Medicine is the practice of maintaining and restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of patients, whose death it is the discipline's ultimate concern to avert. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Health is a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything A medical record, health record, or medical chart is a systematic documentation of a Patient 's Medical history and care. Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific It has traditionally been regarded as both an art and a science: the term is derived from the Latin ars medicina meaning the art of healing. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. [1][2] Whilst health science and biomedicine, clinical medicine, surgery and research are together the very bedrock of contemporary medicine, successful face-to-face relief of actual suffering resulting from disease and injury continues to require the intangible application of human feeling and compassion. Health science is the applied science dealing with Health, and it includes many sub disciplines Biomedicine, also known as theoretical medicine, is a term that comprises the knowledge and research which is more or less in common to the fields of human medicine Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Suffering, or pain, is an individual's basic Affective experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with harm or threat of harm A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Injury or bodily injury is Damage or Harm caused to the Structure or function of the Body caused by an outside agent or The word feeling has several possible definitions The word was first used in the English language to describe the physical sensation of Touch either through experience Compassion is a profound human Emotion prompted by the pain of others
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History
The earliest type of medicine in most cultures was the use of empirical natural resources like plants (herbalism), animal parts and minerals. All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, Death, and Disease. Herbalism is a traditional Medicinal or Folk medicine practice based on the use of Plants and Plant extracts Herbalism is also known as In all societies, including Western ones, there were also religious, ritual and magical resources. In aboriginal societies, there is a large scope of medical systems related to religious thinking, cultural experience, and natural resources. The religious ones more known are: animism (the notion of inanimate objects having spirits); spiritualism (here meaning an appeal to gods or communion with ancestor spirits); shamanism (the vesting of an individual with mystic powers); and divination (the supposed obtaining of truth by magic means). Animism (from Latin anima ( Soul, Life) commonly refers to a religious belief that Souls or Spirits exist in Animals Spiritualism is a Religion founded in part on the writings of the Swedish mystic Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772 Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining The field of medical anthropology studies the various medical systems and their interaction with society, while prehistoric medicine addresses diagnosis and treatment in prehistoric times. Medical anthropology is a subfield of social and Cultural anthropology. Prehistoric medicine is a term used to describe the use of Medicine before the invention of writing
The practice of medicine developed gradually in ancient Egypt, Babylonia, India, China, Greece, Persia, the Islamic world, medieval Europe and early modern period in Persia (Rhazes and Avicenna), Spain (Abulcasis and Avenzoar), Syria/Egypt (Ibn al-Nafis, 13th century), Italy (Gabriele Falloppio, 16th century), England (William Harvey, 17th century). Ancient Egyptian Medicine refers to the practices of healing common in Ancient Egypt from Circa 3300 BC until the Persian Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. The first known Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in 700 BC The practice and study of Medicine in Persia has a long and prolific history For contemporary medicine practiced outside of Europe see Islamic medicine, Byzantine medicine, Traditional Chinese medicine, and Ayurveda The early modern period is a term initially used by historians to refer mainly to the period roughly from 1500 to 1800 in Western Europe ( Early modern Europe) See Also Persian Empire History of Iran and Greater Iran (also referred to as the " Iranian Cultural Continent TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Gabriele Falloppio ( 1523 - October 9, 1562) often known by his Latin name Fallopius, was one of the most important anatomists England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland William Harvey ( April 1, 1578 – June 3, 1657) was an English Physician who is credited with being the first in Medicine as it is now practiced largely developed during the 19th and 20th centuries in Germany (Rudolf Virchow, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Robert Koch), Austria (Karl Landsteiner, Otto Loewi), United Kingdom (Edward Jenner, Alexander Fleming, Joseph Lister, Francis Crick), New Zealand (Maurice Wilkins), Australia (Howard Floery, Frank Macfarlane Burnet), Russia (Nikolai Korotkov), United States (William Williams Keen, Harvey Cushing, William Coley, James D. Watson), Italy (Salvador Luria), Switzerland (Alexandre Yersin), Japan (Kitasato Shibasaburo), and France (Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard, Louis Pasteur, Paul Broca and others). Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow ( 13 October 1821 &ndash 5 September 1902) was a German doctor, anthropologist, public health Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (27 March 1845 &ndash 10 February 1923 was a German physicist, who on 8 November 1895 produced and detected Electromagnetic Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch ( December 11 1843 – May 27 1910) was a German Physician. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Karl Landsteiner ( June 14 1868 &ndash June 26 1943) was an Austrian Biologist and Physician. Otto Loewi ( June 3, 1873 &ndash December 25, 1961) was a German pharmacologist whose discovery of Acetylcholine The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Edward Jenner, FRS, ( May 17 1749 – January 26 1823) was an English scientist who studied his natural surroundings in Berkeley Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 &ndash 11 March 1955 was a Scottish Biologist and Pharmacologist. Joseph Lister 1st Baron Lister, OM, FRS ( 5 April 1827 &ndash 10 February 1912) was an English surgeon Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins CBE FRS ( 15 December 1916 – 5 October 2004) was a New Zealand -born British For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Howard Walter Florey Baron Florey, OM, FRS, ( September 24, 1898 &ndash February 21, 1968) was an Australian Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, OM, AK, KBE (3 September 1899 – 31 August 1985 usually known as Macfarlane or Mac Burnet, was Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Nikolai Sergeievich Korotkov (also Korotkoff, Николай Сергеевич Коротков ( February 26, 1874 &ndash March 14, 1920 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the William Williams Keen ( January 19, 1837 - June 7, 1932) was the first U Harvey Williams Cushing ( April 8, 1869 - October 7, 1939) was an American neurosurgeon and a pioneer of Brain surgery Dr William Coley (1862–1936 was an American bone surgeon and Cancer researcher pioneer of Cancer immunotherapy. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Salvador Edward Luria ( August 13, 1912 &ndash February 6, 1991) was an Italian -born American microbiologist Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Alexandre Emile Jean Yersin ( September 22, 1863 &ndash March 1, 1943) was a French For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. was a Japanese Physician and bacteriologist. He is remembered as the co-discoverer of the infectious agent of Bubonic plague in Hong Kong in This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Jean-Martin Charcot ( 29 November 1825 – 16 August 1893) was a French Neurologist and professor of Anatomical pathology Claude Bernard ( July 12, 1813 – February 10, 1878) was a French Physiologist. Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and Paul Pierre Broca ( June 28, 1824 &ndash July 9, 1880) was a French Physician, Anatomist, and Anthropologist The new "scientific" or "experimental" medicine (where results are testable and repeatable) replaced early Western traditions of medicine, based on herbalism, the Greek "four humours" and other pre-modern theories. Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers
The focal points of development of clinical medicine shifted to the United Kingdom and the USA by the early 1900s (Canadian-born) Sir William Osler, Harvey Cushing). Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Sir William Osler 1st Baronet ( July 12, 1849 &ndash December 29, 1919 Age 70 was a Canadian Physician. Harvey Williams Cushing ( April 8, 1869 - October 7, 1939) was an American neurosurgeon and a pioneer of Brain surgery Possibly the major shift in medical thinking was the gradual rejection, especially during the Black Death in the 14th and 15th centuries, of what may be called the 'traditional authority' approach to science and medicine. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia This was the notion that because some prominent person in the past said something must be so, then that was the way it was, and anything one observed to the contrary was an anomaly (which was paralleled by a similar shift in European society in general - see Copernicus's rejection of Ptolemy's theories on astronomy). Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Physicians like Ibn al-Nafis and Vesalius led the way in improving upon or indeed rejecting the theories of great authorities from the past (such as Hippocrates, Galen and Avicenna), many of whose theories were in time discredited. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Andreas Vesalius ( Brussels, December 31, 1514 - Zakynthos, October 15, 1564) was an anatomist, Physician Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Such new attitudes were made possible in Europe by the weakening of the Roman Catholic church's power in society, especially in the Republic of Venice. The Most Serene Republic of Venice ((Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia Serenissima Repubblica
Evidence-based medicine is a recent movement to establish the most effective algorithms of practice (ways of doing things) through the use of the scientific method and modern global information science by collating all the evidence and developing standard protocols which are then disseminated to healthcare providers. Evidence-based medicine (EBM aims to apply Evidence gained from the Scientific method to certain parts of medical practice In Mathematics, Computing, Linguistics and related subjects an algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions often used for Calculation Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Information science is an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the collection classification, manipulation storage retrieval and dissemination One problem with this 'best practice' approach is that it could be seen to stifle novel approaches to treatment.
Genomics and knowledge of human genetics is already having some influence on medicine, as the causative genes of most monogenic genetic disorders have now been identified, and the development of techniques in molecular biology and genetics are influencing medical practice and decision-making. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body ampoule (also ampule) is a small glass sealed Vial which is used to contain or preserve a fluid Genomics is the study of an organism's entire Genome. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale Genetic History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance A genetic disorder is a condition caused by abnormalities in Genes or Chromosomes While some diseases such as Cancer, are due to genetic abnormalities acquired Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level
Pharmacology has developed from herbalism and many drugs are still derived from plants (atropine, ephedrine, warfarin, aspirin, digoxin, vinca alkaloids, taxol, hyoscine, etc). Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Herbalism is a traditional Medicinal or Folk medicine practice based on the use of Plants and Plant extracts Herbalism is also known as The modern era began with Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of disease by bacteria, and then the discovery of antibiotics shortly thereafter around 1900. Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch ( December 11 1843 – May 27 1910) was a German Physician. In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa The first of these was arsphenamine / Salvarsan discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1908 after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells did not. Arsphenamine, also known as Salvarsan and 606, is a drug that was used to treat Syphilis and trypanosomiasis. Arsphenamine, also known as Salvarsan and 606, is a drug that was used to treat Syphilis and trypanosomiasis. Paul Ehrlich ( March 14, 1854 &ndash August 20, 1915) was a German Scientist who won the 1908 Nobel The first major class of antibiotics was the sulfa drugs, derived by French chemists originally from azo dyes. There are several sulfonamide-based groups of drugs The original antibacterial sulfonamides (sometimes called simply sulfa drugs are synthetic antimicrobial agents that contain the sulfonamide Azo compounds are compounds bearing the Functional group R-N=N-R' in which R and R' can be either Aryl or Alkyl. Throughout the twentieth century, major advances in the treatment of infectious diseases were observable in (Western) societies. The medical establishment is now developing drugs targeted towards one particular disease process. Thus drugs are being developed to minimize the side effects of prescribed drugs, to treat cancer, geriatric problems, long-term problems (such as high cholesterol), chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes, lifestyle and degenerative diseases such as arthritis and Alzheimer's disease. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Diabetes mellitus type 2 or Type 2 Diabetes (formerly called non - Insulin -dependent Diabetes mellitus (NIDDM or adult-onset diabetes is a metabolic Arthritis (from Greek arthro-, joint + -itis, inflammation plural arthritides is a group of conditions involving damage to the Joints of the body Alzheimer's disease ( AD) also called Alzheimer disease or simply Alzheimer's, is the most common form of Dementia.
Practice
The practice of medicine combines both science as the evidence base and art in the application of this medical knowledge in combination with intuition and clinical judgment to determine the treatment plan for each patient. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding
Central to medicine is the patient-physician relationship established when a person with a health concern seeks a physician's help; the 'medical encounter'. A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Other health professionals similarly establish a relationship with a patient and may perform various interventions, e. g. nurses, radiographers and therapists.
As part of the medical encounter, the healthcare provider needs to:
- develop a relationship with the patient
- gather data (medical history, systems inquiry, and physical examination, combined with laboratory or imaging studies (investigations))
- analyze and synthesize that data (assessment and/or differential diagnoses), and then:
- develop a treatment plan (further testing, therapy, watchful observation, referral and follow-up)
- treat the patient accordingly
- assess the progress of treatment and alter the plan as necessary (management). AIH redirects here For the indie rock band abbreviated AIH see Architecture in Helsinki Artificial insemination (AI is the process by which A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. The medical history or Anamnesis of a Patient is information gained by a Physician or other healthcare professional by asking specific questions Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs
The medical encounter is documented in a medical record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. A medical record, health record, or medical chart is a systematic documentation of a Patient 's Medical history and care. [3]
Delivery systems
Medicine is practiced within the medical system, which is a legal, credentialing and financing framework, established by a particular culture or government. This article describes policy-related systems For the article on hospital networks which are sometimes referred to as health care systems see Hospital network. The characteristics of a health care system have significant effect on the way medical care is delivered.
Most industrialized countries and many developing countries deliver health care though a system of universal health care which guarantees health care for all through a system of compulsory private or co-operative health insurance funds or via government backed social insurance. Universal health care is health care coverage which is extended to all eligible residents of a governmental region The term health insurance is generally used to describe a form of Insurance that pays for medical expenses Social insurance is any Government -sponsored program with the following four characteristics the benefits eligibility requirements and other aspects of the program This insurance, (in effect, a form of taxation) ensures the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. The delivery systems may be provided by private medical practices or by state owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities.
Most tribal societies but also some communist countries (e. A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use g. China) and at least one industrialized capitalist country (the United States) provide no guarantee of health care for the population as a whole. In such societies, health care is available to those that can afford to pay for it or have self insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly.
Transparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality and pricing greatly affects the choice by patients / consumers and therefore the incentives of medical professionals. While US health care system has come under fire for lack of openness, new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other.
Delivery
Medical care delivery is classified into primary, secondary and tertiary care. A clinic (or an outpatient clinic) is a small private or public health facility that is devoted to the care of Outpatients, often in a community in contrast A hospital is an institution for Health care providing treatment by specialised staff and equipment and often but not always providing for Palliative care (from Latin palliare to cloak is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the severity of Disease Symptoms
Primary care medical services are provided by physicians or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care. Primary care is a term used for the activity of a Health care provider who acts as a first point of consultation for all patients These occur in physician offices, clinics, nursing homes, schools, home visits and other places close to patients. A clinic (or an outpatient clinic) is a small private or public health facility that is devoted to the care of Outpatients, often in a community in contrast SNF redirects here For the sports show see NBC Sunday Night Football. A school (from Greek σχολεῖον - scholeion) is an Institution designed to allow and encourage Students (or "pupils" A home is a place of Residence or Refuge. It is usually a place where an individual or a family can rest in and be able to store Personal property. About 90% of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, preventive care and health education for all ages and both sexes.
Secondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient. The term secondary care is a service provided by medical specialists who generally do not have first contact with Patients, for example Cardiologists, Urologists A specialty in Medicine is a branch of medical science other than General practice. Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both ambulatory care and inpatient services, emergency rooms, intensive care medicine, surgery services, physical therapy, labor and delivery, endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc. Ambulatory care is any medical care delivered on an outpatient basis A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. Intensive Care Medicine or critical care medicine is a branch of medicine concerned with the provision of Life support or organ support systems in patients Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Childbirth (also called labour, birth, partus or parturition) is the culmination of a Human Pregnancy or Endoscopy means looking inside and typically refers to looking inside the body for medical reasons using an instrument called an endoscope. A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a Laboratory where tests are done on clinical specimens in order to get information about the Health Medical imaging refers to the techniques and processes used to create Images of the human body (or parts thereof for clinical purposes ( Medical procedures seeking to Palliative care (from Latin palliare to cloak is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the severity of Disease Symptoms Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting.
Tertiary care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. In Medicine, tertiary healthcare is specialized consultative care usually on referral from primary or secondary medical care personnel by specialists These include trauma centers, burn treatment centers, advanced neonatology unit services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology, etc. A trauma center is a Hospital equipped to provide comprehensive Emergency medical services to patients suffering traumatic injuries A burn is a type of Injury that may be caused by Heat, cold, Electricity, Chemicals, Light, Radiation, or Neonatology is a subspecialty of Pediatrics that consists of the medical care of newborn infants especially the ill or premature newborn infant Pregnancy ( Latin graviditas) is the carrying of one or more offspring known as a Fetus or Embryo, inside the Uterus of a Female Radiation therapy (or radiotherapy) is the medical use of Ionizing radiation as part of Cancer treatment to control Malignant Oncology is the branch of medicine that studies Tumors ( Cancer) and seeks to understand their development diagnosis treatment and prevention
Modern medical care also depends on information - still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by electronic means.
Patient-physician-relationship
This kind of relationship and interaction is a central process in the practice of medicine. There are many perspectives from which to understand and describe it.
An idealized physician's perspective, such as is taught in medical school, sees the core aspects of the process as the physician learning the patient's symptoms, concerns and values; in response the physician examines the patient, interprets the symptoms, and formulates a diagnosis to explain the symptoms and their cause to the patient and to propose a treatment. Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine The job of a physician is similar to a human biologist: that is, to know the human frame and situation in terms of normality. Once the physician knows what is normal and can measure the patient against those norms, he or she can then determine the particular departure from the normal and the degree of departure. This is called the diagnosis.
The four great cornerstones of diagnostic medicine are anatomy (structure: what is there), physiology (how the structure/s work), pathology (what goes wrong with the anatomy and physiology) and psychology (mind and behavior). Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Pathology (from Greek grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study and Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and In addition, the physician should consider the patient in their 'well' context rather than simply as a walking medical condition. This means the socio-political context of the patient (family, work, stress, beliefs) should be assessed as it often offers vital clues to the patient's condition and further management.
A patient typically presents a set of complaints (the symptoms) to the physician, who then obtains further information about the patient's symptoms, previous state of health, living conditions, and so forth. A symptom' (from Greek σύμπτωμα, "accident misfortune that which befalls" from συμπίπτω, "I befall" from The physician then makes a review of systems (ROS) or systems inquiry, which is a set of ordered questions about each major body system in order: general (such as weight loss), endocrine, cardio-respiratory, etc. Next comes the actual physical examination and often laboratory tests; the findings are recorded, leading to a list of possible diagnoses. Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything These will be investigated in order of probability.
The next task is to enlist the patient's agreement to a management plan, which will include treatment as well as plans for follow-up. Importantly, during this process the healthcare provider educates the patient about the causes, progression, outcomes, and possible treatments of his ailments, as well as often providing advice for maintaining health. This teaching relationship is the basis of calling the physician doctor, which originally meant "teacher" in Latin. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The patient-physician relationship is additionally complicated by the patient's suffering (patient derives from the Latin patior, "suffer") and limited ability to relieve it on his/her own. A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health The physician's expertise comes from his knowledge of what is healthy and normal contrasted with knowledge and experience of other people who have suffered similar symptoms (unhealthy and abnormal), and the proven ability to relieve it with medicines (pharmacology) or other therapies about which the patient may initially have little knowledge. Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs
The physician-patient relationship can be analyzed from the perspective of ethical concerns, in terms of how well the goals of non-maleficence, beneficence, autonomy, and justice are achieved. Medical ethics is primarily a field of Applied ethics, the study of Moral values and judgments as they apply to Medicine. Many other values and ethical issues can be added to these. In different societies, periods, and cultures, different values may be assigned different priorities. For example, in the last 30 years medical care in the Western World has increasingly emphasized patient autonomy in decision making.
The relationship and process can also be analyzed in terms of social power relationships (e. g. , by Michel Foucault), or economic transactions. Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. Physicians have been accorded gradually higher status and respect over the last century, and they have been entrusted with control of access to prescription medicines as a public health measure. This represents a concentration of power and carries both advantages and disadvantages to particular kinds of patients with particular kinds of conditions. A further twist has occurred in the last 25 years as costs of medical care have risen, and a third party (an insurance company or government agency) now often insists upon a share of decision-making power for a variety of reasons, reducing freedom of choice of healthcare providers and patients in many ways. Insurance, in Law and Economics, is a form of Risk management primarily used to hedge against the Risk of a contingent loss
The quality of the patient-physician relationship is important to both parties. A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health The better the relationship in terms of mutual respect, knowledge, trust, shared values and perspectives about disease and life, and time available, the better will be the amount and quality of information about the patient's disease transferred in both directions, enhancing accuracy of diagnosis and increasing the patient's knowledge about the disease. Where such a relationship is poor the physician's ability to make a full assessment is compromised and the patient is more likely to distrust the diagnosis and proposed treatment. In these circumstances and also in cases where there is genuine divergence of medical opinions, a second opinion from another physician may be sought or the patient may choose to go to another doctor.
In some settings, e. g. the hospital ward, the patient-physician relationship is much more complex, and many other people are involved when somebody is ill: relatives, neighbors, rescue specialists, nurses, technical personnel, social workers and others.
Clinical skills
A complete medical evaluation includes a medical history, a systems enquiry, a physical examination, appropriate laboratory or imaging studies, analysis of data and medical decision making to obtain diagnoses, and a treatment plan. The medical history or Anamnesis of a Patient is information gained by a Physician or other healthcare professional by asking specific questions Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs The medical history or Anamnesis of a Patient is information gained by a Physician or other healthcare professional by asking specific questions Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything [4]
The components of the medical history are:
- Chief complaint (CC): the reason for the current medical visit. These are the 'symptoms. ' They are in the patient's own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one. Also called 'presenting complaint. '
- History of present illness / complaint (HPI): the chronological order of events of symptoms and further clarification of each symptom.
- Current activity: occupation, hobbies, what the patient actually does.
- Medications (DHx): what drugs the patient takes including prescribed, over-the-counter, and home remedies, as well as alternative and herbal medicines/herbal remedies. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Over-the-counter (OTC drugs are medicines that may be sold without a prescription, in contrast to Prescription drugs The name "over-the-counter" Herbalism is a traditional Medicinal or Folk medicine practice based on the use of Plants and Plant extracts Herbalism is also known as Allergies are also recorded. Allergy is a disorder of the Immune system often also referred to as Atopy.
- Past medical history (PMH/PMHx): concurrent medical problems, past hospitalizations and operations, injuries, past infectious diseases and/or vaccinations, history of known allergies. Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic Vaccination is the administration of Antigenic material (the Vaccine) to produce immunity to a disease
- Social history (SH): birthplace, residences, marital history, social and economic status, habits (including diet, medications, tobacco, alcohol). This article is primarily about the human diet For a discussion of animal diets see List of feeding behaviours. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Tobacco Smoking is the inhalation of smoke from burned dried or cured leaves of the Tobacco plant most often in the form of a Cigarette. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon
- Family history (FH): listing of diseases in the family that may impact the patient. In Medicine, a family history consists of information about disorders that a patient's direct blood relatives have suffered from A family tree is sometimes used.
- Review of systems (ROS) or systems inquiry: a set of additional questions to ask which may be missed on HPI: a general enquiry (have you noticed any weight loss, fevers, lumps and bumps? etc), followed by questions on the body's main organ systems (heart, lungs, digestive tract, urinary tract, etc). The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic lung is the essential Respiration organ in air-breathing Animals including most Tetrapods a few Fish and a few Snails The most primitive The urinary system (also called Excretory system or the genitourinary system (GUS is the Organ system that produces stores and eliminates Urine.
The physical examination is the examination of the patient looking for signs of disease ('Symptoms' are what the patient volunteers, 'Signs' are what the healthcare provider detects by examination). Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs The healthcare provider uses the senses of sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes smell (taste has been made redundant by the availability of modern lab tests). Four chief methods are used: inspection, palpation (feel), percussion (tap to determine resonance characteristics), and auscultation (listen); smelling may be useful (e. In Medicine, inspection (Latin word "Inspectio" or the act of beholding is the thorough and unhurried visualization of the client Palpation used as part of a Physical examination in which an object is felt (usually with the hands of a Healthcare practitioner to determine its size shape firmness Percussion is a method of tapping on a surface to determine the underlying structure and is used in Clinical examinations to assess the condition of the Thorax or For the ancient monasterial worker see Auscultare Auscultation is the technical term for listening to the internal sounds of the body usually g. infection, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis). Uremia is a term used to loosely describe the illness accompanying kidney failure (also called renal failure Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA is a life-threatening complication in patients with diabetes mellitus The clinical examination involves study of:
- Vital signs including height, weight, body temperature, blood pressure, pulse, respiration rate, hemoglobin oxygen saturation
- General appearance of the patient and specific indicators of disease (nutritional status, presence of jaundice, pallor or clubbing)
- Skin
- Head, eye, ear, nose, and throat (HEENT)
- Cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels)
- Respiratory (large airways and lungs)
- Abdomen and rectum
- Genitalia (and pregnancy if the patient is or could be pregnant)
- Musculoskeletal (spine and extremities)
- Neurological (consciousness, awareness, brain, cranial nerves, spinal cord and peripheral nerves)
- Psychiatric (orientation, mental state, evidence of abnormal perception or thought)
Laboratory and imaging studies results may be obtained, if necessary. Blood pressure is also the title of a short story by Damon Runyan in Guys and Dolls and Other Stories In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Oxygen saturation is a relative measure of the amount of Oxygen that is Dissolved or carried in a given medium In Medicine, clubbing, finger clubbing, or digital clubbing is a deformity of the Fingers and fingernails that is associated with a The skin is the outer covering of living tissue of an animal (or plant In Anatomy, the head of an Animal is the Rostral part (from Anatomical position that usually comprises the Brain, Eyes Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain The ear is the sense organ that detects Sounds The Vertebrate ear shows a common biology from Fish to Humans with variations Anatomically a nose is a protuberance in Vertebrates that houses the Nostrils or nares which admit and expel air for respiration in conjunction with the In Anatomy, the throat is the anterior part of the Neck, in front of the vertebral column. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic The blood vessels are part of the Circulatory system and function to transport Blood throughout the body lung is the essential Respiration organ in air-breathing Animals including most Tetrapods a few Fish and a few Snails The most primitive In Vertebrates such as Mammals the abdomen (belly constitutes the part of the body between the Thorax (chest and Pelvis. The rectum (from the Latin rectum intestinum, meaning straight intestine) is the final straight portion of the Large intestine in some Mammals A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a Laboratory where tests are done on clinical specimens in order to get information about the Health Medical imaging refers to the techniques and processes used to create Images of the human body (or parts thereof for clinical purposes ( Medical procedures seeking to
The medical decision-making (MDM) process involves analysis and synthesis of all the above data to come up with a list of possible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), along with an idea of what needs to be done to obtain a definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient's problem. A differential diagnosis (sometimes abbreviated DDx, ddx
The treatment plan may include ordering additional laboratory tests and studies, starting therapy, referral to a specialist, or watchful observation. Follow-up may be advised.
This process is used by primary care providers as well as specialists. It may take only a few minutes if the problem is simple and straightforward. On the other hand, it may take weeks in a patient who has been hospitalized with bizarre symptoms or multi-system problems, with involvement by several specialists.
On subsequent visits, the process may be repeated in an abbreviated manner to obtain any new history, symptoms, physical findings, and lab or imaging results or specialist consultations.
Branches
Working together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly-trained health professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. In Academia, Pedagogy, Physical sciences, Earth sciences, Human sciences and Social sciences The health care industry or health profession treats and tends to patients who are injured sick disabled or infirm Examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, (pharmacy, pharmacists), (physiotherapy,physiotherapists), respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians and bioengineers. A nurse is responsible—along with other Health care Professionals —for the treatment safety and recovery of acutely or chronically Respiratory Therapy is categorized as an Allied health profession in the United States and Canada Speech-language pathology is the study of disorders that affect a person's Speech, Language, cognition voice swallowing ( Dysphagia) and the rehabilitative Occupational Therapy, often abbreviated "OT", is the "use of productive or creative activity in the treatment or rehabilitation of physically cognitively or A dietitian (also 'dietician' though 'dietitian' is used consistently by professionals is an expert in Food and Nutrition. Bioengineering (also known as Biological Engineering is the application of Engineering principles to address challenges in the fields of Biology and Medicine
The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry and psychology, while separate disciplines from medicine, are considered medical fields. Dentistry' is the "evaluation diagnosis prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical surgical or related procedures of diseases disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing
A patient admitted to hospital is usually under the care of a specific team based on their main presenting problem, e. g. the Cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, e. g. surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any subsequent complications / developments.
Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain subspecialties are in.
The main branches of medicine used in Wikipedia are:
- Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated in, and some returns to in Biomedical research#Preclinical research. Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted
- Medical specialties
- interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialties are mixed to function in certain occasions. A specialty in Medicine is a branch of medical science other than General practice. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the
Basic sciences
- Anatomy is the study of the physical structure of organisms. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration In contrast to macroscopic or gross anatomy, cytology and histology are concerned with microscopic structures.
- Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms, especially the structure and function of their chemical components. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as
- Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense. Biostatistics (a Portmanteau word made from biology and statistics sometimes referred to as biometry or biometrics) is the application of Statistics A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical research. It is also fundamental to epidemiology and evidence-based medicine. Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the Health and Illness of populations and serves as the foundation and Logic of interventions made in the
- Cytology is the microscopic study of individual cells. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called
- Embryology is the study of the early development of organisms. Embryology (from Greek grc ἔμβρυον embryon, "unborn embryo" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the development
- Epidemiology is the study of the demographics of disease processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of epidemics. Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the Health and Illness of populations and serves as the foundation and Logic of interventions made in the In Epidemiology, an epidemic (from Greek epi- upon + demos people is a classification of a disease that appears as new cases in a
- Genetics is the study of genes, and their role in biological inheritance. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is
- Histology is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light microscopy, electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Histology (from the Greek = 'tissue' is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of Plants and Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples or objects Immunohistochemistry or IHC refers to the process of localizing proteins in cells of a tissue section exploiting the principle of antibodies binding specifically
- Immunology is the study of the immune system, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in humans, for example. Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical Science that covers the study of all aspects of the Immune system in all Organisms It deals with An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor
- Medical physics is the study of the applications of physics principles in medicine. Medical physics is the application of Physics to Medicine. It generally concerns physics as applied to Medical imaging and Radiotherapy, although
- Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including protozoa, bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals" are unicellular Eukaryotes (singular The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable
- Neuroscience includes those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the nervous system. Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself A main focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain and spinal cord. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain The spinal cord is a long thin tubular bundle of Nerves that is an extension of the Central nervous system from the brain and is enclosed in and protected
- Nutrition is the study of the relationship of food and drink to health and disease, especially in determining an optimal diet. Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support Medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, weight and eating disorders, allergies, malnutrition, and neoplastic diseases. Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc Cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular diseases refers to the class of diseases that involve the Heart or Blood vessels ( arteries and Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Malnutrition is a general term for a medical condition caused by an improper or insufficient diet.
- Pathology as a science is the study of disease—the causes, course, progression and resolution thereof. Pathology; please do not remove --> also called, or, is a broad and complex scientific field
- Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their actions. Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease
- Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechanisms. Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical
- Toxicology is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and poisons. Toxicology (from the Greek words toxicos and logos) is the study of the adverse effects of Chemicals on living organisms In the context of Biology, poisons are substances that can cause damage, Illness, or Death to Organisms usually by
Specialties
In the broadest meaning of "medicine", there are many different specialties. A specialty in Medicine is a branch of medical science other than General practice. However, within medical circles, there are two broad categories: "Medicine" and "Surgery. " "Medicine" refers to the practice of non-operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in "Internal Medicine". "Surgery" refers to the practice of operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in "General Surgery. " There are some specialties of medicine that do not fit into either of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia, and those are also discussed further below.
Surgery
Surgical specialties employ operative treatment. A specialty in Medicine is a branch of medical science other than General practice. In addition, surgeons must decide when an operation is necessary, and also treat many non-surgical issues, particularly in the surgical intensive care unit (SICU), where a variety of critical issues arise. Surgery has many subspecialties, e. g. general surgery, trauma surgery, cardiovascular surgery, neurosurgery, maxillofacial surgery, orthopedic surgery, otolaryngology, plastic surgery, oncologic surgery, vascular surgery, and pediatric surgery. This page is about the surgical specialty For the goregrind band see General Surgery (band General surgery despite its name is Trauma surgeons are physicians (MBBS MBChB MB MD or (DO who have completed residency training in general surgery and fellowship training in trauma or surgical critical Cardiac surgery is Surgery on the Heart and/or Great vessels performed by a Cardiac surgeon. Neurosurgery is the surgical discipline focused on treating those central, Peripheral nervous system and spinal column diseases amenable to surgical Oral and maxillofacial surgery is surgery to correct a wide spectrum of diseases injuries and defects in the head neck face jaws and the hard and soft tissues of the oral and maxillofacial Orthopedic surgery or orthopedics (also spelled orthopaedics) is the branch of Surgery concerned with injuries to or conditions involving the Otolaryngology is the branch of Medicine that specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of Ear, Nose, Throat, and head and neck disorders Plastic surgery is a medical specialty interested in the correction of form and function Surgical oncology is the branch of Surgery which focuses on the surgical management of malignant neoplasms ( Cancer) Vascular surgery is a specialty of surgery in which diseases of the vascular system or arteries and Veins are managed by medical therapy minimally-invasive catheter Pediatric surgery (sometimes spelled paediatric surgery) is a subspecialty of surgery involving the surgery of fetuses infants children adolescents and young adults In some centers, anesthesiology is part of the division of surgery (for logistical and planning purposes), although it is not a surgical discipline.
Surgical training in the U. S. requires a minimum of five years of residency after medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery often require seven or more years. In addition, fellowships can last an additional one to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to research. Thus in some cases surgical training will not finish until more than a decade after medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time-consuming. A surgical resident's average work week is approximately 75 hours. Some subspecialties of surgery, such as neurosurgery, require even longer hours, and utilize an extension to the 80 hour regulated work week, allowing up to 88 hours per week. Many surgical programs still exceed this work hour limit. Attempts to limit the amount of hours worked has been difficult because of the large volume of patients who require surgical care, the limited amount of resources (including a shortage of people willing to enter into surgery as a career)[5], the need to perform long operations and still provide care to all pre- and post-operative patients, and the need to provide constant coverage in the OR, ICU, and ER.
Medicine
- Internal medicine is concerned with systemic diseases of adults, i. Internal medicine is the medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis management and nonsurgical treatment of unusual or serious diseases e. those diseases that affect the body as a whole (restrictive, current meaning), or with all adult non-operative somatic medicine (traditional, inclusive meaning), thus excluding pediatrics, surgery, gynecology and obstetrics, and psychiatry. Practitioners of such specialties are referred to as physicians. There are several subdisciplines of internal medicine:
Generally, Pediatrics and Family Practice are also considered to fall under the category of "Medicine". Cardiology (from Greek grc καρδίᾱ kardiā, "heart" and grc -λογία -logia) is the branch of Internal medicine Intensive Care Medicine or critical care medicine is a branch of medicine concerned with the provision of Life support or organ support systems in patients Endocrinology (from Greek grc ἔνδον endon, "within" grc κρῑνω krīnō, "to separate" and grc -λογία Gastroenterology ( MeSH heading is the branch of Medicine whereby the Digestive system and its disorders are studied Hepatology is the branch of Medicine that incorporates study of Liver, Gallbladder, Biliary tree and Pancreas as well as management Hematology ( American English) or haematology ( British English) is the branch of biology (physiology Pathology, Clinical laboratory An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic Nephrology (from Greek nephros, " Kidney " and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Oncology is the branch of medicine that studies Tumors ( Cancer) and seeks to understand their development diagnosis treatment and prevention Proctology is a field in medicine dealing with disorders of the Rectum or Anus. In Medicine, pulmonology (aka pneumology) is the specialty that deals with Diseases of the Lungs and the Respiratory tract. Rheumatology is a sub-specialty in Internal medicine and Pediatrics, devoted to the Diagnosis and therapy of Rheumatic diseases. Geriatrics is the branch of Medicine that focuses on health care of the elderly Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents Family medicine differs from the traditional European general practitioner
Medical training, as opposed to surgical training, requires three years of residency training after medical school. This can then be followed by a one to two year fellowship in the subspecialties listed above. In general, resident work hours in medicine are less than those in surgery, averaging about 60 hours per week.
Diagnostic specialties
- Clinical laboratory sciences are the clinical diagnostic services which apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients. A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a Laboratory where tests are done on clinical specimens in order to get information about the Health Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything In the United States these services are supervised by a pathologist. The personnel that work in these medical laboratory departments are technically trained staff who do not hold medical degrees, but who usually hold an undergraduate medical technology degree, who actually perform the tests, assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services. A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a Laboratory where tests are done on clinical specimens in order to get information about the Health Medical technology refers to the diagnostic or therapeutic application of Science and Technology to improve the management of Health conditions A medical test is a kind of Medical procedure performed to detect, diagnose, or evaluate Disease, disease processes susceptibility and determine An assay is a procedure where a property or concentration of an Analyte is measured Subspecialties include Transfusion medicine, Cellular pathology, Clinical chemistry, Hematology, Clinical microbiology and Clinical immunology. Transfusion medicine (or transfusiology) is the branch of medicine that is concerned with the transfusion of blood and Blood components The Blood Cytopathology (from Greek grc κύτος kytos, "a hollow" grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia Clinical chemistry (also known as clinical biochemistry, chemical pathology or pure blood chemistry) is the area of Pathology that is generally Hematology ( American English) or haematology ( British English) is the branch of biology (physiology Pathology, Clinical laboratory Medical microbiology is a branch of Microbiology which deals with the study of microorganisms including bacteria viruses fungi and parasites which are of medical importance Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical Science that covers the study of all aspects of the Immune system in all Organisms It deals with
- Pathology as a medical specialty is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of diseases and the morphologic, physiologic changes produced by them. Pathology; please do not remove --> are physicians who diagnose and characterize disease in living patients As a diagnostic specialty, pathology can be considered the basis of modern scientific medical knowledge and plays a large role in evidence-based medicine. Evidence-based medicine (EBM aims to apply Evidence gained from the Scientific method to certain parts of medical practice Many modern molecular tests such as flow cytometry, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, gene rearrangements studies and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) fall within the territory of pathology. Immunohistochemistry or IHC refers to the process of localizing proteins in cells of a tissue section exploiting the principle of antibodies binding specifically Cytogenetics is a branch of Genetics that is concerned with the study of chromosomes and cell division FISH ( Fluorescent In situ hybridization) is a cytogenetic technique that can be used to detect and localize the presence or absence
- Radiology is concerned with imaging of the human body, e. Radiology is the medical specialty directing Medical imaging technologies to diagnose and treat diseases g. by x-rays, x-ray computed tomography, ultrasonography, and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography. X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. Computed tomography (CT is a Medical imaging method employing Tomography. Tomography is imaging by sections or sectioning A device used in tomography is called a tomograph, while the image produced is a tomogram.
- Clinical neurophysiology is concerned with testing the physiology or function of the central and peripheral aspects of the nervous system. Clinical neurophysiology is a medical speciality that studies the central and peripheral nervous systems through the recording of bioelectrical activity whether spontaneous These kinds of tests can be divided into recordings of: (1) spontaneous or continuously running electrical activity, or (2) stimulus evoked responses. Subspecialties include Electroencephalography, Electromyography, Evoked potential, Nerve conduction study and Polysomnography. Electromyography (EMG is a technique for evaluating and recording the activation signal of muscles An evoked potential (or "evoked response" is an electrical potential recorded from a Human or Animal following presentation of a stimulus as distinct from A nerve conduction study (NCS is a test commonly used to evaluate the function especially the ability of Electrical conduction, of the motor and Sensory nerves See also Polysomnogram Polysomnography or PSG is a multi-parametric test used in the study of Sleep; the test result is called a Sometimes these tests are performed by techs without a medical degree, but the interpretation of these tests is done by a medical professional.
Other
Following are some selected fields of medical specialties that don't directly fit into any of the above mentioned groups.
- Ophthalmology exclusively concerned with the eye and ocular adnexa. Ophthalmology is the branch of Medicine which deals with the diseases and surgery of the visual pathways including the Eye, Brain Combines conservative and surgical therapy, and has its own College.
- Dermatology is concerned with the skin and its diseases. Dermatology (from Greek grc δέρμα derma, "skin" and grc -λογία -logia) is a branch of Medicine dealing with In the UK, dermatology is a subspecialty of general medicine.
- Emergency medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of acute or life-threatening conditions, including trauma, surgical, medical, pediatric, and psychiatric emergencies. Emergency Medicine is a speciality of Medicine that focuses on the Diagnosis and treatment of acute illnesses and injuries that require immediate medical attention Treatment of physical trauma is described here and in First aid.
- Obstetrics and gynecology (often abbreviated as OB/GYN) are concerned respectively with childbirth and the female reproductive and associated organs. Obstetrics (from the Latin obstare, "to stand by" is the surgical speciality dealing with the care of a woman and her offspring during Pregnancy Gynaecology or gynecology (see spelling differences) refers to the surgical specialty dealing with health of the female reproductive system ( Uterus As per the discussion in the Talk page there has been no consensus as to using the American (gynecology or British (gynaecology spelling for this article BUT Reproductive medicine and fertility medicine are generally practiced by gynecological specialists. Fertility medication is medication that enhances Fertility. For women fertility medication is used to stimulate follicle development of the Ovary.
- Palliative care is a relatively modern branch of clinical medicine that deals with pain and symptom relief and emotional support in patients with terminal illnesses including cancer and heart failure. Palliative care (from Latin palliare to cloak is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the severity of Disease Symptoms Terminal illness is a medical term popularized in the 20th century to describe an active and Malignant Disease that cannot be cured or adequately treated Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Heart failure is a Cardiac condition that occurs when a problem with the structure or function of the Heart impairs its ability to supply
- Pediatrics (AE) or paediatrics (BE) is devoted to the care of infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents Like internal medicine, there are many pediatric subspecialties for specific age ranges, organ systems, disease classes, and sites of care delivery.
- Physical medicine and rehabilitation (or physiatry) is concerned with functional improvement after injury, illness, or congenital disorders. Physical medicine and rehabilitation (PM&R or physiatry, is a branch of Medicine dealing with functional restoration of a person affected by physical disability A congenital disorder is a disease or disorder that is present at birth
- Psychiatry is the branch of medicine concerned with the bio-psycho-social study of the etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of cognitive, perceptual, emotional and behavioral disorders. Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric The biopsychosocial model is a general model or approach Etiology (alternatively aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually Related non-medical fields include psychotherapy and clinical psychology. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing
Interdisciplinary fields
Interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine are:
- General practice, family practice, family medicine or primary care is, in many countries, the first port-of-call for patients with non-emergency medical problems. A general practitioner, or GP is a medical practitioner who provides Primary care and specializes in Family medicine. Family medicine differs from the traditional European general practitioner Family medicine differs from the traditional European general practitioner
- Many other health science fields, e. Health science is the applied science dealing with Health, and it includes many sub disciplines g. dietetics
- Bioethics is a field of study which concerns the relationship between biology, science, medicine and ethics, philosophy and theology. A dietitian (also 'dietician' though 'dietitian' is used consistently by professionals is an expert in Food and Nutrition. Bioethics is the philosophical study of the ethical controversies brought about by advances in Biology and Medicine. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective
- Biomedical Engineering is a field dealing with the application of engineering principles to medical practice. Biomedical engineering ( BME) is the application of engineering principles and techniques to the medical field Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and
- Clinical pharmacology is concerned with how systems of therapeutics interact with patients. Clinical pharmacology is the science of drugs and their Clinical use Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the
- Conservation medicine studies the relationship between human and animal health, and environmental conditions. Conservation medicine is an emerging interdisciplinary field that studies the relationship between Human and Animal Health, and environmental Also known as ecological medicine, environmental medicine, or medical geology.
- Disaster medicine deals with medical aspects of emergency preparedness, disaster mitigation and management. Disaster medicine is the area of physician medical specialization serving the dual areas of providing medical care to disaster survivors and providing medically related Disaster preparation
- Diving medicine (or hyperbaric medicine) is the prevention and treatment of diving-related problems. Diving medicine, also called undersea medicine, is the diagnosis treatment and prevention of conditions caused by humans entering the undersea environment Hyperbaric medicine, also known as hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT is the medical use of Oxygen at a higher than Atmospheric pressure.
- Evolutionary medicine is a perspective on medicine derived through applying evolutionary theory. Evolutionary medicine or Darwinian medicine is the field of knowledge that integrates Medicine with Evolutionary biology, more specifically with the
- Forensic medicine deals with medical questions in legal context, such as determination of the time and cause of death. Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society
- Gender-based medicine studies the biological and physiological differences between the human sexes and how that affects differences in disease. Gender-based medicine or simply gender medicine is the field of medicine that studies the biological and physiological differences between the human sexes and how that affects differences
- Hospital medicine is the general medical care of hospitalized patients. Hospital medicine in the United States is the discipline concerned with the general medical care of Hospitalized patients Physicians whose primary professional focus is hospital medicine are called hospitalists in the USA. Hospital medicine in the United States is the discipline concerned with the general medical care of Hospitalized patients
- Medical humanities includes the humanities (literature, philosophy, ethics, history and religion), social science (anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, sociology), and the arts (literature, theater, film, and visual arts) and their application to medical education and practice. Medical humanities is an Interdisciplinary field of Medicine which includes the Humanities ( Literature, Philosophy, Ethics The humanities are academic disciplines which study the Human condition, using methods that are primarily Analytic, Critical, or Speculative Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Cultural studies is an academic discipline which combines Political economy, Communication, Sociology, Social theory, Literary theory Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Theatre (or theater, see spelling differences) is the branch of the Performing arts defined by Bernard Beckerman as what "occurs when one The visual arts are art forms that focus on the creation of works which are primarily Visual in nature such as Painting, Photography
- Medical informatics, medical computer science, medical information and eHealth are relatively recent fields that deal with the application of computers and information technology to medicine. Health informatics or medical informatics is the intersection of Information science, Computer science, and Health care. Health informatics or medical informatics is the intersection of Information science, Computer science, and Health care. eHealth (also written e-health) is a relatively recent term for healthcare practice which is supported by electronic processes and communication A computer is a Machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions. Information technology ( IT) as defined by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA is "the study design development implementation support
- Nosology is the classification of diseases for various purposes. Nosology (from the Greek νόσος, nosos, "disease" + λόγος " Logos " is a branch of Medicine
- Preventive medicine is the branch of medicine concerned with preventing disease. Generally speaking preventive medicine is the part of Medicine engaged with preventing Disease rather than curing it
- Community health or public health is an aspect of health services concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. Community health, a field within Public health, is a discipline that concerns itself with the study and betterment of the health characteristics of biological communities Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society organisations
- Occupational medicine's principal role is the provision of health advice to organizations and individuals to ensure that the highest standards of health and safety at work can be achieved and maintained. Occupational safety and health is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the Safety, Health and welfare of people engaged in
- Aerospace medicine deals with medical problems related to flying and space travel. Aviation medicine, also called flight medicine or aerospace medicine, is a branch of preventive or Occupational medicine in which the patients/subjects A human spaceflight is a Spaceflight with a human crew, and possibly passengers
- Osteopathic medicine, a branch of the U. S. medical profession.
- Pharmacogenomics is a form of individualized medicine. Pharmacogenomics is the branch of Pharmacology which deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating Gene expression
- Sports medicine deals with the treatment and preventive care of athletes, amateur and professional. Sports medicine specializes in preventing diagnosing and treating injuries related to participating in sports and/or exercise specifically the rotation or deformation of joints or A sportsperson ( British and American English) or athlete (principally American English is any person who participates regularly in a Sport. An amateur is generally considered a person attached to a particular pursuit study or science without formal training or pay This article is about people called professionals For the Movie, see The Professional or Leon. The team includes specialty physicians and surgeons, athletic trainers, physical therapists, coaches, other personnel, and, of course, the athlete. Coach (baseball|Coach (basketball|Coach (ice hockeyIn Sports a coach or manager is an individual involved in the direction instruction and training of the operations
- Therapeutics is the field, more commonly referenced in earlier periods of history, of the various remedies that can be used to treat disease and promote health [1]. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the
- Travel medicine or emporiatrics deals with health problems of international travelers or travelers across highly different environments. Travel medicine or emporiatrics is the branch of Medicine that deals with the prevention and management of health problems of International travelers
- Professions complementing physicians
- Nursing specialties: specialties performed by Nurses. In the modern world there are a large number of specialities within nursing A nurse is responsible—along with other Health care Professionals —for the treatment safety and recovery of acutely or chronically
- Mid-level practitioners: Performance of medical sciences by other certified people than physicians or nurses; Nurse practitioners, midwives and physician assistants, treat patients and prescribe medication in many jurisdictions. A Nurse Practitioner (NP is a Registered nurse who has completed specific advanced Nursing education (generally a Master's degree) and training in the Midwifery is a Health care profession where providers give Prenatal care to expecting Mothers attend the birth of the Infant In the United States, a physician assistant (PA is an advanced practice clinician licensed to practice Medicine with the supervision of a licensed
- Urgent care focuses on delivery of unscheduled, walk-in care outside of the hospital emergency department for injuries and illnesses that are not severe enough to require care in an emergency department. Urgent care is the delivery of Ambulatory care in a facility dedicated to the delivery of Medical care outside of a Hospital Emergency department
- Veterinary medicine; veterinarians apply similar techniques as physicians to the care of animals. Veterinary medicine the application of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion, domestic, exotic, wildlife A veterinarian ( American English) or a Veterinary surgeon ( British English) often shortened to vet, is a Physician
Education
Medical education is education connected to the practice of being a medical practitioner, either the initial training to become a physician or further training thereafter. Medical education is education related to the practice of being a medical practitioner, either the initial training to become a doctor (i Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine
Medical education and training varies considerably across the world, however typically involves entry level education at a university medical school, followed by a period of supervised practice (internship and/or residency) and possibly postgraduate vocational training. Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine A medical intern is a term used for a Physician in training who has completed Medical school. Residency is a stage of graduate medical training. A resident physician or resident is a person who has received a Medical degree ( MD Continuing medical education is a requirement of many regulatory authorities. Continuing medical education (CME refers to a specific form of Continuing education (CE that helps those in the medical field maintain competence and learn about
Various teaching methodologies have been utilized in medical education, which is an active area of educational research.
Presently, in England, a typical medicine course at university is 5 years after secondary education (4 if the student already holds a degree). Amongst some institutions and for some students, it may be 6 years (including the selection of an intercalated BSc—taking one year—at some point after the pre-clinical studies). This is followed by 2 Foundation years afterwards, namely F1 and F2. Students register with the UK General Medical Council at the end of F1. At the end of F2, they may pursue further years of study.
In the US and Canada, a potential medical student must first complete an undergraduate degree in any subject before applying to a graduate medical school to pursue a (M.D., N.D. or D.O.) program. Doctor of Medicine ( MD or MD, from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine" is a doctoral Naturopathic medicine (also known as naturopathy, or natural medicine) is a Complementary and alternative medicine which emphasizes the body's intrinsic Some students opt for the research-focused MD/PhD dual degree, which is usually completed in 7-8 years. There are certain courses which are pre-requisite for being accepted to medical school, such as general chemistry, organic chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, English, labwork, etc. The specific requirements vary by school.
In Australia, there are two pathways to a medical degree. Students can choose to take a five or six year undergraduate medical degree Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS or BMed) straight from high school, or complete a bachelors degree (generally three years, usually in the medical sciences) and then apply for a four year graduate entry Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) program. Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, or in Latin Medicinae Baccalaureus et Baccalaureus Chirurgiae (abbreviated MB BChir, BM BCh, Graduate Medical Program (GMP or sometimes also known as Graduate Entry Program (GEP are terms generally used outside of the United States to refer to medical programs Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, or in Latin Medicinae Baccalaureus et Baccalaureus Chirurgiae (abbreviated MB BChir, BM BCh,
Legal restrictions
In most countries, it is a legal requirement for a medical doctor to be licensed or registered. In general, this entails a medical degree from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an equivalent national organization, which may ask the applicant to pass exams. This restricts the considerable legal authority of the medical profession to physicians that are trained and qualified by national standards. It is also intended as an assurance to patients and as a safeguard against charlatans that practice inadequate medicine for personal gain. A charlatan (also called swindler) is a person practicing Quackery or some similar Confidence trick in order to obtain money or advantage via some form While the laws generally require medical doctors to be trained in "evidence based", Western, or Hippocratic Medicine, they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of health. Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca
Criticism
Criticism of medicine has a long history. In the Middle Ages, some people did not consider it a profession suitable for Christians, as disease was often considered God-sent. God was considered to be the "divine physician" who sent illness or healing depending on his will. However, many monastic orders, particularly the Benedictines, considered the care of the sick as their chief work of mercy. Benedictine refers to the Spirituality and Consecrated life in accordance with the Rule of St Benedict, written by Benedict of Nursia in Barber-surgeons generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a specialty of medicine, rather than an accessory field. The Barber surgeon was one of the most common Medical practitioners of medieval Europe - generally charged with looking after Soldiers during
Through the course of the twentieth century, healthcare providers focused increasingly on the technology that was enabling them to make dramatic improvements in patients' health. The ensuing development of a more mechanistic, detached practice, with the perception of an attendant loss of patient-focused care, known as the medical model of health, led to further criticisms. The medical model describes the approach to illness that is dominant in Western medicine. This issue started to reach collective professional consciousness in the 1970s and the profession had begun to respond by the 1980s and 1990s.
The noted anarchist Ivan Illich heavily criticized modern medicine. Ivan Illich (ɪˈvɑn ˈɪlɪtʃ ( Vienna, 4 September 1926 &ndash Bremen, 2 December 2002) was an Austrian In his 1976 work Medical Nemesis, Illich stated that modern medicine "medicalizes" disease and causes loss of health and wellness, while generally failing to restore health by eliminating disease. This medicalization of disease forces the human to become a lifelong patient. [6] Other less radical philosophers have voiced similar views, but none were as virulent as Illich. Another example can be found in Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology by Neil Postman, 1992, which criticizes overreliance on technological means in medicine. Neil Postman ( March 8, 1931 - October 5, 2003) was an American professor media theorist, and cultural critic who is best
The inability of modern medicine to properly address some common complaints continues to prompt many people to seek support from alternative medicine. The term alternative medicine, as used in the modern western world encompasses any healing practice "that does not fall within the realm of conventional Medicine. Although most alternative approaches lack scientific validation,[7] some may be effective in individual cases. Some physicians combine alternative medicine with orthodox approaches.
Medical errors and overmedication are also the focus of many complaints and negative coverage. Medical Error is an inaccurate or incomplete diagnosis and/or Treatment of a Disease; Injury; Syndrome; Overmedication is when a doctor prescribes unnecessary or excessive Medication to a Patient. Practitioners of human factors engineering believe that there is much that medicine may usefully gain by emulating concepts in aviation safety, where it was long ago realized that it is dangerous to place too much responsibility on one "superhuman" individual and expect him or her not to make errors. See also The Human Factor (disambiguation. Human factors is a term that covers The science of understanding the properties Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and Air safety is a term encompassing the theory investigation and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through regulation as well as through The word error has different meanings and usages relative to how it is conceptually applied Reporting systems and checking mechanisms are becoming more common in identifying sources of error and improving practice.
See also
References
- ^ Etymology: Latin: medicina, from ars medicina "the medical art," from medicus "physician. The term alternative medicine, as used in the modern western world encompasses any healing practice "that does not fall within the realm of conventional Medicine. This list shows causes of Human Deaths worldwide for a single year 2002 arranged by the associated Mortality rate. Bioethics is the philosophical study of the ethical controversies brought about by advances in Biology and Medicine. The biomedical model of Medicine, has been around since the mid-nineteenth century as the predominant model used by physicians in the diagnosis of disease Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything Health is a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity Health care is the prevention treatment and management of illness and the preservation of mental health through the services offered by the medical, Nursing The health care industry or health profession treats and tends to patients who are injured sick disabled or infirm This article describes policy-related systems For the article on hospital networks which are sometimes referred to as health care systems see Hospital network. The terms iatrogenesis and iatrogenic artifact refer to adverse effects or complications caused by or resulting from medical treatment or advice Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging. Lists of Diseases by name 0-9 A B C D E F G H I J K A list of types of Disorders A Adenoid disorders Adrenal disorders Allergic disorders This is the overview for the medical abbreviations series This list is far from complete you can help by expanding it This is a list of roots suffixes and prefixes used in Medical terminology, their meanings and their Etymology. Foundations De Materia Medica Medical anthropology is a subfield of social and Cultural anthropology. A medical dictionary is a lexicon for words used in Medicine. Medical education is education related to the practice of being a medical practitioner, either the initial training to become a doctor (i Medical equipment is designed to aid in the diagnosis monitoring or treatment of medical conditions Medical ethics is primarily a field of Applied ethics, the study of Moral values and judgments as they apply to Medicine. Medical literature refers to articles in journals and texts in books devoted to the field of Medicine. Medicalization (or medicalisation) is the process by which health or behavior conditions come to be defined and treated as medical issues Naturopathic medicine (also known as naturopathy, or natural medicine) is a Complementary and alternative medicine which emphasizes the body's intrinsic A pandemic (from Greek παν pan all + δήμος demos people is an Epidemic of Infectious disease that spreads through A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health A rare disease (sometimes known as an orphan disease has such a low Prevalence in a population that a doctor in a busy General practice would not Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Traumatology (from Greek "Trauma" meaning injury or wound is the study of Wounds and injuries caused by Accidents or Violence to a Validation can be total or partial validation of foreign university and non-university studies and degrees "(Etym.Online) Cf. mederi "to heal," etym. "know the best course for," from PIE base *med- "to measure, limit. Cf. Greek medos "counsel, plan," Avestan vi-mad "physician")
- ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
- ^ AHIMA e-HIM Work Group on the Legal Health Record. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Avestan is an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the Zoroastrian Avesta. (2005). "Update: Guidelines for Defining the Legal Health Record for Disclosure Purposes.". Journal of AHIMA 78 (8): 64A–G.
- ^ Coulehan JL, Block MR (2005). The Medical Interview: Mastering Skills for Clinical Practice, 5th ed. , F. A. Davis. ISBN 0-8036-1246-X.
- ^ Dorsey, et al. , "Influence of Controllable Lifestyle on Recent Trends in Specialty Choice by US Medical Students
- ^ Ivan Illich (1976). Ivan Illich (ɪˈvɑn ˈɪlɪtʃ ( Vienna, 4 September 1926 &ndash Bremen, 2 December 2002) was an Austrian Medical Nemesis. ISBN 0-394-71245-5 ISBN 0-7145-1095-5 ISBN 0-7145-1096-3.
- ^ BBC info (2003). Retrieved on 2008-04-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer
External links
- NLM (US National Library of Medicine, contains resources for patients and health care professionals)
- ScanGrants List of funding sources for medicine and public health
The United States National Library of Medicine ( NLM) operated by the United States federal government, is the world's largest Medical library.
Dictionary
medicine
-noun
- A substance which specifically promotes healing when ingested or consumed in some way.
- A treatment or cure.
- The study of the cause, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of disease or illness.
- The profession of physicians, surgeons and related specialisms; those who practice medicine.
- Ritual Native American magic used (notably by a medicine man) to promote a desired outcome in healing, hunting, warfare etc.
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