition, the overland routes taken by armies on the move could easily destroy a carefully planted field, preventing a crop the following season. Moreover, the death toll in war hit the farming labour pool particularly hard, making it even more difficult to recoup losses.

Naval warfare

The Battle of Sluys, 1340, from Jean Froissart's Chronicles
The Battle of Sluys, 1340, from Jean Froissart's Chronicles
Main article: Naval warfare

In the Mediterranean, naval warfare in the medieval period resembled that of the ancient period: fleets of galleys, often rowed by slaves, would attempt to ram each other, or come alongside for marines to fight on deck. The decisive naval Battle of Sluys (slœys in Dutch, but frequently anglicised as /slɔɪz/ was fought on 24 June 1340 as one of the opening Jean Froissart (c 1337 &ndash c 1405 was one of the most important of the Chroniclers of Medieval France. Naval warfare is Combat in and on Seas Oceans or any other major bodies of water such as large Lakes and wide Rivers History A galley (from Greek γαλέα - galea is an ancient Ship which can be propelled entirely by human oarsmen, used for Warfare The Barbary pirates, also sometimes called Ottoman corsairs, were Muslim Pirates and Privateers that operated from North Africa, from Marines (from the English adjective marine, meaning of the sea, from Latin language mare, meaning sea via French adjective This mode of naval warfare continued even into the early modern period, as, for example, at the Battle of Lepanto. The Battle of Lepanto ( Greek: Ναύπακτος Naupaktos, pron Famous admirals included Andrea Doria, Hayreddin Barbarossa, and Don John of Austria. Andrea Doria or D'Oria ( 30 November 1466 &ndash 25 November 1560) was a Genoese ''condottiere'' and Admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha ( Turkish: Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa or Hızır Hayreddin Paşa; also Hızır Reis before being promoted to the

However, galleys were fragile and difficult to use in the cold and turbulent North Sea and northern Atlantic, although they saw occasional use. The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. Bulkier ships were developed which were primarily sail-driven, although the long lowboard Viking-style rowed longship saw use well into the fifteenth century. A sail is any type of surface intended to generate Thrust by being placed in a Wind &mdashin essence a vertically-oriented Wing. Longships, or longboats were ships primarily used by the Scandinavian Vikings and the Saxon people to raid coastal and inland settlements during the European Ramming was unpractical with these sailing ships, but the main purpose of these warships remained the transportation of soldiers to fight on the decks of the opposing ship (as, for example, at the Battle of Svolder or the Battle of Sluys). The naval Battle of Svolder ( Svold, Swold) was fought in September 999 or 1000 somewhere in the western Baltic between King Olaf Tryggvason The decisive naval Battle of Sluys (slœys in Dutch, but frequently anglicised as /slɔɪz/ was fought on 24 June 1340 as one of the opening

Warships resembled floating fortresses, with towers in the bows and at the stern (respectively, the forecastle and aftcastle). Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for A boat is a Watercraft of modest size designed to float or plane on water and provide transport over it The stern is the rear or aft part of a Ship or Boat, technically defined as the area built up over the Sternpost, extending upwards from the Counter Forecastle, also spelled fo'c's'le (ˈfoʊksəl originally meant the upper deck of a Sailing ship, forward of the Foremast. An aftcastle is the upper deck of a sailing ship positioned behind the Mizzenmast. The large superstructure made these warships quite unstable, but the decisive defeats the more mobile but considerably lower boarded longships suffered at the hands of high-boarded cogs in the fifteenth century ended the issue of which ship type would dominate northern European warfare.

In the medieval period, it had proved difficult to mount cannons on board a warship, although some were placed in the fore- and aftcastles. Small hand-held anti-personnel cannons were used, but large cannons mounted on deck further compromised the stability of warships, and cannons at that time had a slow rate of fire and were inaccurate.

All this was about to change at the end of the medieval period. The insertion of an opening in the side of a ship, with a hinged cover, allowed the creation of a gundeck below the main deck. The weight of cannon distributed to lower decks of the ship increased its stability immensely, effectively providing ballast, and a row of cannon on a lower deck produced the broadside, where the weight of shot overcame the inherent inaccuracy of firing cannons from a ship at sea. Ballast is used in Sailboats to provide moment to resist the lateral forces on the Sail. A broadside is the side of a Ship; the battery of Cannon on one side of a Warship; or their simultaneous (or near simultaneous fire in An example is the Mary Rose, the flagship of King Henry VIII's fleet, which had around thirty cannon per side, all of which were capable of firing shot nine pounds or more. The Mary Rose was an English Tudor Carrack warship and one of the first to be able to fire a full Broadside of cannons Henry VIII (28 June 1491 &ndash 28 January 1547 was King of England and Lord of Ireland, later King of Ireland and claimant to the Kingdom of The Spanish took this concept and produced the galleon. A galleon was a large multi-decked Sailing ship used primarily by the nations of Europe from the 16th to 18th centuries

Rise of infantry

Main article: Infantry in the Middle Ages

In the Medieval period, the mounted cavalry long held sway on the battlefield. Infantry in the Middle Ages were soldiers who fought on foot during the Middle Ages. Heavily armoured, mounted knights represented a formidable foe for reluctant peasant draftees and lightly-armoured freemen. To defeat mounted cavalry, infantry used swarms of missiles or a tightly packed phalanx of men, techniques honed in Antiquity by the Romans. The ancient generals of Asia used regiments of archers to fend off mounted threats. Alexander the Great combined both methods in his clashes with swarming Asiatic horseman, screening the central infantry core with slingers, archers and javelin men, before unleashing his cavalry to see off attackers.

Swiss pikemen

The use of long pikes and densely-packed foot troops was not uncommon in Medieval times. The Flemish footmen at the Battle of the Golden Spurs met and overcame French knights in 1302, and the Scots held their own against heavily-armored English invaders. The terms Fleming and Flemings ( Vlaming and Vlamingen in Dutch) denote respectively a person and people and the Flemings or The Battle of the Golden Spurs (Dutch nl Guldensporenslag, French fr Bataille des éperons d'or, or Battle of Courtrai) was fought on July 11 During St. Louis crusade, dismounted French knights formed a tight lance-and-shield phalanx to repel Egyptian cavalry. The Swiss used pike tactics in the late medieval period. While pikemen usually grouped together and awaited a mounted attack, the Swiss developed flexible formations and aggressive maneuvering, forcing their opponents to respond. The Swiss won at Morgarten, Laupen, Sempach, Grandson and Murten, and between 1450 and 1550 every leading prince in Europe hired Swiss pikemen, or emulated their tactics and weapons (e. On November 15 1315, the Swiss Confederation thoroughly defeated the soldiers of Duke Leopold I of Austria in an ambush near the Morgarten pass The Battle of Sempach was fought on July 9, 1386 between Leopold III Duke of Austria, and the Old Swiss Confederacy. The Battle of Grandson, took place on 2 March 1476, was part of the Burgundian Wars, and resulted in a major defeat for Charles the Bold The Battle of Morat was a battle in the Burgundian Wars fought June 22, 1476 between Charles I Duke of Burgundy and a Swiss army at g. , the German Landsknechte). Landsknechts (singular Landsknecht, German plural Landsknechte, sometimes also in English publications were European most often German, Mercenary

English longbowmen

Main article: English longbow

The English longbowman used a single-piece longbow to deliver arrows that could penetrate contemporary plate armor and mail. The English longbow, also called the Welsh longbow, was a powerful type of medieval Longbow (a tall bow for Archery) about 6 ft Mail (also maille, often given as chain mail or chain maille) is a type of Armour or jewellery that consists of small metal rings linked The longbow was a difficult weapon to master, requiring long years of use and practice. A skilled longbowman could shoot over 20 arrows a minute, and 10 arrows a minute was used as the minimum standard. This rate of fire was far superior to competing weapons like the crossbow or early gunpowder weapons. The nearest competitor to the longbow was the much more expensive crossbow, used often by urban militias and mercenary forces. The crossbow had greater penetrating power, and did not require the extended years of training. However, it lacked the range of the longbow.

At the Crécy and Agincourt bowmen unleashed clouds of arrows into the ranks of knights. The Battle of Agincourt was an English victory against a larger French army in the Hundred Years' War. At Crécy, even 15,000 Genoese' crossbowmen could not dislodge them from their hill. At Agincourt, thousands of French knights were brought down by armour-piercing bodkin arrows and horse-maiming broadheads. The longbowmen decimated an entire generation of the French nobility.

Since the longbow was difficult to deploy in a thrusting mobile offensive, it was best used in a defensive configuration. Bowmen were extended in thin lines and protected and screened by pits (as at Bannockburn), staves or trenches. The terrain was usually chosen to put the archers at an advantage forcing their opponents into a bottleneck (at Agincourt) or a hard climb under fire (at Crécy). Sometimes the bowmen were deployed in a shallow "W", enabling them to trap and enfilade their foes.

The pike and the longbow put an end to the dominance of cavalry in European warfare, making the use of foot soldiers more important than they had been in recent years. Gunpowder eventually was to provoke even more significant changes. However, the heavy cavalry continued to be an important battlefield arm of European armies until the nineteenth century, when new and more accurate weapons made the mounted soldier too easy a target.

Significant medieval battles

Medieval wars

Major wars of the Middle Ages, arranged chronologically by year begun. The Battle of Kleidion (bg Битка при с Ключ Битка при Беласица Беласишка битка grc Μάχη του Κλειδίου also Clidium The Battle of Stamford Bridge took place at the village of Stamford Bridge East Riding of Yorkshire in England on 25 September 1066 shortly after an invading The Battle of Hastings was the decisive Norman victory in the Norman Conquest of England. The Battle of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuq forces led by Alp Arslan on August 26 1071 near Manzikert The Battle of Levounion was the first decisive Byzantine victory of the Komnenian restoration. The Siege of Jerusalem took place from June 7 to July 15, 1099 during the First Crusade. The battle of Didgori was fought between the armies of the Kingdom of Georgia and the crumbling Great Seljuq Empire at the place of Didgori, 40 km The Siege of Lisbon, from July 1 to October 25 of 1147, was the military action that brought the city of Lisbon under definitive Portuguese The naval Battle of Caishi (采石之战 took place in 1161 and was the result of an attempt by forces of the Jurchen Jin to cross the Yangtze The naval Battle of Tangdao (唐岛之战 took place in 1161 between the Jurchen Jin and the Southern Song Dynasty of China The Battle of Sirmium or Battle of Zemun (Hungarian zimonyi csata) was fought on July 8, 1167 between the Byzantine Empire (also The Battle of Myriokephalon, also known as the Myriocephalum, or Miryakefalon Savaşı in Turkish, was a battle between the Byzantine Empire The Battle of Hattin (also known as " The Horns of Hattin " because of a nearby extinct Volcano of the same name took place on Saturday July The Battle of Adrianople occurred on April 14 1205 between Bulgarians under Tsar Kaloyan of Bulgaria, and Crusaders The July 16 1212 battle of Las Navas de Tolosa ( Spanish: Batalla de Las Navas de Tolosa / Arabic: معركة العقاب The Battle of Bouvines July 27, 1214, was a conclusive medieval battle ending the twelve year old War of Bouvines took ground exactly opposite in The Battle of Parwan was fought between Sultan Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu of the Khwarezmid Empire and the Mongols. The Battle of Indus was fought at the river Indus in today's Pakistan in the year 1221 between Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, the Sultan The Battle of the Kalka River (Битва на реке Калке took place on May 31 1223 between the Mongol Empire The Battle of Klokotnitsa (Битката при Клокотница Bitkata pri Klokotnitsa) occurred on 9 March 1230 near the village of Klokotnitsa The Battle of Legnica (Bitwa pod Legnicą also known as the Battle of Liegnitz (Schlacht von Liegnitz or Battle of Wahlstatt (Schlacht bei Wahlstatt was The Battle of Mohi, or Battle of the Sajó River, (on April 11, 1241) was the main Battle between the Mongols and the Kingdom The Battle of Baghdad in 1258 was a victory for the Mongol leader Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan. Fishing Town or Fishing City (Traditional Chinese 釣魚城遺址 Simplified Chinese 钓鱼城遗址 Pingyin diàoyúchéng yízhĭ is one of the three great ancient battlefields The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic ar عين جالوت the "Eye of Goliath" or the "Spring of Goliath" took place on 3 September 1260 between The Battle of Xiangyang ( Chinese: 襄陽之戰 was a six-year battle between invading Yuan Dynasty armies founded by Mongols and Southern Song forces between The naval Battle of Yamen ( (also known as the Naval Battle of Mount Ya;) took place on 19 March 1279 and is considered to be the last The Battle of the Golden Spurs (Dutch nl Guldensporenslag, French fr Bataille des éperons d'or, or Battle of Courtrai) was fought on July 11 The Battle of Bannockburn ( Blàr Allt a' Bhonnaich in Gaelic (24 June 1314 was a significant Scottish victory in the Wars of Scottish Independence This article covers the battle during the Hundred Years' War. The naval battle of Lake Poyang (鄱陽湖之戰 took place 30 August - 4 October 1363 and was one of the final battles fought in the fall of The Battle of Adrianople resulted in tactical victory for the Ottoman Turks. The Battle of Maritsa or Battle of Chernomen (also known as the Second Battle of Maritsa) (Маричка битка битка при Черномен took The Battle of Kulikovo (Куликовская битва битва на Куликовском поле was fought by the Tartaro - Mongols (the Golden Horde This page is about the Battle of Kosovo of 1389; for other battles see Battle of Kosovo (disambiguation. The Battle of Ankara or Battle of Angora, fought on July 20 or July 28 1402 took place northeast of Ankara at the field of Çubuk The Battle of Grunwald (or 1st Battle of Tannenberg) took place on 15 July 1410 with the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led by The Battle of Agincourt was an English victory against a larger French army in the Hundred Years' War. The Battle of Patay ( 18 June 1429) was a major battle in the Hundred Years' War between the French and English in north-central France The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar The Battle of Towton in the Wars of the Roses was the largest and bloodiest ever fought on British soil with casualties believed to have been about 28000 (perhaps The Battle of Vaslui (also referred to as the Battle of Podul Înalt or the Battle of Racova) was fought on January 10 1475 between Stephen III of Moldavia The Battle of Nancy was the final and decisive battle of the Burgundian Wars, fought outside the walls of Nancy, France on In 1480 the Knights Hospitaller garrison of Rhodes withstood an attack of the seemingly unstoppable Ottoman Empire. The Battle of Bosworth or Bosworth Field ( 22 August, 1485) was Lancastrian Henry Tudor's defeat of Yorkist Richard

Medieval conquerors

The Arabs

Main articles: Rashidun army, Muslim conquests, and Arab Empire

The initial Arab Muslim conquests began in the seventh century after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and were marked by a century of rapid Arab expansion beyond the Arabian Peninsula under the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates. The Wars of the Roses (1455–1485 were a series of dynastic Civil wars fought in England between supporters of the Houses of Lancaster and York The Rashidun Caliphate Army or Rashidun army was the primary military body of the Rashidun Caliphate 's Armed forces during the Muslim The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( ar الخلفاء الراشدون) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Under the Rashidun, the Arabs conquered the Persian Empire, along with Roman Syria and Roman Egypt during the Byzantine-Arab Wars, all within just seven years from 633 to 640. The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia The Muslim conquest of Syria occurred in the first half of the 7th century and refers to the region known as the Bilad al-Sham, the Levant, or Greater Syria At the commencement of the Muslim conquest of Egypt Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. Under the Umayyads, the Arabs annexed North Africa and southern Italy from the Romans and the Arab Empire soon stretched from parts of the Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and southern Italy, to the Iberian Peninsula and the Pyrenees. The Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Arab Muslim expansion following the death of Muhammad in 632 CE The Islamic conquest and rule of Sicily, Malta, and parts of Southern Italy was a process whose origin can be traced back through the general The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place from the 11th to the 17th centuries though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into the region beginning Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Geography Southern Italy forms the lower "boot" of the Italian peninsula containing the ankle (Abruzzo and Molise and southern Lazio the toe (Calabria and the heel The Umayyad conquest of Hispania ( 711 – 718) began as an army of the Umayyad Caliphate consisting largely of Berbers inhabitants The Pyrenees (Pirineos French: Pyrénées; Catalan: Pirineus; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés The Arab Empire became the largest empire the world had ever seen, up until the Mongol Empire five centuries later. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire

The most famous early Arab military commander was Khalid ibn al-Walid, also known as the Sword of Allah. Khālid ibn al-Walīd (592-642 ( خالد بن الوليد) also known by Sunnis as Sayf-'ullah al-Maslul (the Drawn Sword of God, God's Withdrawn In having the distinction of being undefeated in over a hundred battles against the numerically superior forces of the Roman Empire, Persian Empire, and their allies, Khalid is regarded as one of the finest military commanders in history. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire His greatest strategic achievements were his swift conquest of the Persian Empire and conquest of Roman Syria all within just three years from 633 to 636, while his greatest tactical achievements were his double envelopment manoeuvre against the larger Persian forces at the Battle of Walaja, and his decisive victories against the larger combined forces of the Persians, Romans, Greeks and Arab Christians at the Battle of Firaz, and the larger combined forces of Romans, Greeks, Ghassanids, Russians, Slavs, Franks, Georgians and Armenians at the Battle of Yarmouk. The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia The Muslim conquest of Syria occurred in the first half of the 7th century and refers to the region known as the Bilad al-Sham, the Levant, or Greater Syria The pincer movement or double envelopment is a basic element of Military strategy which has been used to some extent in many Wars and is considered The birth of the Sassanid army (ارتش ساسانيان Artesh-e Sāsānīyān, Pahlavi Spâh سپاه "army" dates back to the rise of The Battle of Walaja was a battle fought in Mesopotamia ( Iraq) in May 633 between the Rashidun Caliphate army under Khalid ibn al-Walid and the The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military The Byzantine army was the primary military body of the Byzantine armed forces serving alongside the Byzantine navy. The Battle of Firaz was the last battle of the Muslim Arab commander Khalid ibn al-Walid in Mesopotamia ( Iraq) against the combined The Russian people (Русские— Russkie) are an East Slavic Ethnic group, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Georgians (ქართველები kartvelebi) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus, the oldest group of the The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large The Battle of Yarmouk ( معركة اليرموك, also spelled Yarmuk, Yarmuq or Hieromyax) comprised a series of engagements between the

Other famous Muslim military commanders included ‘Amr ibn al-‘As during the Muslim conquest of Egypt against the Roman Empire, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah against the Persian Empire, Tariq ibn-Ziyad during the Umayyad conquest of Hispania against the Visigoths, Ziyad ibn Salih at the Battle of Talas against the Chinese Tang Empire, and Saladin against the Crusaders. ˤAmr ibn al-ˤĀs (عمرو بن العاص (born c583 - d January 6, 664 CE was an Arab Military commander who is most noted for leading At the commencement of the Muslim conquest of Egypt Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. Sa`ad ibn Abī Waqqās ( was an early convert to Islam and one of the important companions of Muhammad. The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah ( transliteration, Ma'rakat al-Qādisiyyah;; alternate spellings Qadisiyya Qadisiyyah Kadisiya was the decisive engagement Tariq Ibn Ziyad or Taric bin Zeyad (طارق بن زياد d 720 known in Spanish history and legend as Taric el Tuerto (Taric the one-eyed was The Umayyad conquest of Hispania ( 711 – 718) began as an army of the Umayyad Caliphate consisting largely of Berbers inhabitants The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East The Battle of Talas in 751 CE was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty for control China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Salahadin Ayyubi ( Arabic:صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب Kurdish: سه‌لاحه‌دین ئه‌یوبی Selah'edînê Eyubî; c The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents

The early Arab army mainly consisted of light infantry, with some light cavalry and a few camel cavalry. Traditionally light infantry (or skirmishers) were soldiers whose job was to provide a Skirmishing screen ahead of the main body of Infantry, harassing Light cavalry refers to lightly-armed and armored troops mounted on Horses, as opposed to Heavy cavalry, where the riders (and sometimes the horses are heavily armored Camel cavalry, or camelry, is a generic designation for Armed forces using Camels as a Means of transportation. In contrast, the Roman army and Persian army at the time both had large numbers of heavy infantry (Roman legions and Persian daylami) and heavy cavalry (cataphracts and clibanarii) that were better equipped, heavily protected, and more experienced and disciplined. The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military The birth of the Sassanid army (ارتش ساسانيان Artesh-e Sāsānīyān, Pahlavi Spâh سپاه "army" dates back to the rise of Heavy infantry refers to heavily armed and armoured ground troops as opposed to medium or Light infantry, in which the warriors are relatively lightly-armoured For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," Heavy cavalry is the late 19th century Misnomer for Cavalry troops that from the late 17th to late 19th centuries usually wore armour and were mounted on largest A cataphract was a form of Heavy cavalry used by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and dynasties and later Ancient Greeks and Romans. The Clibanarii or Klibanophoroi (κλιβανοφόροι meaning “camp oven-bearers” from the Greek word κλίβανος meaning "camp oven" or "metallic The Roman and Persian armies were also led by skilled generals such as Heraclius and Rostam Farrokhzād respectively. Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East For the character in the 10th century Persian epic Shahnameh or Epic of Kings, see Rostam. Despite being outnumbered by these superior Roman and Persian armies that were several times larger in almost every early battle, the Arabs were able to overcome the odds and defeat their enemies each time, mainly due to being led by tactical geniuses such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, and Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, as well as the better mobility of light cavalry and light infantry units which allowed them to use better maneuvers, including various flanking maneuvers and pincer movements. Khālid ibn al-Walīd (592-642 ( خالد بن الوليد) also known by Sunnis as Sayf-'ullah al-Maslul (the Drawn Sword of God, God's Withdrawn ˤAmr ibn al-ˤĀs (عمرو بن العاص (born c583 - d January 6, 664 CE was an Arab Military commander who is most noted for leading Sa`ad ibn Abī Waqqās ( was an early convert to Islam and one of the important companions of Muhammad. Maneuver warfare, also spelled manoeuvre warfare, is the term used by military theorists for a concept of Warfare that advocates attempting to In Military tactics, a flanking maneuver, also called a flank attack, is an attack on the sides of an opposing force The pincer movement or double envelopment is a basic element of Military strategy which has been used to some extent in many Wars and is considered

In particular, the double envelopment manoeuvre, which Khalid ibn al-Walid successfully used against the larger Persian forces at the Battle of Walaja, is regarded as one of the greatest tactical manoeuvres in history, and was only successfully used once before by Hannibal at the Battle of Cannae. The pincer movement or double envelopment is a basic element of Military strategy which has been used to some extent in many Wars and is considered The Battle of Walaja was a battle fought in Mesopotamia ( Iraq) in May 633 between the Rashidun Caliphate army under Khalid ibn al-Walid and the Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash For the 11th century battle in the Byzantine conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle of Cannae (1018.

According to Steven Muhlberger of the ORB Encyclopedia, the ". . . vigor and prowess of the Arab armies" was due ". . . to the willingness of the great mass of the conquered population to make a deal with the Arab armies" and the "confidence of the Muslims" due to their religion and "esprit de corps. "[1]

The Vikings

Main article: Viking

The Vikings were a feared force in Europe because of their courage and strength. A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas While seaborne raids are nothing new in history, the Vikings brought the practice to a high art, and unlike raiders elsewhere, were to eventually transform the face of Europe. During the Viking age their expeditions, who frequently combined raiding and trading, penetrated most of the old Frankish empire, the British Isles, The Baltic, Russia and Muslim and Christian Iberia. A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas Many served as mercenaries, and the famed Varangian Guard, serving the Emperor of Constantinople, had a big complement of Scandinavian warriors. The Varangians or Varyags ( Old Norse: Væringjar Greek: Βάραγγοι Βαριάγοι Váraggoi / Varyágoi, Ukrainian

Viking longships were easily manoeuvred, could navigate deep seas or shallow waters, and could carry warriors that could be quickly dispersed onto land due to the ability possessed by the longships to come straight up onto shore. A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas Longships, or longboats were ships primarily used by the Scandinavian Vikings and the Saxon people to raid coastal and inland settlements during the European The Viking style of warfare was fast and mobile, relying heavily on the element of surprise, and they tended to capture horses for mobility rather than carry them on their ships. A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units The usual method was to approach a target stealthily, strike with surprise, then disperse and retire swiftly. The tactics used were difficult to stop, for the Vikings, like guerrilla style raiders elsewhere, deployed at a time and place of their own choosing. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc The fully armoured Viking raider would wear an iron helmet and a maille hauberk, and fight with a combination of axe, sword, shield, spear or great "Danish" two-handed axe, although the typical raider would be unarmoured, carrying only a shield, an axe, and possibly a spear.

Opponents of the Vikings were ill prepared to fight a force that struck at will, with no warning, then would disappear to attack other locations or retreat to their bases in what is now Sweden, Denmark, Norway and their atlantic colonies. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional As time went on, Viking raids became more sophisticated, with coordinated strikes involving multiple forces and large armies, as the "Great Heathen Army" that ravaged Anglo-Saxon England in the ninth century. The " Great Heathen Army " also known as the Great Army or the Great Danish Army, was a Viking Army originating in Denmark The History of Anglo-Saxon England covers the history of Early medieval England from the end of Roman Britain and the establishment of Anglo-Saxon In time the Vikings began to hold on to the areas they raided, first wintering and then consolidating footholds for expansion that were to change Europe forever.

With the growth of centralized authority in the Scandinavian region, Viking raids, always an expression of "private enterprise" ceased and the raids became pure voyages of conquest. In 1066, King Harald Hardråde of Norway invaded England, only to be defeated by Harold Godwinson, the son of one of Danish-Norwegian-English king Canute the Great's Earls, who in turn was defeated by William of Normandy, descendant of the Viking Rollo, who had accepted Normandy as a fief from the Frankish King. Harald Sigurdsson (1015 &ndash September 25, 1066) later given the epithet Hardraada ( Old Norse: Haraldr harðráði, roughly translated Harold Godwinson, (c 1022 &ndash 14 October 1066 also known as Harold II, is widely regarded as the last Anglo-Saxon King of England before the } Canute the Great, also known as Cnut in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, or Knut ( Old Norse: Knútr inn ríki, Norwegian William I of England ( 1027 His reign which brought Norman culture to England had an enormous impact on the subsequent course of England in the Middle Ages Rollo, occasionally known as Rollo the Viking, (c 860 - c 932 was the founder and first ruler of the Viking principality in what soon became known as The three rulers all had their eyes on the English crown (Harald probably primarily on the overlord-ship of Northumbria), rather than being motivated by the lure of plunder.

At this point the Scandinavians had entered their medieval period, and the growth of centralized authority had formed the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, and later the kingdom of Sweden. The Scandinavians started adapting more continental European ways, although they, and particularly the Norwegians, always had their own distinctive style in warfare with an emphasis on naval power from an early date - the "Viking" clinker-built warship was used effectively in war until the fourteenth century at least, and the larger Scandinavian warships in this style are all from the medieval period. However, the close trading and diplomatic links between Scandinavia and nearby catholic states ensured that the scandinavians kept up to date with continental developments in warfare.

Mongols

Main articles: Mongol invasions and Mongol Empire

The Mongolian nomads were one of the most feared forces ever to take the field of battle. The Mongol Empire emerged in the course of the 13th century by a series of conquests and invasions throughout Central and Western Asia, reaching Eastern Europe The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that Operating in massive cavalry sweeps consisting of light mobile cavalry and horse archers, together with smaller tactical units, extending over dozens of miles, the fierce horsemen combined a shock, mobility and firepower unmatched in land warfare until the advent of the gunpowder age. Light cavalry refers to lightly-armed and armored troops mounted on Horses, as opposed to Heavy cavalry, where the riders (and sometimes the horses are heavily armored From about two centuries, beginning with the rise of Genghis Khan in the 1200s, the Mongol warriors defeated some of the world's most powerful, well established and sophisticated empires, and claiming over one-twelfth of the world's land surface at their height, seen by some as the largest contiguous empire in human history - stretching from across Asia to parts of Poland. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder Mongols deployed weapons, bows, scimitars and lances. The Mongol bow was a composite bow, made from glue, horn, sinew and wood or bamboo, with a range of over 200 yards. The modern Mongol bow is a recurved composite bow used by the Mongols and renowned for its power accuracy and range A composite bow is a bow made from disparate materials laminated together usually applied under tension The Mongols were exceedingly tough warriors, used to privation and hardship. Hardy steppes ponies furnished the means of transport into battle. Warriors were tightly organized into units of ten, and into larger formations such as the Mongol tumen of 10,000 soldiers. Tumen or Tümen ("unit of ten thousand" from Turkic: tümen; Түмэн Tümen) was a part of the decimal system used by Turkic Coordination was provided by designated unit leaders, with signalling provided by horns, smoke, and flags. Most columns or tumen were self-sufficient in the short run, living off the land. Their main tactics were speed, surprise and mobility; as well, the Mongols were not rigid in their thinking, and nor did they adhere to Medieval European notions of chivalry. Mongols used siege engineers to overcome fortifications, and Mongol terror was used as a psychological warfare tactic. This is a list of wars and human-made disasters by death toll.

Mongols in the West

Main article: Tatar invasions

By 1241, having conquered large parts of Russia, the Mongols continued the invasion of Europe with a massive three-pronged advance, following the fleeing Cumans, who had established an uncertain alliance with King Bela IV of Hungary. The Mongol invasion of Europe from the east took place over the course of three centuries from the Middle Ages to the Early modern period Cumans (Кумани Byzantine: Kuman or Cuman, Kunok Turkic: Kumanlar) were a nomadic Turkic people who inhabited a The Kingdom of Hungary (short form Hungary) was a considerable state in Central Europe that existed from 1001 to 1918 then from 1919 to 1946 They first invaded Poland, then Transylvania, and finally Hungary, culminating in the crushing defeat of the Hungarians in the Battle of Mohi. Transylvania (Ardeal or ro ''Transilvania'' Erdély, see also other denominations) is a Central European region located in the eastern half of the Carpathian The Battle of Mohi, or Battle of the Sajó River, (on April 11, 1241) was the main Battle between the Mongols and the Kingdom The Mongol aim seems to have consistently been to defeat the Hungarian-Cuman alliance. The Mongols raided across the borders to Austria and Bohemia in the summer when the Great Khan died, and the Mongol princes returned home to elect a new Great Khan.

The Golden Horde would frequently clash with Hungarians, Lithuanians and Poles in the thirteenth century, with two large raids in the 1260s and 1280s respectively. This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. In 1284 the Hungarians repelled the last major raid into Hungary, and in 1287 the Poles repelled a raid against them. The instability in the Golden Horde seems to have quieted the western front of the Horde. The Hungarians and Poles had responded to the mobile threat by extensive fortification-building, army reform in the form of better armoured cavalry, and refusing battle unless they could control the site of the battlefield to deny the Mongols local superiority. The Lithuanians relied on the their forested homelands for defense, and used their cavalry for raiding into Mongol-dominated Russia.

Turks

Main articles: Turkic peoples and Ottoman Empire

Trade between China, the Middle East, and Europe along the Silk Road extended throughout the period of the Middle Ages. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the The Turkic peoples were exposed to military technology from the days of the Roman Empire onwards, as well as financial wealth as a result of their position midway on the route. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial An early Turkic group, the Seljuks, were known for their cavalry archers. The Seljuq (also Seljuq Turks, Seldjuks, Seldjuqs, Seljuks; in Turkish Selçuklular; in Ṣaljūqīyān; in These fierce nomads were often raiding empires, such as the Byzantine Empire, and they scored several victories using mobility and timing to defeat the heavy cataphracts of the Byzantines. A cataphract was a form of Heavy cavalry used by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and dynasties and later Ancient Greeks and Romans.

One notable victory was at Manzikert, where a conflict among the generals of the Byzantines gave the Turks the perfect opportunity to strike. The Battle of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuq forces led by Alp Arslan on August 26 1071 near Manzikert They hit the cataphracts with arrows, and outmaneuvered them, then rode down their less mobile infantry with light cavalry that used scimitars. A scimitar (ˈsɪmɪtə is a Sword with a curved blade design finding its origins in Southwest Asia When gunpowder was introduced, the Ottoman Turks of the Ottoman Empire hired the mercenaries that used the gunpowder weapons and obtained their instruction for the Janissaries. The Ottoman Turks were the subdivision of the Ottoman Muslim Millet that dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Janissaries (derived from Ottoman Turkish ينيچرى ( yeniçeri) meaning "new soldier" comprised Infantry units that formed Out of these Ottoman soldiers rose the Janissaries (yeni ceri; "new soldier"), from which they also recruited many of their unsung heroes, the heavy infantry. Along with the use of cavalry and early grenades, the Ottomans mounted an offensive in the early Renaissance period and attacked Europe, taking Constantinople with the help of their huge cannons that were bigger than their opponent's, notably Basilica, the giant that pounded the walls of Constantinople. The wars of the Ottoman Empire in Europe are also sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Wars or as Turkish Wars, particularly in older European Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Basilica was itself designed and cast for the Grand Turk by a Christian Hungarian named Urban. Despite its size, however, it was not very successful as an artillery piece due to its multiple-hour load rate.

Like many other nomadic peoples, the Turks featured a core of heavy cavalry from the upper classes. These evolved into the Sipahis (feudal landholders similar to western knights and Byzantine pronoiai) and Qapukulu (door slaves, taken from youth like Janissaries and trained to be royal servants and elite soldiers, mainly cataphracts).

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Steven Muhlberger. Horses were first used in warfare over 5000 years ago The earliest evidence of the use of horses ridden in warfare dates Endemic warfare is the state of continual low-threshold Warfare in a tribal Warrior society Section 4: The Impact of the Arabs, Overview of Late Antiquity , ORB Encyclopedia.

References

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