Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages, primarily as a medium of scholarly exchange and as the liturgical language of the medieval Roman Catholic Church, but also as a language of science, literature, law, and administration. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. A sacred language, or liturgical language, is a Language that is cultivated for religious reasons by people who speak another language in their daily life Despite the clerical origin of many of its authors, Medieval Latin should not be confused with Ecclesiastical Latin. Ecclesiastical Latin (sometimes called Church Latin) is the Latin dialect as used in documents of the Roman Catholic Church and in its Latin liturgies There is no real consensus on the exact boundary where Late Latin ends and Medieval Latin begins. Vulgar Latin (in Latin sermo vulgaris, "folk speech" is a Blanket term covering the popular Dialects and Sociolects of the Latin Some scholarly surveys begin with the rise of early Christian Latin in the middle of the 4th century, others around the year 500. Ecclesiastical Latin (sometimes called Church Latin) is the Latin dialect as used in documents of the Roman Catholic Church and in its Latin liturgies As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 4th century (per the Julian calendar and Anno Domini / Common era) was that Century Events By Place Europe Possible date for the Battle of Mons Badonicus: Romano-British and Celts defeat an Anglo-Saxon ^[1]

Page with medieval Latin text from the Carmina Cantabrigiensia (Cambridge University Library, Gg. 5. 35), 11. cent.

Changes in vocabulary, syntax, grammar and orthography

Influences

Medieval Latin was characterized by an enlarged vocabulary, which freely borrowed from other sources. It was heavily influenced by the language of the Vulgate, which contained many peculiarities alien to Classical Latin that were the consequence of more or less direct translation from Greek and Hebrew; these peculiarities were mirrored not only in its vocabulary, but also in its grammar and syntax. The Vulgate is an early Fifth Century version of the Bible in Latin, and largely the result of the labours of Jerome, who was commissioned by Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Greek provided much of the technical vocabulary of Christianity. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The various Germanic languages spoken by the Germanic tribes, who invaded western Europe, were also major sources of new words. The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European (IE Language family. Germanic leaders became the rulers of western Europe, and words from their languages were freely imported into the vocabulary of law. Other more ordinary words were replaced by coinages from Vulgar Latin or Germanic sources because the classical words had fallen into disuse. Vulgar Latin (in Latin sermo vulgaris, "folk speech" is a Blanket term covering the popular Dialects and Sociolects of the Latin

Latin was also spread to areas such as Ireland and Germany, where Romance languages were not spoken and which had never known Roman rule. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages, or Neolatin languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family comprising all The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Works written in these lands where Latin was a learned language with no relation to the local vernacular also influenced the vocabulary and syntax of medieval Latin.

Since abstract subjects like science and philosophy were communicated in Latin, the Latin vocabulary developed for them is the source of a great many technical words in modern languages. English words like abstract, subject, communicate, matter, probable and their cognates in other European languages generally have the meanings given to them in medieval Latin. Cognates in Linguistics are words that have a common origin They may occur within a language such as shirt and skirt as two English words descended from

An illuminated manuscript of a Book of Hours contains prayers in medieval Latin. An illuminated manuscript is a Manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration such as decorated Initials borders and Milan Biblioteca Trivulziana Cod 470 is a 15th century Book of Hours.

Influence of Vulgar Latin

The influence of Vulgar Latin was also apparent in the syntax of some Medieval Latin writers, although Classical Latin continued to be held in high esteem and studied as models for literary compositions. Vulgar Latin (in Latin sermo vulgaris, "folk speech" is a Blanket term covering the popular Dialects and Sociolects of the Latin In Linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek grc συν- syn-, "together" and grc τάξις táxis, "arrangement" is the The high point of development of medieval Latin as a literary language came with the Carolingian renaissance, a rebirth of learning kindled under the patronage of Charlemagne, king of the Franks. The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival occurring in the late eighth and ninth centuries with the peak of the activities Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group Alcuin was Charlemagne's Latin secretary and an important writer in his own right; his influence led to a rebirth of Latin literature and learning after the depressed period following the final disintegration of Roman authority in Western Europe. Alcuin of York (Alcuinus or Ealhwine, nicknamed Albinus or Flaccus (c

Although it was simultaneously developing into the Romance languages, Latin itself remained very conservative, as it was no longer a native language and there were many ancient and medieval grammar books to give one standard form. On the other hand, strictly speaking there was no single form of "Medieval Latin". Every Latin author in the medieval period spoke Latin as a second language, to varying degrees of fluency, and syntax, grammar, and vocabulary were often influenced by an author's native language. This was especially true beginning around the 12th century, after which the language became increasingly adulterated: late-medieval Latin documents written by French speakers tend to show similarities to medieval French grammar and vocabulary; those written by Germans tend to show similarities to German, etc. For instance, rather than following the classical Latin practice of generally placing the verb at the end, medieval writers would often follow the conventions of their own native language instead. Whereas Latin had no definite or indefinite articles, medieval writers sometimes used forms of unus as an indefinite article, and forms of ille (reflecting usage in the Romance languages) or even quidam (meaning "a certain one/thing" in Classical Latin) as something like a definite article. Unlike in classical Latin, where esse ("to be") was used as the only auxiliary verb, Medieval Latin writers might use habere ("to have"), as Germanic and Romance languages do. The accusative infinitive construction in classical Latin was sometimes ignored, in favour of introducing a subordinate clause with the word quod (or occasionally quia). This is almost identical, for example, to the use of que in similar constructions in French.

In every age from the late eighth century onwards, there were learned writers (especially within the Church) who were familiar enough with classical syntax to be aware that these forms and usages were 'wrong' and able to resist their use. In Linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek grc συν- syn-, "together" and grc τάξις táxis, "arrangement" is the Thus the Latin of a theologian like St. Thomas Aquinas or an erudite clerical historian such as William of Tyre tends to avoid most of the characteristics described above, showing its period in vocabulary and spelling alone; the features listed are much more prominent in the language of lawyers (e. This article is about the Archbishop/historian from the 1100s g. the 11th-century English Domesday Book), physicians, technical writers and secular chroniclers. The Domesday Book (ˈduːmzdeɪ bʊk also known as Domesday, or Book of Winchester) was the record of the great survey However, the last-mentioned point — the indirect-statement construction with quod — was especially pervasive and is found at all levels.

Changes in orthography

The most striking differences between classical and medieval Latin are found in orthography. Some of the most frequently occurring differences are:

• The diphthong ae is usually collapsed and simply written as e (or e caudata, ę); for example, puellae might be written puelle (or puellę). The e caudata ("tailed e" is a modified form of the letter E that can be graphically represented as E with Ogonek ( ę) The same happens with the diphthong oe, for example in pena, Edipus, from poena, Oedipus. This feature is already found on coin-inscriptions of the fourth century (e. g. reipublice for reipublicae).
• Because of a severe decline of the knowledge of Greek, in loanwords and foreign names from, or transmitted through Greek, y and i might be used more or less interchangeably: Ysidorus, Egiptus, from Isidorus, Aegyptus. This is also found in pure Latin words: ocius ('more swiftly') appears as ocyus and silva as sylva, this last being a form which survived into the eighteenth century and so became embedded in modern botanical Latin.
• h might be lost, so that habere becomes abere, or mihi becomes mi (the latter also occurred in Classical Latin); or, mihi may be written michi, indicating the h came to be pronounced as k, which is its pronunciation even today in Ecclesiastical Latin (this pronunciation is not found in Classical Latin). Ecclesiastical Latin (sometimes called Church Latin) is the Latin dialect as used in documents of the Roman Catholic Church and in its Latin liturgies
• The loss of h in pronunciation also led to the addition of h in writing where it did not previously belong, especially in the vicinity of r, such as chorona for corona, a tendency also sometimes seen in Classical Latin.
• -ti- before a vowel is often written as -ci-, so that divitiae becomes diviciae (or divicie), tertius becomes tercius, vitium vicium.
• The combination mn might have another plosive inserted, so that alumnus becomes alumpnus, somnus sompnus.
• Single consonants were often doubled, or vice versa, so that tranquillitas becomes tranquilitas and Africa becomes Affrica.
• vi, especially in verbs in the perfect tense, might be lost, so that novisse becomes nosse (this occurred in Classical Latin as well but was more frequent in Medieval Latin).

These orthographical differences were often due to changes in pronunciation or, as in the last example, morphology, which authors reflected in their writing. By the 16th century, Erasmus complained that speakers from different countries were unable to understand each other's form of Latin. ^[2]

The gradual change of Latin did not escape the notice of contemporaries. Petrarch, writing in the 14th century, complained about this linguistic "decline", which helped fuel his general dissatisfaction with his own era. Francesco Petrarca ( July 20, 1304 – July 19, 1374) known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar

Medieval Latin literature

The corpus of Medieval Latin literature encompasses a wide range of texts, including such diverse works as sermons, hymns, hagiographical texts, travel literature, histories, epics, and lyric poetry. A sermon is an oration by a Prophet or member of the Clergy. Sermons address a Biblical, theological, or religious topic A hymn is a type of Song, usually religious specifically written for the purpose of praise adoration or Prayer, and typically addressed to a deity/deities Hagiography ( is the study of Saints. A hagiography, from Greek (hağios (ἅγιος "holy" or "saint" and graphē (γραφή Travel literature is Travel writing considered to have value as Literature. A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story The Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System ( EPICS) is a software environment used to develop and implement Distributed control systems to operate devices Lyric poetry refers to a usually short poem that expresses personal feelings which may or may not be set to music

Early period

The first half of the 5th century saw the literary activities of the great Christian authors Jerome (c. The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in Anno Domini / Common Era. Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος 347–420) and Augustine of Hippo (354–430), whose texts had an enormous influence on theological thought of the Middle Ages, and of the latter's disciple Prosper of Aquitaine (c. Saint Prosper of Aquitaine (c 390 – c 455 a Christian writer and disciple of Saint Augustine of Hippo, was the first continuator of Jerome 's Universal 390-455). Of the later 400s and early 500s, Sidonius Apollinaris (c. For the Franco-Irish saint see Sidonius of Saint-Saëns. Gaius Sollius (Modestus Apollinaris Sidonius or Saint Sidonius Apollinaris 430 – after 489) and Ennodius (474–521), both from Gaul, are well-known for their poems, as is Venantius Fortunatus (c. Magnus Felix Ennodius (473 or 474 - July 17, 521) was Bishop of Pavia in 514 and a Latin Rhetorician and Poet Saint Venantius Fortunatus or Venantius Honorius Clementianus Fortunatus (c 530–600). This was also a period of transmission: the Roman patrician Boethius (c. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480&ndash524 or 525 was a Christian philosopher of the 6th century 480–524) translated part of Aristotle's logical corpus, thus preserving it for the Latin West, and wrote the influential literary and philosophical treatise De consolatione Philosophiae; Cassiodorus (c. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Consolation of Philosophy ( Consolatio Philosophiae) is a philosophical work by Boethius, written in about the year AD 524. Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (c 485 - c 585 commonly known as Cassiodorus, was a Roman statesman and great writer serving in the administration 485–585) founded an important library at the monastery of Vivarium near Squillace where many texts from Antiquity were to be preserved. Squillace (Skyllision Skyllition is an ancient seaside town and Comune, in the Province of Catanzaro, part of Calabria, southern Italy Isidore of Seville (c. Saint Isidore of Seville ( Spanish: es ''San Isidro'' or es ''San Isidoro de Sevilla'' Latin: latin ''Isidorus Hispalensis'' (c 560-636) collected all scientifical knowledge still available in his time into what might be called the first encyclopedia, the Etymologiae. An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Etymologiae (or Origines, standard abbrev Orig) is an Encyclopedia compiled by Isidore of Seville (died

Gregory of Tours (c. Saint Gregory of Tours ( November 30, c 538 &ndash November 17, 594) was a Gallo-Roman historian and bishop of Tours 538–594) wrote a lengthy history of the Frankish kings. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group Gregory came from a Gallo-Roman aristocratic family, and his Latin, which shows many aberrations from the classical forms, testifies to the declining significance of classical education in Gaul. At the same time, good knowledge of Latin and even of Greek was being preserved in monastic culture in Ireland and was brought to England and the European mainland by missionaries in the course of the 6th and 7th centuries, such as Columbanus (543–615), who founded the monastery of Bobbio in Northern Italy. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Monasticism (from Greek μοναχός, monachos, derived from Greek monos, alone is the religious practice in which one Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland A missionary is a member of a Religion who works to convert those who do not share the missionary's faith someone who proselytizes. The 6th century is the period from 501 to 600 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Not to be confused with St Columba, also Irish and partly his contemporary Bobbio is a small town and commune in the Province of Piacenza in Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy. Ireland was also the birthplace of a strange poetic style known as Hisperic Latin. Hiberno-Latin, also called Hisperic Latin, was a playful and learned sort of Latin Literature created and spread by Irish monks during the period Other important Insular authors include the historian Gildas (c. Saint Gildas (c 494 or 516 – c 570 was one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sixth century 500–570) and the poet Aldhelm (c. Saint Aldhelm (c 639 - 25 May 709) Abbot of Malmesbury Abbey, Bishop of Sherborne, Latin poet and Anglo-Saxon literature 640–709). Benedict Biscop (c. Benedict Biscop (c 628 - 690 (also known as Biscop Baducing) was an Anglo-Saxon Abbot and founder of Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Priory. 628–690) founded the monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow and furnished it with books which he had taken home from a journey to Rome and which were later used by Bede (c. See also List of abbots of Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Wearmouth-Jarrow Abbey is a twin-foundation English Abbey located Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c 672–735) to write his Ecclesiastical History of the English People. The Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (in English: Ecclesiastical History of the English People) is a work in Latin by the

Many medieval Latin works have been published in the series Patrologia Latina, Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum and Corpus Christianorum. The Patrologia Latina is an enormous collection of the writings of the Church Fathers and other ecclesiastical writers published by Jacques-Paul Migne between The Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum ( CSEL) is a series of critical editions of the Latin Church Fathers published by a committee of the The Corpus Christianorum is a major publishing undertaking of the Belgian publisher Brepols devoted to patristic and medieval Latin texts

Important medieval Latin authors

4th–5th centuries

• Aetheria (fl. In early Christian history, Egeria, also known as Aetheria, is the name of a Spanish or Gallic woman who made a Pilgrimage to 385)
• St Jerome (c. Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος 347–420)

6th–8th centuries

• Gildas (d. Saint Gildas (c 494 or 516 – c 570 was one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sixth century c. 570)
• Venantius Fortunatus (c. Saint Venantius Fortunatus or Venantius Honorius Clementianus Fortunatus (c 530 – c. 600)
• Gregory of Tours (c. Saint Gregory of Tours ( November 30, c 538 &ndash November 17, 594) was a Gallo-Roman historian and bishop of Tours 538–594)
• Isidore of Seville (c. Saint Isidore of Seville ( Spanish: es ''San Isidro'' or es ''San Isidoro de Sevilla'' Latin: latin ''Isidorus Hispalensis'' (c 560–636)
• Bede (c. Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c 672–735)

9th century

• Einhard (775-840)
• Rabanus Maurus (780-856)
• Rudolf of Fulda (d. Einhard (also Eginhard or Einhart) (c 775 &ndash March 14, 840 in Seligenstadt, Germany) was a Frankish Rabanus Maurus Magnentius (c 780 &ndash 4 February 856) also known as Hrabanus or Rhabanus, was a Frankish Benedictine Rudolf of Fulda (unknown-865 was a monk of the Benedictine monastery of Fulda, writer Theologian and teacher 865)
• Dhuoda
• Lupus of Ferrieres (805-862)
• Andreas Agnellus (Agnellus of Ravenna) (c. Dhuoda was the wife of Bernard of Septimania and the author of the Liber Manualis. Lupus Servatus, also Servatus Lupus (c 805 &ndash c 862 in French Loup (means 'wolf' as Lupus in Latin was a Carolingian Benedictine Andreas Agnellus of Ravenna (c805 - after 846 was a historian of the bishops in his city 805-846?)
• Hincmar (806-882)
• Walafrid Strabo (808-849)
• Florus of Lyon (d. Walafrid, alternatively spelt Walahfrid, surnamed Strabo (or Strabus, i Florus of Lyon ( Florus Lugdunensis) was a Deacon in Lyon, Ecclesiastical writer in the first half of the Ninth century. 860?)
• Gottschalk (theologian) (808-867)
• Sedulius Scottus (fl. Gottschalk (Gotteschalchus (c 808 &ndash October 30, 867 ? a theologian, was born near Mainz, and was given to the monastic life ( Sedulius Scottus was Irish teacher grammarian and Scriptural commentator who lived in the ninth century 840-860)
• Anastasius Bibliothecarius (810-878)
• Johannes Scotus Eriugena (815-877)
• Notker Balbulus (840-912)

10th century

• Ratherius (890–974)
• Thietmar of Merseburg (975–1018)

11th century

• Marianus Scotus (1028–1082)
• Adam of Bremen (fl. Anastasius Bibliothecarius (c 810-c 878 was a Librarian and supposed Antipope of the Roman Catholic Church. Notker the Stammerer ( Notker Balbulus) also called Notker the Poet or Notker of Saint Gall ( c Ratherius (890-974 was a Teacher, Writer, and Bishop. His political work led to his becoming an Exile and a wanderer Thietmar ( Dietmar or Dithmar) of Merseburg ( July 25, 975 - December 1, 1018) was Bishop of Merseburg Marianus Scotus (1028&ndash1082 or 1083 was an Irish monk and chronicler (who must be distinguished from his namesake Marianus Scotus, d Adam of Bremen (also Adam Bremensis) was one of the most important German Medieval Chroniclers He lived and worked in the second half of the 1060–1080)
• Marbodius of Rennes (c. 1035-1123)

12th century

• Pierre Abélard (1079–1142)
• Suger of St Denis (c. Suger (c 1081 &ndash 13 January 1151) was one of the last French abbot-statesmen a historian and the influential first patron of Gothic architecture 1081 – 1151)
• Geoffrey of Monmouth (c. Geoffrey of Monmouth ( Gruffudd ap Arthur or Sieffre o Fynwy) (c 1100 – c. 1155)
• Ailred of Rievaulx (1110-1167)
• Otto of Freising (c. Ailred (or Aelred) Abbot of Rievaulx ( 1110 - 12 January 1167) was an English Christian Saint Otto von Freising ( Otto Frisingensis) (c 1114 in Klosterneuburg – September 22, 1158) was a German Bishop and chronicler 1114–1158)
• William of Tyre (c. This article is about the Archbishop/historian from the 1100s 1130-1185)
• Peter of Blois (c. Peter of Blois or Petrus Blesensis (c 1135 &ndash c 1203 was a French poet and diplomat who wrote in Latin. 1135 – c. 1203)
• Walter of Châtillon (fl. Walter of Châtillon ( Latin Gualterus de Castellione) was a 12th-century French writer and theologian who wrote in the Latin language c. 1200)
• The Archpoet (fl. The Archpoet, or Archipoeta, is a name given to the bibulous and boastful anonymous author of ten poems from Medieval Latin literature 1159–1167)

13th century

• Giraldus Cambrensis (c. Gerald of Wales (c 1146 &ndash c 1223 also known as Gerallt Gymro in Welsh or Giraldus Cambrensis in Latin, 1146 – c. 1223)
• Saxo Grammaticus (c. "Saxo" redirects here For the car see Citroën Saxo and for the bank see Saxo Bank Saxo Grammaticus (c 1150 – c. 1220)
• Thomas of Celano (c. Thomas of Celano (Tommaso da Celano c 1200 &ndash c 1260-1270 was an Italian Friar of the Franciscans (Order of Friars Minor a poet and the author 1200 – c. 1265)
• Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280)
• Roger Bacon (c. For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O 1214–1294)
• St Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274)
• Siger of Brabant (c. Siger of Brabant ( Sigerus, Sighier, Sigieri or Sygerius de Brabantia; c 1240–1280s)
• Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308)

14th century

• Ranulf Higdon (c. Ranulf Higdon (or Higden) (c 1280 - c 1363 was an English chronicler and a Benedictine monk of the Monastery of St 1280 - c. 1363)
• William of Ockham (c. William of Ockham (also Occam, Hockham, or any of several other spellings ˈɒkəm (c 1288 - c. 1347)

Medieval Latin literary movements

• Goliards
• Hiberno-Latin

Important medieval Latin works

• Carmina Burana
• Pange Lingua
• Summa Theologiae
• Etymologiae
• Dies Irae
• Decretum Gratiani

Notes

References

• K. P. Harrington, J. Pucci, and A. G. Elliott, Medieval Latin (2nd ed. ), (Univ. Chicago Pres, 1997) ISBN 0-226-31712-9

External links

• Glossarium Ad Scriptores Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis
• Wright, Thomas, ed. A Selection of Latin Stories, from Manuscripts of the Thirteenth and Founteenth Centuries: A Contribution to the History of Fiction During the Middle Ages. (London: The Percy Society. 1842.)
• Mental furniture from the philosophers, article on the influence of medieval Latin on modern technical vocabulary.