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Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of Europe and the Middle East in the era now known as medieval or the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance. The Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers were active before Socrates or contemporaneously but expounding knowledge developed earlier This page lists some links to ancient philosophy. In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity through the Roman Empire marked the end of Hellenistic Renaissance philosophy was the period of the History of philosophy in Europe that falls roughly between the Middle Ages and the Enlightenment 17th century philosophy in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of Modern philosophy, and a departure from the medieval approach The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century In the 18th century the philosophies of The Enlightenment began to have a dramatic effect the landmark works of philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Jean-Jacques See also [[Analytic philosophy]] and [[Continental philosophy]] The 20th century brought with it upheavals that produced a series of conflicting developments within Philosophy Postmodern philosophy' is a philosophical direction which is critical of the foundational assumptions and structures of philosophy See also [[Analytic philosophy]] and [[Continental philosophy]] Contemporary philosophy is the period in the history of philosophy that began at the end of the nineteenth Eastern philosophy refers very broadly to the various philosophies of Asia, including Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Persian Babylonian literature is one of the world's oldest Drawing on the traditions of Sumerian literature, the Babylonians compiled a vast textual tradition of mythological The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent Iranian philosophy or Persian philosophy can be traced back as far as to Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts which originated in ancient Indo-Iranian Chinese philosophy is Philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought There has been a continuous history of Philosophy in Korea, that goes back more than two thousand years Philosophy of religion is a branch of Philosophy that is concerned with the philosophical study of religion including arguments over the nature and existence of God religious Christian philosophy is a term to describe the fusion of various fields of Philosophy with the theological doctrines of Christianity. Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere It is defined partly by the process of rediscovering the ancient culture developed in Greece and Rome in the classical period, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate sacred doctrine and secular learning.

The problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and unity of God, the object of theology and metaphysics, and the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation.

Contents

Character of medieval philosophy

The medieval era was disparagingly treated by the Renaissance humanists, who saw it as a barbaric 'middle' period between the classical age of Greek and Roman culture, and the 'rebirth' or renaissance of classical culture. Yet this period of nearly a thousand years was the longest period of philosophical development in Europe and the Middle East, and possibly the richest. Jorge Gracia has argued that 'in intensity, sophistication, and achievement, the philosophical flowering in the thirteenth century could be rightly said to rival the golden age of Greek philosophy in the fourth century B. Jorge J E Gracia (born 1942 in Cuba) is a professor of Philosophy at the University at Buffalo. C. ' [1]

Philosophy seated between the seven liberal arts – Picture from the Hortus deliciarum of Herrad von Landsberg (12th century)
Philosophy seated between the seven liberal arts – Picture from the Hortus deliciarum of Herrad von Landsberg (12th century)

Medieval philosophy is characteristically theological: with the possible exceptions of Avicenna and Averroes, medieval thinkers did not consider themselves philosophers at all. The term liberal arts refers to a particular type of educational Curriculum broadly defined as a Classical education. Hortus deliciarum ( Latin: Garden of Delights) is a Medieval Manuscript compiled by Herrad of Landsberg at the Hohenburg Herrad of Landsberg (c1130 - July 25 1195) was a 12th century Alsatian Nun and Abbess of Hohenburg Abbey in the TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Their concerns are theological: for them, the philosophers were the ancient pagan writers such as Plato and Aristotle[2]. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. However, the theological works of medieval writers use the ideas and logical techniques of the ancient philosophers to address difficult theological questions, and points of doctrine. Thomas Aquinas, following Peter Damian, argued that philosophy is ancilla theologiae, the handmaiden of theology. Saint Peter Damian, OSB ( Petrus Damiani, also Pietro Damiani or Pier Damiani; c

The three principles that underlie all their work are the use of logic, dialectic and analysis to discover the truth, known as ratio, respect for the insights of ancient philosophers, particularly Aristotle, and deference to their authority; auctoritas, and the obligation to co-ordinate the insights of philosophy with theological teaching and revelation; concordia.

One of the most heavily debated topics of the period was that of faith versus reason. In the Mediaeval era, intellectual assessment of faith was more pronounced among some philosophers. Avicenna and Averroes both leaned more on the side of reason. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Augustine said that he would never allow his philosophical investigations to go beyond the authority of God. [3] and Anselm attempted to defend against what he saw as partly an assault on faith, with an approach allowing for both faith and reason. Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033 &ndash April 21, 1109) was an Italian medieval Philosopher, theologian, and church official [4] The Augustinian solution to the faith/reason problem is to (1) believe, and then (2) seek to understand.

Islamic philosophy in the Middle Ages

Main article: Early Islamic philosophy
Plato, Seneca, and Aristotle from a medieval manuscript, Devotional and Philosophical Writings, c. 1330
Plato, Seneca, and Aristotle from a medieval manuscript, Devotional and Philosophical Writings, c. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar 1330

Whereas Judaism and Christianity began as a religion of small groups, Islam developed as the religion of an expanding empire. Within a hundred years of Mohammed's death in 632 AD, military conquest extended the Islamic world to India, North Africa and Southern Spain.

As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastranism, and the philosophy of India and Greece. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret Koranic doctrines.

The first stage of this process was the translation into Arabic of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, Syria and Egypt. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809-873), known to the Latins as Joannitius. Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunein Bit Ishak أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي; known in Latin as Johannitius (809-873 was a famous and influential The texts were first translated into Syriac, then into Arabic. See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.

In the tenth century another school arose among the Jacobites. These knew little Greek, and used only Syriac translations. The works translated included nearly all the works of Aristotle, the writings of commentators such as Alexander of Aphrodisias, Themistius and Theophrastus, most of the dialogues of Plato, and some Neoplatonist works. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Alexander of Aphrodisias was the most celebrated of the Ancient Greek commentators on the writings of Aristotle. Themistius (317 Paphlagonia - ca 387 CE named (eloquent was a Statesman, Rhetorician and Philosopher, Life He was born Theophrastus ( Greek:; 371 – c 287 BC a Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by

The next stage was the development of Islamic theology by the Mutakallimun. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. These were divided into the Mu'tazilites and the Ash'arites. Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan The Mu'tazilites originated in groups that met in Basrah and Baghdad to discuss how Greek philosophical ideas might help to resolve certain theological problems, such as divine unity, and how human beings can be free even though God is omnipotent. They also developed proofs of the creation of the world, using Christian Neoplatonist ideas. The Ash'arites (founded by Al-Ash'ari, 873-935) tried to clarify Koranic doctrines. They denied the existence of any causation except through God, and therefore denied the freedom of human will.

Al-Kindi (801–873) is generally regarded as the first Aristotelian philosopher. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c He advocated the independent study of philosophy, and also wrote on science and logic. Al-Razi (865- c. 925), by contrast, defended Plato against Aristotle, who he regarded a corrupter of philosophy. Aristotelianism continued with Al-Farabi (870-930) and Ibn Sina, known to the Latins as Avicenna (980-1037). TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Ash'arite theologian Al-Ghazali (1058-1111), by contrast, represents Islamic reaction to Aristotle. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died Ghazali bitterly denounced Aristotle, Socrates and other Greek writers as non-believers and labelled those who employed their methods and ideas as corrupters of the Islamic faith.

Islamic Aristotelianism reached its height with Ibn Rushd, known to the Latin as Averroes, best known in the West for his commentaries on Aristotle. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Hebrew translations of his work also had a lasting impact on Jewish philosophy. Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology

Early Medieval Christian Philosophy

The boundaries of the early medieval period are a matter of controversy[5]. It is generally agreed that it begins with Augustine (354 – 430) who strictly belongs to the classical period, and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late eleventh century, at the beginning of the high medieval period. The High Middle Ages was the period of European history in the 11th 12th and 13th centuries (AD 1000&ndash1299

After the collapse of the Roman empire, Western Europe lapsed into the so-called Dark Ages, and there was little intellectual activity in this period. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial This article is about the phrase "Dark Age(s" as a characterization of the Early Middle Ages in Western Europe Monasteries were the only focus of learning, possibly a result of a rule of St Benedict's in 525 which required monks to read the Bible daily, and his suggestion that at the beginning of Lent, a book be given to each monk. Events Dionysius Exiguus proposes a calendar based on the birth of Jesus Christ In later periods monks were used for training administrators and churchmen.

Early Christian thought, particularly in the patristic period, tends to be intuitional and mystical, and is less reliant on reason and logical argument. The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church It also places more emphasis on the sometimes mystical doctrines of Plato, and less upon the systematic thinking of Aristotle. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Much of the work of Aristotle was unknown in the West in this period. Scholars relied on translations by Boethius into Latin of Aristotle's Categories, the logical work On Interpretation, and his Latin translation of Porphyry's Isagoge, which is a commentary on Aristotle's Categories . Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480&ndash524 or 525 was a Christian philosopher of the 6th century Aristotle 's De Interpretatione (the Latin title by which it is usually known or On Interpretation ( Greek Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας The Isagoge or "Introduction" to Aristotle's "Categories", written by Porphyry in Greek and translated into Latin by Boethius Categories ( Lat Categoriae, Greek Κατηγορίαι Katēgoriai) is a text from Aristotle 's Organon that

Two Roman philosophers had a great influence on the development of medieval philosophy: Augustine and Boethius. Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480&ndash524 or 525 was a Christian philosopher of the 6th century Augustine is regarded as the greatest of the Church Fathers. The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church He is primarily a theologian and a devotional writer, but much of his writing is philosophical. His themes are truth, God, the human soul, the meaning of history, the state, sin and salvation. The meaning of the word truth extends from Honesty, Good faith, and Sincerity in general to agreement with Fact or Reality God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Sin is a term used mainly in a religious context to describe an act that violates a moral Rule, or the state of having committed such a violation In Theology, salvation can mean three related things being saved from or Liberation from something such as Suffering or the punishment of For over a thousand years there was hardly a Latin work of theology or philosophy that did not quote his writing, or invoke his authority. Some of his writing had an influence on the development of early modern philosophy, such as that of Descartes. [6]). Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480– c. Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480&ndash524 or 525 was a Christian philosopher of the 6th century 525) was a Christian philosopher born in Rome to an ancient and important family. He became consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths. The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late His influence on the early medieval period was also marked (so much so that it is sometimes called the Boethian period). [7] He intended to translate all the works of Aristotle and Plato from the original Greek into Latin, and translated many of Aristotle’s logical works, such as On Interpretation, and the Categories. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Aristotle 's De Interpretatione (the Latin title by which it is usually known or On Interpretation ( Greek Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας Categories ( Lat Categoriae, Greek Κατηγορίαι Katēgoriai) is a text from Aristotle 's Organon that He wrote commentaries on these works, and on the Isagoge by Porphyry (a commentary on the Categories). The Isagoge or "Introduction" to Aristotle's "Categories", written by Porphyry in Greek and translated into Latin by Boethius This introduced the problem of universals to the medieval world. The problem of universals is an ancient problem in Metaphysics about whether universals exist

The first significant renewal of learning in the West came when Charlemagne, advised by Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland, and by imperial decree in 787 A. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Peter of Pisa ( 744 - 799) was a Grammarian of the Early middle ages. Alcuin of York (Alcuinus or Ealhwine, nicknamed Albinus or Flaccus (c D. established schools in every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name Scholasticism is derived, became centres of medieval learning. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries

Johannes Scotus Eriugena (c. 815 - 877), successor of Alcuin of York as head of the Palace School was an Irish theologian and Neoplatonist philosopher. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language He is notable for having translated and made commentaries upon the work of Pseudo-Dionysius. Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, also known as Pseudo-Denys, is the anonymous theologian and philosopher of the late 5th to early 6th century whose Corpus Areopagiticum Around this period several doctrinal controversies emerged, such as the question of whether God had predestined some for salvation and some for damnation. Eriugena was called in to settle this dispute. At the same time Paschasius Radbertus raised an important question about the real presence of Christ at the Eucharist. The Real Presence is the term various Christian traditions use to express their belief that in the Eucharist, Jesus Christ is really present in what was Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names is a Christian Sacrament by which in a common interpretation those Is the host the same as Christ's historical body? How can it be present at many places and many times? Radbertus argued that Christ's real body is present, veiled by the appearance of bread and wine, and is present at all places and all times, by means of God's incomprehensible power. Sacramental bread, sometimes called Lamb or Host is the bread which is used in the Christian ritual of the Eucharist.

Fleury: the nave
Fleury: the nave

This period also witnessed a revival of scholarship. In Romanesque and Gothic Christian Abbey, Cathedral Basilica and church Architecture, the nave is the At Fleury, Theodulphus, bishop of Orléans established a school for young noblemen recommended there by Charlemagne. Fleury Abbey ( Floriacum) in Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire, Loiret, France, founded about 640 was one of the richest and most celebrated Benedictine Theodulf of Orléans (ca 750-60 to 821 was the Bishop of Orléans (ca Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his By the mid-ninth century its library was one of the most comprehensive ever assembled in the West, and scholars such as Lupus of Ferrières (d. Lupus Servatus, also Servatus Lupus (c 805 &ndash c 862 in French Loup (means 'wolf' as Lupus in Latin was a Carolingian Benedictine 862) traveled there to consult its texts. Later under St. Abbo of Fleury (abbot 988-1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age. Abbo of Fleury (in Latin Abbo Floriacensis) also known as Abbon or Saint Abbo' (c

Remigius of Auxerre, at the beginning of the tenth century, produced glosses or commentaries on the classical texts of Donatus, Priscian, Boethius and Martianus Capella. Remigius (Remi of Auxerre (ca 841 — 908 was a Benedictine Monk during the Carolingian period a teacher of Latin grammar, and Priscianus Caesariensis ( fl 500 AD commonly known as Priscian, was a Latin grammarian. Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480&ndash524 or 525 was a Christian philosopher of the 6th century "Martianus" redirects here For the beetle Genus, see Martianus (beetle. The Carolingian period was followed by a small dark age that was followed by a lasting revival of learning in the eleventh century.

High Middle Ages

Main article: Scholasticism


The period from the middle of the eleventh century to the middle of the fourteenth century is known as the 'High medieval' or 'scholastic' period. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries It is generally agreed to begin with Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) an Italian philosopher, theologian, and church official who is famous as the originator of the ontological argument for the existence of God. Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033 &ndash April 21, 1109) was an Italian medieval Philosopher, theologian, and church official Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective An Ontological argument for the existence of God attempts the method of a priori proof, which uses intuition and reason alone God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Gracia, p. Christian philosophy is a term to describe the fusion of various fields of Philosophy with the theological doctrines of Christianity. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries The Renaissance of the 12th century was a period of many changes during the High Middle Ages. Supposition theory was a branch of Medieval logic that was probably aimed at giving accounts of issues similar to modern accounts of Reference, Plurality 1)
  2. ^ Gracia & Noone p 1)
  3. ^ Kretzmann & Stump p 27
  4. ^ Gallatin
  5. ^ Gracia & Noone p 1
  6. ^ Hyman & Walsh p. 15
  7. ^ McGavin p. 53

References

External links

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