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Maximian
Caesar then Augustus of the West

Coin featuring Maximian
Reign July 21[1] or July 25[2] 285 – 286 (as Caesar under Diocletian)
March 1, 286[3] – May 1, 305 (as Augustus of the West, with Diocletian as Augustus of the East)[4]
Late 306 – November 11, 308 (declared himself Augustus)[5]
310 (declared himself Augustus)[6]
Full name Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius[7]
Born ca. Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Events 356 BC - Herostratus sets fire to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant For the processor see Intel 80286. Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Events By Place Roman Empire May 1 — Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors of Rome retire from office Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Events By Place Roman Empire November 11 — The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire the 250[8]
Birthplace Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia)
Died ca. Sirmium in Pannonia should not be confused with Sirmio on Lake Garda Sirmium (today Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) was an ancient Sremska Mitrovica ( Serbian Cyrillic: Сремска Митровица is a city and municipality located Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country July 310[8]
Place of death Massilia (Marseille, France)
Predecessor Numerian
Successor Constantius Chlorus and Galerius
Consort to Eutropia
Children Flavia Maximiana Theodora
Maxentius
Fausta

Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (ca. Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numerianus (d November 284 known in English as Numerian, was a Roman Emperor (December 283 &ndash November 284 Numerian was the Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 Eutropia (d after 325 the wife of Emperor Maximian. She was of Syrian origin Flavia Maximiana Theodora (known as Theodora was the stepdaughter of Maximian. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c 278 - 28 October 312) was Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 312 Fausta Flavia Maxima, Roman Empress (289-326AD She was the daughter of the Roman Emperor Maximianus. 250 – ca. July 310[8]), commonly referred to as Maximian, was Caesar (junior Roman Emperor) from July 285[1][2] and Augustus (senior Roman Emperor) from April 1, 286[3] to May 1, 305. Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne For the processor see Intel 80286. Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Events By Place Roman Empire May 1 — Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors of Rome retire from office [4] He shared the latter title with his co-emperor and superior, Diocletian, whose political brain complemented Maximian's military brawn. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Maximian established his residence at Trier but spent most of his time on campaign. Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. In the late summer of 285, he suppressed rebels in Gaul known as the Bagaudae. In the time of the Roman Empire bagaudae (also spelled bacaudae) were groups of peasant insurgents who emerged during the " Crisis of the Third Century From 285 to 288, he fought against Germanic tribes along the Rhine frontier. Together with Diocletian, he ran a scorched earth campaign deep into the territory of the Alamanni tribes in 288, temporarily relieving the Rhenish provinces from the threat of Germanic invasion. A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany

The man he appointed to police the Channel shores, Carausius, rebelled in 286, causing the secession of Britain and northwestern Gaul. Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius (died 293 was a military commander of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century Maximian failed to oust Carausius, and his invasion fleet was destroyed by storms in 289 or 290. Maximan's subordinate, Constantius, campaigned against Carausius' successor, Allectus, while Maximian held the Rhenish frontier. Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Allectus (died 296 was a Roman usurper - emperor in Britain and northern Gaul from 293 to 296 The rebel leader was ousted in 296, and Maximian moved south to combat Moorish pirates in Iberia and Berber incursions in Mauretania. In Antiquity Mauretania was originally an independent Berber kingdom on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa (named after the When these campaigns concluded in 298, he departed for Italy, where he lived in comfort until 305. At Diocletian's behest, Maximian abdicated on May 1, 305, gave the Augustan office to Constantius, and retired to southern Italy. Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Events By Place Roman Empire May 1 — Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors of Rome retire from office

In late 306, Maximian took the title of Augustus again and aided his son Maxentius' rebellion in Italy. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c 278 - 28 October 312) was Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 312 In April 307, he attempted to depose his son, but failed and fled to the court of Constantius' successor, Constantine, in Trier. Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine At the Council of Carnuntum in November 308, Diocletian and his successor, Galerius, forced Maximian to renounce his imperial claim again. Carnuntum (Καρνοιις in Ptolemy) was an important Roman army camp in what is now Austria. Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 In early 310, Maximian attempted to seize Constantine's title while the emperor was on campaign on the Rhine. Few supported him, and he was captured by Constantine in Marseille. Maximian committed suicide in the summer of 310 on Constantine's orders. During Constantine's war with Maxentius, Maximian's image was purged from all public places. However, after Constantine ousted and killed Maxentius, Maximian's image was rehabilitated, and he was deified.

Contents

Early life

Maximian was born near Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) in the province of Pannonia, around 250 into a family of shopkeepers. Sirmium in Pannonia should not be confused with Sirmio on Lake Garda Sirmium (today Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) was an ancient Sremska Mitrovica ( Serbian Cyrillic: Сремска Митровица is a city and municipality located Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country In Ancient Rome, a province (Latin provincia, pl provinciae) was the basic and until the Tetrarchy (circa Pannonia is an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, [9] Beyond that, the ancient sources contain vague allusions to Illyricum as his homeland,[10] to his Pannonian virtues,[11] and to his harsh upbringing along the war-torn Danube frontier. The Roman province of Illyricum replaced the formerly independent kingdom of Illyria. The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj [12] Maximian joined the army, serving with Diocletian under the emperors Aurelian (r. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Lucius Domitius Aurelianus ( September 9, 214 or 215 &ndashSeptember or October 275 known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270&ndash275 270–275) and Probus (r. Marcus Aurelius Probus (c August 19, 232 &ndashSeptember/October 282 was a Roman Emperor (276&ndash282 276–282). He probably participated in the Mesopotamian campaign of Carus in 283 and attended Diocletian's election as emperor on November 20, 284 at Nicomedia. Marcus Aurelius Carus (c 230 - late July/early August 283 was a Roman Emperor (282-283 Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Events By Place Roman Empire November 20 — Diocletian becomes Emperor. Nicomedia ( Greek: Νικομήδεια modern İzmit) was founded by Nicomedes I of Bithynia at the head of the Gulf of Astacus which opens [13] Maximian's swift appointment by Diocletian as Caesar is taken by the writer Stephen Williams and historian Timothy Barnes to mean that the two men were longterm allies, that their respective roles were pre-agreed and that Maximian had probably supported Diocletian during his campaign against Carinus (r. Timothy David Barnes (1942&ndash is a British classicist. Timothy David Barnes was born in Yorkshire in 1942 Marcus Aurelius Carinus (died 285 was Roman Emperor (283 &ndash July 285 and elder son of the Emperor Carus, on whose accession he was appointed governor 283–285) but there is no direct evidence for this. [14]

With his great energy, firm aggressive character and disinclination to rebel, Maximian was an appealing candidate for imperial office. The fourth-century historian Aurelius Victor described Maximian as "a colleague trustworthy in friendship, if somewhat boorish, and of great military talents". Sextus Aurelius Victor (ca 320-ca 390 was an historian and politician of the Roman Empire. [15] Despite his other qualities, Maximian was uneducated and preferred action to thought. The panegyrist of 289, after comparing his actions to Scipio Africanus' victories over Hannibal during the Second Punic War, suggested that Maximian has never heard of them. Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major ( Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS ¹) (236&ndash183 Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash The Second Punic War (referred to as "The War Against Hannibal" by the Romans lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western [16] His ambitions were purely military; he left politics to Diocletian. [17] The Christian rhetor Lactantius suggested that Maximian shared Diocletian's basic attitudes but was less puritanical in his tastes, and took advantage of the sensual opportunities his position as emperor offered. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius? Firmianus Lactantius was an Early Christian author (ca [18] Lactantius charged that Maximian defiled senator's daughters and traveled with young virgins to satisfy his unending lust, though Lactantius' credibility is undermined by his hostility towards pagans. [19]

Maximian had two children with his Syrian wife, Eutropia: Maxentius and Fausta. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Eutropia (d after 325 the wife of Emperor Maximian. She was of Syrian origin Fausta Flavia Maxima, Roman Empress (289-326AD She was the daughter of the Roman Emperor Maximianus. There is no direct evidence in the ancient sources for their birthdates. Modern estimates of Maxentius' birth year have varied from circa 277 to circa 287, and most date Fausta's birth to circa 298. [20] Theodora, the wife of Constantius Chlorus, is often called Maximian's stepdaughter by ancient sources, leading to claims by Otto Seeck and Ernest Stein that she was born from an earlier marriage between Eutropia and Afranius Hannibalianus. Flavia Maximiana Theodora (known as Theodora was the stepdaughter of Maximian. Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Otto Seeck ( 2 February 1850 - 29 June 1921) was a German classical Historian. [21] Barnes challenges this view, saying that all "stepdaughter" sources derive their information from the partially unreliable work of history Kaisergeschichte, while other, more reliable sources, refer to her as Maximian's natural daughter. The Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte is a modern term for a hypothesized Latin historical work written in the 4th century but now lost [22] Barnes concludes that Theodora was born no later than circa 275 to an unnamed earlier wife of Maximian, possibly one of Hannibalianus' daughters. [23]

Appointment as Caesar

Diocletian, Maximian's senior colleague and Augustus of the East
Diocletian, Maximian's senior colleague and Augustus of the East

At Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) in July 285,[24] Diocletian proclaimed Maximian as his co-ruler, or Caesar. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Mediolanum, the ancient Milan, was an important Celtic and then Roman centre Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character [25] The reasons for this decision are complex. With conflict in every province of the empire, from Gaul to Syria, from Egypt to the lower Danube, Diocletian needed a lieutenant to manage his heavy workload. [26] Historian Stephen Williams suggests that Diocletian considered himself a mediocre general and needed a man like Maximian to do most of his fighting. [27]

Next, Diocletian was vulnerable in that he had no sons – just a daughter, Valeria – who could never succeed him. He was forced therefore to seek a co-ruler from outside his family and that co-ruler had to be someone he trusted. [28] (The historian William Seston has argued that Diocletian, like heirless emperors before him, adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti ("Augustan son") upon his appointment to the office. Some agree, but the historian Frank Kolb has stated that arguments for the adoption are based on misreadings of the papyrological evidence. Frank Kolb (born February 27, 1945 in Rheinbach, North Rhine-Westphalia) is a German professor of Ancient history at the [29] Maximian did take Diocletian's nomen (family name) Valerius, however. By the Republican era and throughout the Imperial era, a Name in Ancient Rome for a male citizen consisted of three parts ( tria A family name or last name is a type of Surname and part of a person's name indicating the family to which the person belongs [30])

Finally, Diocletian knew that single rule was dangerous and that precedent existed for dual rulership. Despite their military prowess, both sole-emperors Aurelian and Probus had been easily removed from power. [31] In contrast, just a few years earlier, the emperor Carus and his sons had ruled jointly, albeit not for long. Even the first emperor, Augustus, (r. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was 27 BC–AD 19), had shared power with his colleagues and more formal offices of co-emperor had existed from Marcus Aurelius (r. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise" ( April 26, 121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor 161–180) on. [32]

The dual system evidently worked well. About 287, the two rulers' relationship was re-defined in religious terms, with Diocletian assuming the title Iovius and Maximian Herculius. [33] The titles were pregnant with symbolism: Diocletian-Jove had the dominant role of planning and commanding; Maximian-Hercules the heroic role of completing assigned tasks. In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. Hercules is the Roman name for the Mythical Greek hero Heracles, son of Zeus and the mortal Alcmena. A hero (from Greek grc ἥρως hērōs) in Greek mythology and Folklore, was originally a Demigod, the offspring of a mortal and [34] Yet despite the symbolism, the emperors were "gods" in the Imperial cult tradition (although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics). The Imperial cult in Ancient Rome was the worship of a few select emperors as gods once they were deceased the only emperor to Instead, they were the gods' instruments, imposing the gods' will on earth. [35] Once the rituals were over, Maximian assumed control of the government of the West and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels known as Bagaudae while Diocletian returned to the East. In the time of the Roman Empire bagaudae (also spelled bacaudae) were groups of peasant insurgents who emerged during the " Crisis of the Third Century [36]

Early campaigns in Gaul and Germany

The Bagaudae of Gaul are obscure figures, appearing fleetingly in the ancient sources, with their 285 uprising being their first appearance. [37] The fourth-century historian Eutropius described them as rural people under the leadership of Amandus and Aelianus, while Aurelius Victor called them bandits. For the Byzantine officer see also Eutropius (Byzantine official (396-397 Aelianus was together with Amandus the leader of an insurrection of Gallic peasants called Bagaudae, in the reign of Diocletian. [38] The historian David S. Potter suggests that they were more than peasants, seeking either Gallic political autonomy or reinstatement of the recently deposed Carus (a native of Gallia Narbonensis, in what would become southern France): in this case, they would be defecting imperial troops, not brigands. Gallia Narbonensis ( Narbonese Gaul) was a Roman province located in what is now Languedoc and Provence, in southern France. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. [39] Although poorly equipped, led and trained – and therefore a poor match for Roman legions – Diocletian certainly considered the Bagaudae sufficient threat to merit an emperor to counter them. [40]

Maximian traveled to Gaul, engaging the Bagaudae late in the summer of 285. [41] Details of the campaign are sparse and provide no tactical detail: the historical sources dwell only on Maximian's virtues and victories. The 289 panegyric to Maximian records that the rebels were defeated with a blend of harshness and leniency. The Panegyrici Latini or Latin Panegyrics is a collection of twelve ancient Roman Panegyric orations [42] As the campaign was against the empire's own citizens, and therefore distasteful, it went unrecorded in titles and official triumphs. A victory title is an honorific title adopted by a successful military commander to commemorate his defeat of an enemy nation A Roman triumph ( la [[wikttriumphus triumphus]], Old Latin la triumpus, attested as the exclamation la TRIVMPE in the Carmen Arvale; via Indeed, Maximian's panegyrist declares: "I pass quickly over this episode, for I see in your magnanimity you would rather forget this victory than celebrate it. "[43] By the end of the year, the revolt had significantly abated, and Maximian moved the bulk of his forces to the Rhine frontier, heralding a period of stability. [44]

Maximian did not put down the Bagaudae swiftly enough to avoid a Germanic reaction. In the autumn of 285, two barbarian armies – one of Burgundians and Alamanni, the other of Chaibones and Heruli – forded the Rhine and entered Gaul. The Burgundians or Burgundes were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany The Heruli (spelled variously in Latin and Greek) were a nomadic Germanic people, who were subjugated by the Ostrogoths Huns and [45] The first army was left to die of disease and hunger, while Maximian intercepted and defeated the second. [46] He then established a Rhine headquarters in preparation for future campaigns,[47] either at Moguntiacum (Mainz, Germany), Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany), or Colonia Agrippina (Cologne, Germany). Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. [48]

Carausius

See also: Carausius and Carausian Revolt
A Roman antefix roof tile showing the badge and standard of Legio XX Valeria Victrix, one of the legions that joined Carausius' rebellion
A Roman antefix roof tile showing the badge and standard of Legio XX Valeria Victrix, one of the legions that joined Carausius' rebellion

Although most of Gaul was pacified, regions bordering the English Channel still suffered from Frankish and Saxon piracy. Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius (died 293 was a military commander of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century The Carausian Revolt ( 286 &ndash 296) was an episode in Roman history during which a Roman naval Ante-fixae (from Latin antefigere, to fasten before the vertical blocks which terminate the covering tiles of the roof of a Roman Etruscan or Greek temple Legio XX Valeria Victrix was a Roman legion, probably raised by Augustus some time after 31 BC. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. Piracy is Robbery committed at sea or sometimes on shore without a commission from a sovereign Nation (as distinct from Privateering The emperors Probus and Carinus had begun to fortify the Saxon Shore, but much remained to be done. The Saxon Shore ( Latin: litus Saxonicum) was a military command of the late Roman Empire, consisting of a series of fortifications on both sides of the [49] For example, there is no archaeological evidence of naval bases at Dover and Boulogne during 270–285. Dover is a town and major ferry port in the county of Kent, England. [50] In response to the pirate problem, Maximian appointed Mausaeus Carausius, a Menapian from Germania Inferior (southern and western Netherlands) to command the Channel and to clear it of raiders. Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius (died 293 was a military commander of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century The Menapii were a Belgic tribe of northern Gaul in pre-Roman and Roman times Germania Inferior was a Roman province located on the left bank of the Rhine, in today's southern and western Netherlands, parts of The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands [51] Carausius did well. [52] By the end of 285, he was capturing pirate ships in great numbers. [53]

Maximian soon heard that Carausius was waiting until the pirates had finished plundering before attacking and that their booty was going into Carausius' pockets instead of to the population at large or into the imperial treasury. [54] Maximian ordered Carausius' arrest and execution, prompting him to flee the continent to Britain. Carausius' support among the British was strong, and at least two British legions (II Augusta and XX Valeria Victrix) defected to him, as did some or all of a legion near Boulogne (probably XXX Ulpia Victrix). Legio II Augusta, or Second Augustan Legion, was a Roman legion, levied by Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus in 43 BC, and still operative Legio XX Valeria Victrix was a Roman legion, probably raised by Augustus some time after 31 BC. Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix was a Roman legion levied by the Emperor Trajan in 100 for the Dacian Wars. [55] Carausius quickly eliminated the few remaining loyalists in his army and declared himself Augustus. [56]

Maximian could do little about the revolt. He had no fleet – he had given it to Casausius – and was busy quelling the Heruli and the Franks. The Heruli (spelled variously in Latin and Greek) were a nomadic Germanic people, who were subjugated by the Ostrogoths Huns and Meanwhile, Carausius strengthened his position by enlarging his fleet, enlisting Frankish mercenaries, and paying his troops well. [56] By the autumn of 286, Britain, much of northwestern Gaul, and the entire Channel coast, was under his control. [57] Casausius declared himself head of an independent British state, an Imperium Britanniarum and issued coin of a markedly higher purity than that of Maximian and Diocletian, earning the support of British and Gallic merchants. [58] Even Maximian's troops were vulnerable to Carausius' influence and wealth. [59]

Maximian appointed Augustus

Spurred by the crisis with Carausius, on April 1, 286,[3] Maximian took the title of Augustus[60] This gave him the same status as Carausius – so the clash was between two Augusti, rather than between an Augustus and a Caesar – and, in imperial propaganda, Maximian was proclaimed Diocletian's brother, his equal in authority and prestige. Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne For the processor see Intel 80286. Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman [61] Diocletian could not have been present at Maximian's appointment,[62] causing Seeck to suggest that Maximian usurped the title and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war. This suggestion has not won much support, and the historian William Leadbetter has recently refuted it. [63] Despite the physical distance between the emperors, Diocletian trusted Maximian enough to invest him with imperial powers, and Maximian still respected Diocletian enough to act in accordance with his will. [64]

In theory, the Roman Empire was not divided by the dual imperium. Though divisions did take place – each emperor had his own court, army, and official residences – these were matters of practicality, not substance. Imperial propaganda from 287 on insists on a singular and indivisible Rome, a patrimonium indivisum. [65] As the panegyrist of 289 declares to Maximian: "So it is that this great empire is a communal possession for both of you, without any discord, nor would we endure there to be any dispute between you, but plainly you hold the state in equal measure as once those two Heracleidae, the Spartan Kings, had done. In Greek mythology, the Heracleidae or Heraclids were the numerous descendants of Heracles (Hercules especially applied in a narrower sense to the descendants Sparta was an important Greek city-state in the Peloponnesus. "[66] Legal rulings were given and imperial celebrations took place in both emperors' names; the same coins were issued in both parts of the empire. [67] Diocletian sometimes issued commands to Maximian's province of Africa; Maximian could presumably have done the same for Diocletian's territory. [68]

Campaigns against Rhenish tribes

Campaigns in 286 and 287

Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress Carausius and campaigned instead against Rhenish tribes. [69] These tribes were probably greater threats to Gallic peace than Carausius in any case and included many supporters of Carausius. [70] Although Maximian had many enemies along the river, they were more often in dispute with each other than in combat with the empire. [71] Few clear dates survive for Maximian's campaigns on the Rhine beyond a general range of 285 to 288. [72] While receiving the consular fasces on January 1, 287, Maximian was interrupted by news of a barbarian raid. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC For the processor see Intel 80287. Events By Place Roman Empire Diocletian and Maximian Doffing his toga and donning his armor, he marched against the barbarians and, although they were not entirely dispersed, he celebrated a victory in Gaul later that year. [73]

Maximian believed the Burgundian and Alemanni tribes of the Moselle-Vosges region to be the greatest threat, so he targeted them first. Moselle is a ''département'' in the east of France named after the Moselle River. Vosges (voːʒ is a French department, named after the Vosges mountain range. He campaigned using scorched earth tactics, laying waste to their land and reducing their numbers through famine and disease. A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between After the Burgundians and Alemanni, Maximian moved against the weaker Heruli and Chaibones. He cornered and defeated them in a single battle. He fought in person, riding along the battle line until the Germanic forces broke. Roman forces pursued the fleeing tribal armies and routed them. With his enemies from starvation,[71] Maximian launched a great invasion across the Rhine. [74] He moved deep into Germanic territory, bringing destruction to his enemies' homelands,[71] and demonstrating the superiority of Roman arms. [75] By the winter of 287, he had the advantage and the Rhenish lands were free of Germanic tribesmen. [71] Maximian's panegyrist declared: "All that I see beyond the Rhine is Roman. "[76]

Flavius Constantius, Maximian's praetorian prefect and husband to his daughter Theodora.
Flavius Constantius, Maximian's praetorian prefect and husband to his daughter Theodora. Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Praetorian prefect (Latin Praefectus praetorio) was the constant title of a high office in the Roman state that changed fundamentally in nature Flavia Maximiana Theodora (known as Theodora was the stepdaughter of Maximian.

Joint campaign against the Alamanni

The following spring, as Maximian made preparations for dealing with Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East. [77] The emperors met that year, but neither date nor place is known with certainty. [78] They probably agreed on a joint campaign against the Alamanni and a naval expedition against Carausius. [79]

Later in the year, Maximian led a surprise invasion of the Agri Decumates – a region between the upper Rhine and upper Danube deep within Alamanni territory – while Diocletian invaded Germany via Raetia. Agri Decumates was a region of the Roman Empire, covering the Black Forest area between the Main river and the sources of Danube and Rhine Raetia (so always in inscriptions classical manuscripts usually use the form Rhaetia) was a province of the Roman Empire, bounded on the west by the country Both emperors burned crops and food supplies as they went, destroying the Germans' means of sustenance. [80] They added large swathes of territory to the empire and allowed Maximian's build-up to proceed without further disturbance. [81] In the aftermath of the war, towns along the Rhine were rebuilt, bridgeheads created on the eastern banks at such places as Mainz and Cologne, and a military frontier was established, comprising forts, roads, and fortified towns. A military highway through Tornacum (Tournai, Belgium), Bavacum (Bavay, France), Atuatuca Tungrorum (Tongeren, Belgium), Mosae Trajectum (Maastricht, Netherlands), and Cologne connected points along the frontier. Tournai (in Dutch Doornik, in Latin: Tornacum) is a Walloon City and municipality of Belgium The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Bagacumjpg|thumb|Bagacum]] Bavay is a town and commune of northern France in the département of Nord, 15 m Tongeren ( French: Tongres, German: Tongern) is a City and municipality located in the province of Limburg Maastricht ( Dutch; Limburgish and city dialect Mestreech; French: Maestricht or Maëstricht; Spanish: [82]

Constantius, Gennobaudes, and resettlement

In early 288, Maximian appointed his praetorian prefect Flavius Constantius, husband of Maximian's daughter Theodora, to lead a campaign against Carausius' Frankish allies. Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Flavia Maximiana Theodora (known as Theodora was the stepdaughter of Maximian. These Franks controlled the Rhine estuaries, thwarting sea-attacks against Carausius. An estuary is a semi-enclosed Coastal body of Water with one or more Rivers or Streams flowing into it and with a free connection to the open Constantius moved north through their territory, wreaking havoc, and reaching the North Sea. The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. The Franks sued for peace and in the subsequent settlement Maximian reinstated the deposed Frankish king Gennobaudes. [83] Gennobaudes became Maximian's vassal and, with lesser Frankish chiefs in turn swearing loyalty to Gennobaudes, Roman regional dominance was assured. [84]

Maximian allowed a settlement of Frisians, Salian Franks, Chamavi and other tribes along a strip of Roman territory, either between the Rhine and Waal rivers from Noviomagus (Nijmegen, Netherlands) to Traiectum (Utrecht, Netherlands)[82] or near Trier. The Frisians are an ethnic group of Germanic people living in coastal parts of The Netherlands and Germany. Salians redirects here for the eleventh-century dynasty see Salian dynasty, for Roman priests see Salii. The Chamavi were a Germanic tribe of Late Antiquity and the European Dark Age. River Waal is the main Distributary branch of River Rhine flowing to the central Netherlands for about 80 km (50 miles before joining the Nijmegen (ˈnɛɪmeɣən) (obsolete spellings Nijmwegen Nymegen Nieumeghen &mdash Nimwegen in local dialect and in German, Nimègue in French Utrecht ( city and municipality is the capital and most populous city of the Dutch province of Utrecht. [75] These tribes were allowed to settle only on condition they acknowledged Roman dominance. Their presence, providing a ready pool of manpower and preventing the settlement of other Frankish tribes, gave Maximian a buffer along the northern Rhine and reduced his need to garrison the region. [82]

Later campaigns in Britain and Gaul

Failed expedition against Carausius

Carausius, rebel emperor of Roman Britain
Carausius, rebel emperor of Roman Britain

By 289, Maximian was prepared to invade Carausius' Britain but, for some reason, the plan failed. Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius (died 293 was a military commander of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 Maximian's panegyrist of 289 was optimistic about the campaign's prospects; but the panegyrist of 291 made no mention of it. [85] Constantius' panegyrist suggested that his fleet was lost to a storm,[86] but this might simply have been to diminish the embarrassment of defeat. [87] Diocletian curtailed his Eastern province tour soon after, perhaps on learning of Maximian's failure. [88] Diocletian returned in haste to the West, reaching Emesa by May 10, 290,[89] and Sirmium on the Danube by July 1, 290. Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Events By Place Roman Empire Diocletian and Maximian meet in Milan on the five-year anniversary of their rule to discuss "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Events By Place Roman Empire Diocletian and Maximian meet in Milan on the five-year anniversary of their rule to discuss [90]

Diocletian met Maximian in Milan either in late December 290 or January 291. [91] Crowds gathered to witness the emperors descend on the city and the emperors devoted much time to public pageantry. [92] Potter, among others, has surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian's continuing support for his faltering colleague. The rulers discussed matters of politics and war in secret,[93] and they may have considered the idea of expanding the imperial college to include four emperors (the Tetrarchy). Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals [94] Meanwhile, a deputation from the Roman Senate met with the rulers and renewed their infrequent contact with the imperial office. [95] The emperors would not meet again until 303. [96]

Following Maximian's failure to invade in 289, an uneasy truce with Carausius began. Maximian tolerated Carausius' rule in Britain and on the continent but refused to grant the secessionist state formal legitimacy. For his part, Carausius was content with his territories beyond the Continental coast of Gaul. [97] However, Diocletian would not long put up with such an affront to his dignity. Faced with Carausius' secession and further challenges on the Egyptian, Syrian, and Danubian borders, he realized that two emperors were insufficient to manage the empire. [98] On March 1, 293 at Milan, Maximian appointed Constantius to the office of Caesar. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius [99] On either the same day or a month later, Diocletian did the same for Galerius, thus establishing the "Tetrarchy", or "rule of four". Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 [100] Constantius was made to understand that he must succeed where Maximian had failed and defeat Carausius. [101]

Campaign against Allectus

Allectus, Carausius' successor
Allectus, Carausius' successor

Constantius met expectations quickly and efficiently, and by 293 had expelled Carausian forces from northern Gaul. Allectus (died 296 was a Roman usurper - emperor in Britain and northern Gaul from 293 to 296 In the same year, Casausius was assassinated and replaced by his treasurer, Allectus. Allectus (died 296 was a Roman usurper - emperor in Britain and northern Gaul from 293 to 296 [102] Constantius marched up the coast to the Rhine and Scheldt estuaries where he was victorious over Carausius' Frankish allies, taking the title Germanicus maximus. [103] His sights now set on Britain, Constantius spent the following years building an invasion fleet. [104] Maximian, still in Italy after the appointment of Constantius, was appraised of the invasion plans and, in the summer of 296, returned to Gaul. [105] There, he held the Rhenish frontiers against Carausius' Frankish allies while Constantius launched his invasion of Britain. [106] Allectus was killed on the North Downs in battle with Constantius' praetorian prefect, Asclepiodotus. The North Downs are a ridge of Chalk hills in south east England that stretch for 120 miles (190 km from Farnham in Surrey to the White Julius Asclepiodotus was a Roman Praetorian prefect who served under Aurelian, Probus and Diocletian and was consul Constantius himself had landed near Dubris (Dover) and marched on Londinium (London), whose citizens greeted him as a liberator. Dubris or Portus Dubris was the original name of the town of Dover, Kent, England given to it by its Roman founders This article covers the history of London during the Roman period from around 47 AD when the Roman city of Londinium was founded London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. [107]

Campaigns in North Africa

With Constantius' victorious return, Maximian was able to focus on the conflict in Mauretania (Northwest Africa). In Antiquity Mauretania was originally an independent Berber kingdom on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa (named after the Northwest Africa or Northwestern Africa is a variably defined Region of North Africa. [108] As Roman authority weakened during the third century, nomadic Berber tribes harassed settlements in the region with increasingly severe consequences. In 289, the governor of Mauretania Caesariensis (roughly modern Algeria) gained a temporary respite by pitting a small army against the Bavares and Quinquegentiani, but the raiders soon returned. Mauretania Caesariensis was a Roman province located in northwestern Africa Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The Quinquegentiani were a tribe in North Africa that revolted against Roman rule in the late 3rd Century and were put down by the forces of Maximianus Herculius. In 296, Maximian raised an army, from Praetorian cohorts, Aquileian, Egyptian, and Danubian legionaries, Gallic and German auxiliaries, and Thracian recruits, advancing through Spain that autumn. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated Aquileia (also called Aquilegia, Friulian Acuilee/Aquilee, Slovene Oglej) is an ancient Roman city in what is Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = "supports" formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC&ndash284 AD Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe [109] He may have defended the region against raiding Moors[110] before crossing the Strait of Gibraltar into Mauretania Tingitana (roughly modern Morocco) to protect the area from Frankish pirates. The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent The Strait of Gibraltar ( Arabic: مضيق جبل طارق Spanish: Estrecho de Gibraltar) is the Strait that connects the Atlantic Mauretania Tingitana was a Roman province located in northwestern Africa coinciding roughly with the northern part of modern Morocco and spanish cities of Ceuta Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa [111]

By March 297, Maximian had begun a bloody offensive against the Berbers. The campaign was lengthy, and Maximian spent the winter of 297–298 resting in Carthage before returning to the field. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers [112] Not content to drive them back into their homelands in the Atlas Mountains – from which they could continue to wage war – Maximian ventured deep into Berber territory. The Atlas Mountains ( Kabyle: Idurar n leṭles جبال الأطلس) is a Mountain range across a northern stretch of Africa extending about 2400 The terrain was unfavorable, and the Berbers were skilled at guerrilla warfare, but Maximian pressed on. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Apparently wishing to inflict as much punishment as possible on the tribes, he devastated previously secure land, killed as many as he could, and drove the remainder back into the Sahara. The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest [113] His campaign was concluded by the spring of 298 and, on March 10, he made a triumphal entry into Carthage. Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing [114] Inscriptions there record the people's gratitude to Maximian, hailing him – as Constantius had been on his entry to London – as redditor lucis aeternae ("restorer of the eternal light"). [113] Maximian returned to Italy in 299 to celebrate another triumph in Rome in the spring. [115]

Leisure and retirement

After his Mauretanian campaign, Maximian returned to the north of Italy, living a life of leisure in palaces in Milan and Aquilea, and leaving warfare to his subordinate Constantius. [116] Maximian was more aggressive in his relationship with the Senate than Constantius, and Lactantius contends that he terrorized senators, to the point of falsely charging and subsequently executing several, including the prefect of Rome in 301/2. [117] In contrast, Constantius kept up good relations with the senatorial aristocracy and spent his time in active defense of the empire. He took up arms against the Franks in 300 or 301 and in 302 – while Maximian was resting in Italy – continued to campaign against Germanic tribes on the Upper Rhine. [118]

Maximian was only disturbed from his rest in 303 by Diocletian's vicennalia, the 20-year anniversary of his reign, in Rome. Some evidence suggests that it was on then that Diocletian exacted a promise from Maximian to retire together, passing their titles as Augusti to the Caesars Constantius and Galerius. [119] Presumably Maximian's son Maxentius and Constantius' son Constantine – children raised in Nicomedia together – would then become the new Caesars. While Maximian might not have wished to retire, Diocletian was still in control and there was little resistance. Before retirement, Maximian would receive one final moment of glory by officiating at the Secular Games in 304. The Secular Games ( Latin Ludi Saeculares, originally Ludi Terentini) were a religious celebration involving Sacrifices and theatrical [120]

On May 1, 305, in separate ceremonies in Milan and Nicomedia, Diocletian and Maximian retired simultaneously. Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Events By Place Roman Empire May 1 — Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors of Rome retire from office The succession did not go not entirely to Maximian's liking: perhaps because of Galerius' influence, Severus and Maximinus were appointed Caesar, thus excluding Maxentius. Flavius Valerius Severus (or rarely Severus II) (died 16 September, 307) was a Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 307 This article deals with 4th century Roman Emperor For other uses of the name see Maximin. Both the newly appointed Caesars had had long military careers and were close to Galerius: Severus was his nephew and Maximinus a former army comrade. [121] Maximian quickly soured to the new tetrarchy, which saw Galerius assume the dominant position Diocletian once held. Although Maximian led the ceremony that proclaimed Severus Caesar, within two years he was sufficiently dissatisfied to support his son's rebellion against the new regime. [122] Diocletian retired to the expansive palace he had built in his homeland, Dalmatia near Salona on the Adriatic. Diocletian's Palace ( Dioklecijanova palača in Croatian) is a building in Split in Croatia that was built by the emperor Diocletian Maximian retired to villas in Campania or Lucania, where he lived a life of ease and luxury. Campania is a region of Southern Italy in Europe. The region has a population of around 5 Lucania was an ancient district of southern Italy, extending from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Taranto. [123] Although far from the political centers of the empire, Diocletian and Maximian remained close enough to stay in regular contact. [124]

Maxentius' rebellion

After the death of Constantius on July 25, 306, Constantine assumed the title of Augustus. Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Events By Place Roman Empire July 25 — Constantine I is proclaimed Emperor by his troops This displeased Galerius, who instead offered Constantine the title of Caesar, which Constantine accepted. The title of Augustus then went to Severus. [125] Maxentius was jealous of Constantine's power, and on October 28, 306, he persuaded a cohort of imperial guardsmen to declare him emperor. Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Events By Place Roman Empire July 25 — Constantine I is proclaimed Emperor by his troops Uncomfortable with sole leadership, Maxentius sent a set of imperial robes to Maximian and saluted him as "Augustus for the second time", offering him theoretic equal rule but less actual power and a lower rank. [126]

Galerius refused to recognize Maxentius and sent Severus with an army to Rome to depose him. As many of Severus' soldiers had served under Maximian, and had taken Maxentius' bribes, most of the army defected to Maxentius. Severus fled to Ravenna, which Maximian besieged. Ravenna is a City and Comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. The city was strongly fortified so Maximian offered terms, which Severus accepted. Maximian then seized Severus and took him under guard to a public villa in southern Rome, where he was kept as a hostage. In the autumn of 307, Galerius led a second force against Maxentius but he again failed to take Rome, and retreated north with his army mostly intact. [127]

Dresden bust of Maxentius
Dresden bust of Maxentius

While Maxentius built up Rome's defenses, Maximian made his way to Gaul to negotiate with Constantine. A deal was struck in which Contantine would marry Maximian's younger daughter Fausta and be elevated to Augustan rank in Maxentius' secessionist regime. Fausta Flavia Maxima, Roman Empress (289-326AD She was the daughter of the Roman Emperor Maximianus. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and support Maxentius' cause in Italy but would remain neutral in the war with Galerius. The deal was sealed with a double ceremony in Trier in the late summer of 307, at which Constantine married Fausta and was declared Augustus by Maximian. [128]

Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–8 but soon fell out with his son and in the spring of 308 challenged his right to rule before an assembly of Roman soldiers. He spoke of Rome's sickly government, disparaged Maxentius for having weakened it, and ripped the imperial toga from Maxentius' shoulders. He expected the soldiers to recognize him but they sided with Maxentius, and Maximian was forced to leave Italy in disgrace. [129]

On November 11, 308, to resolve the political instability, Galerius called Diocletian (out of retirement) and Maximian to a general council meeting at the military city of Carnuntum on the upper Danube. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Events By Place Roman Empire November 11 — The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire the Carnuntum (Καρνοιις in Ptolemy) was an important Roman army camp in what is now Austria. There, Maximian was forced again to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar. Licinius, a loyal military companion to Galerius, was appointed Augustus of the West. For other Romans of this name see Licinius (gens. Valerius Licinianus Licinius (c [130] In early 309 Maximian returned to the court of Constantine in Gaul, the only court that would still accept him. [131]

Rebellion against Constantine

In 310, Maximian rebelled against Constantine while the emperor was on campaign against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with part of Constantine's army to defend against attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. In Arles, Maximian announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. In spite offering bribes to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal, and Maximian was compelled to leave. Constantine soon heard of the rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and moved quickly to southern Gaul, where he confronted the fleeing Maximian at Massilia (Marseille). Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ The town was better able to withstand a long siege than Arles, but it made little difference as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured, reproved for his crimes, and stripped of his title for the third and last time. Constantine granted Maximian some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself. [132]

Despite the earlier rupture in relations, after Maximian's suicide Maxentius presented himself as his father's devoted son. [133] He minted coins bearing his father's deified image and proclaimed his desire to avenge his death. [134]

Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. A eunuch (ˈjuːnək is a Castrated man in particular one castrated early enough to have major hormonal consequences the term usually refers to those castrated in order to Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. [135] In addition to the propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. Damnatio memoriae is the Latin phrase literally meaning "damnation of memory" in the sense of removed from the remembrance. [136]

Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312. The Battle of the Milvian Bridge took place on October 28, 312, between the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Events By Place Roman Empire October 28 — Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine I defeats Maxentius and Maxentius died, and Italy came under Constantine's rule. [137] Eutropia swore on oath that Maxentius was not Maximian's son, and Maximian's memory was rehabilitated. His apotheosis under Maxentius was declared null and void, and he was re-consecrated as a god, probably in 317. He began appearing on Constantine's coinage as divus, or divine, by 318, together with the deified Constantius and Claudius Gothicus. [138] The three were hailed as Constantine's forbears. They were called "the best of emperors". [139] Through his daughters Fausta and Flavia, Maximian was grandfather or great-grandfather to every reigning emperor from 337 to 363. [140]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 4.
  2. ^ a b Potter, 280–81.
  3. ^ a b c Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6–7; Potter, 282; Southern, 141–42. The chronology of Maximian's appointment to Augustus is somewhat uncertain (Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Southern, 142). It is sometimes suggested that Maximian was appointed Augustus from July 285, and never appointed Caesar. This suggestion has not received much support (Potter, 281; Southern, 142; following De Casearibus 39. 17).
  4. ^ a b Barnes, New Empire, 4.
  5. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32–34; Barnes, New Empire, 13; Elliott, 42–43; Lenski, 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 349–50; Treadgold, 29.
  6. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 13.
  7. ^ For full titulature, see: Barnes, New Empire, 17–29.
  8. ^ a b c Barnes, New Empire, 32.
  9. ^ Epitome de Caesaribus 40. 10, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 32; Barnes, New Empire, 32; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30; Williams, 43–44.
  10. ^ Victor, Liber de Caesaribus 39. 26, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 32.
  11. ^ Panegrici Latini 10(2). 2. 2ff, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 32.
  12. ^ Panegrici Latini 10(2). 2. 4, quoted in Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 44–45.
  13. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 32–33; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30.
  14. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Williams, 43–44.
  15. ^ Victor, Liber de Caesaribus 39, quoted in Williams, 44.
  16. ^ Panegyrici Latini 10(2), quoted in Williams, 44.
  17. ^ Williams, 44.
  18. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 13.
  19. ^ Lactantius, DMP 8, quoted in Williams, 44.
  20. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 34. Barnes dates Maxentius' birth to circa 283, when Maximian was in Syria, and Fausta's birth to 289 or 290 (Barnes, New Empire, 34).
  21. ^ Aurelius Victor, de Caesaribus 39. 25; Eutropius, Breviaria 9. 22; Jerome, Chronicle 225g; Epitome de Caesaribus 39. 2, 40. 12, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 33; Barnes, New Empire, 33.
  22. ^ Origo Constantini 2; Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2. 16a, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 33. See also Panegyrici Latini 10(2)11. 4.
  23. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 33–34.
  24. ^ The event has been dated to both July 21 (Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 4; Bowman, 69) and July 25 (Potter, 280–81). Events 356 BC - Herostratus sets fire to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler
  25. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 4; Bowman, 69; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Potter, 280–81.
  26. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30; Southern, 136.
  27. ^ Williams, 45.
  28. ^ Potter, 280; Southern, 136; Williams, 43.
  29. ^ Bowman, 69; Odahl, 42–43; Southern, 136, 331; Williams, 45.
  30. ^ Bowman, 69.
  31. ^ Potter, 280.
  32. ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40.
  33. ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Liebeschuetz, Continuity and Change, 235–52, 240–43; Odahl, 43–44; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 32–33.
  34. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 11–12; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Odahl, 43; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 32–33, 39, 42–52; Southern, 136–37; Williams, 58–59.
  35. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 11.
  36. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Southern, 137; Williams, 45–46.
  37. ^ Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 29.
  38. ^ Eutropius, Brev. 9. 20; Aurelius Victor, de Caesaribus, 39. 17, quoted in Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 29–30.
  39. ^ Potter, 281–82.
  40. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 10; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30; Southern, 137; Williams, 45–46.
  41. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 57; Bowman, 70–71.
  42. ^ Southern, 137.
  43. ^ Panegyrici Latini 10(2), quoted in Williams, 46; Southern, 137.
  44. ^ Southern, 139–138; Williams, 46.
  45. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 57; Bowman, 71; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 31.
  46. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6.
  47. ^ Williams, 46.
  48. ^ Potter, 282–83. Potter and Barnes (New Empire, 56) favor Trier; Williams (Diocletian, 46) favors Mainz.
  49. ^ Southern, 138; Williams, 46.
  50. ^ Potter, 284.
  51. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 57.
  52. ^ Bowman, 71; Southern, 138; Williams, 46–47.
  53. ^ Southern, 138; Williams, 46–47.
  54. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6–7; Bowman, 71; Potter, 283–84; Southern, 137–41; Williams, 47.
  55. ^ Potter, 284; Southern, 139–40; Williams, 47. Most of the information for the legions under Carausius' control comes from his coinage. Strangely, Legio VI Victrix from Eboracum (York, United Kingdom), which, for geographical regions, should have been included in the legions Carausius had control over, generally is not (Southern, 332). Legio VI Victrix (Victorious was a Roman legion founded by Octavian in 41 BC. Eboracum was a fort and City in Roman Britain. Today it is known as York, located in North Yorkshire, England. York ( is an historic Walled city sited at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The Panegyrici Latini 8(4)12. 1 admits one continental legion joined him, probably the XXX Ulpia Victrix (Potter, 650).
  56. ^ a b Williams, 47.
  57. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bowman, 71; Southern, 140.
  58. ^ Williams, 47–48.
  59. ^ Potter, 284; Williams, 61–62.
  60. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bleckmann; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Potter, 282; Southern, 141–42; Williams, 48.
  61. ^ Williams, 48.
  62. ^ Potter, 282, 649. Diocletian would have been somewhere between Byzantium (Istanbul, Turkey), where he is attested for March 22, 286 and Tiberias, where he is attested from May 31, 286 through August 31 (Barnes, New Empire, 50–51; Potter, 282, 649). This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Events 238 - Gordian I and his son Gordian II are proclaimed Roman emperor. For the processor see Intel 80286. Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian Tiberias ( British English: /taɪˈbɪəriæs -əs/ American English: /taɪˈbɪriəs/ טְבֶרְיָה Tverya; طبرية Ṭabariyyah Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. For the processor see Intel 80286. Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne
  63. ^ Potter, 282, 649.
  64. ^ Potter, 282; Williams, 49.
  65. ^ Bowman, 70; Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65.
  66. ^ Panegyrici Latini 10(2)9. 4, quoted in Potter, 283.
  67. ^ Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65.
  68. ^ Potter, 283.
  69. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bowman, 71; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40.
  70. ^ Southern, 141; Williams, 50.
  71. ^ a b c d Williams, 50.
  72. ^ Southern, 142. Barnes' New Empire records five dates for the period: the first, February 10, 286 at Milan (Codex Justinianus 8. Events 1355 - The St Scholastica's Day riot breaks out in Oxford, England, leaving 63 scholars and perhaps 30 locals dead For the processor see Intel 80286. Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian 53(54). 6; Fragmenta Vaticana 282); June 21, 286 at Mainz (Fragmenta Vaticana 271); January 1, 287 Trier or Cologne or Mainz (date of consular assumption, Panegyrici Latini 10(2). Events 524 - Godomar, King of the Burgundians defeats the Franks at the Battle of Vézeronce. For the processor see Intel 80286. Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC For the processor see Intel 80287. Events By Place Roman Empire Diocletian and Maximian 6. 2 ff. ); and 287, his "expedition across the Rhine" (Panegyrici Latini 10(2). 7. 1ff. ) (Barnes, New Empire, 57).
  73. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bowman, 72.
  74. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 57; Williams, 50.
  75. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7.
  76. ^ Panegyrici Latini 10(2). 7. 7, translated by Nixon in Nixon and Rodgers, quoted in Bowman, 72.
  77. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Southern, 142–43; Williams, 50.
  78. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 57; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 31.
  79. ^ Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 31; Southern, 142–43; Williams, 50. Barnes (Constantine and Eusebius, 7) dates the meeting to after the campaign against the Alamanni.
  80. ^ Southern, 142–43; Williams, 50.
  81. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Southern, 143; Williams, 50.
  82. ^ a b c Williams, 50–51.
  83. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bowman, 72.
  84. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bowman, 72; Williams, 51.
  85. ^ Southern, 143.
  86. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5)12. 2; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7, 288; Bowman, 72–73; Potter, 284–85, 650; Southern, 143; Williams, 55.
  87. ^ Southern, 143; Williams, 55.
  88. ^ Potter, 285; Southern, 144.
  89. ^ Codex Justinianus 9. 41. 9; Barnes, New Empire, 51; Potter, 285, 650.
  90. ^ Codex Justinianus 6. 30. 6; Barnes, New Empire, 52; Potter, 285, 650.
  91. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8; Potter, 285.
  92. ^ Panegyrici Latini 11(3)10, quoted in Williams, 57.
  93. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8; Potter, 285, 288; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 69.
  94. ^ Potter, 285; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 69.
  95. ^ Panegyrici Latini 11(3)2. 4, 8. 1, 11. 3–4, 12. 2; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8, 288; Potter, 285, 650.
  96. ^ Potter, 285.
  97. ^ Williams, 55–56, 62.
  98. ^ Williams, 62–64.
  99. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Barnes, New Empire, 4, 36–37; Potter, 288; Southern, 146; Williams, 64–65.
  100. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Barnes, New Empire, 4, 38; Potter, 288; Southern, 146; Williams, 64–65.
  101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8, 15; Williams, 71.
  102. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 15; Potter, 288; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 99; Southern, 149–50; Williams, 71–72.
  103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 15–16; Barnes, New Empire, 255.
  104. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 15–16; Southern, 150.
  105. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 58–59.
  106. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 59; Southern, 150; Williams, 73.
  107. ^ Southern, 150; Williams, 73–74; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16.
  108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Southern, 150; Williams, 75.
  109. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 59; Williams, 75.
  110. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16.
  111. ^ Williams, 75.
  112. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Barnes, New Empire, 59.
  113. ^ a b Odahl, 58; Williams, 75.
  114. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 59; Odahl, 58; Williams, 75.
  115. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Barnes, New Empire, 59; Odahl, 58.
  116. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Barnes, New Empire, 56.
  117. ^ Lactantius, DMP 8. 4; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16.
  118. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16.
  119. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)15. 16; Lactantius DMP 20. 4; Potter, 340; Southern, 152, 336.
  120. ^ Potter, 340.
  121. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25–27; Williams, 191.
  122. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25–27; Potter, 341–42.
  123. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27; Southern, 152.
  124. ^ Southern, 152.
  125. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27–28; Barnes, New Empire, 5; Lenski, 61–62; Odahl, 78–79.
  126. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 30–32.
  127. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 30–31; Elliott, 41–42; Lenski, 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–49.
  128. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 31; Lenski, 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16.
  129. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32; Lenski, 64; Odahl, 89, 93.
  130. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32–34; Elliott, 42–43; Lenski, 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 349–50; Treadgold, 29.
  131. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32.
  132. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 34–35; Elliott, 43; Lenski, 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 352.
  133. ^ Elliott, 43; Lenski, 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 20.
  134. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 34; Elliott, 45; Lenski, 68.
  135. ^ Lactantius, DMP 30. 1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 40–41, 305.
  136. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Lenski, 68.
  137. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42–44.
  138. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 47; Barnes, New Empire, 35.
  139. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 47.
  140. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 265–66.

References

External links


Preceded by
Diocletian		 Roman Emperor
286–305
with Diocletian		 Succeeded by
Constantius and Galerius
Preceded by
Marcus Iunius Maximus, Vettius Aquilinus		 Consul
287, with Diocletian		 Succeeded by
Maximian, Januarianus
Preceded by
Maximian, Diocletian		 Consul
288, with Januarianus		 Succeeded by
Marcus Magrius Bassus, Lucius Ragonius Quintianus
Preceded by
Marcus Magrius Bassus, Lucius Ragonius Quintianus		 Consul
290, with Diocletian		 Succeeded by
Caius Junius Tiberianus, Cassius Dion
Preceded by
Hannibalianus, Asclepiodotus		 Consul
293, with Diocletian		 Succeeded by
Constantius, Galerius
Preceded by
Diocletian, Constantius		 Consul
297, with Galerius		 Succeeded by
Anicius Faustus, Virius Gallus
Preceded by
Anicius Faustus, Virius Gallus		 Consul
299, with Diocletian		 Succeeded by
Constantius, Galerius
Preceded by
Constantius, Galerius		 Consul
303, with Diocletian		 Succeeded by
Diocletian, Maximian
Preceded by
Diocletian, Maximian		 Consul
304, with Diocletian		 Succeeded by
Constantius, Galerius
Preceded by
Constantius, Galerius		 Consul
307 (ca. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate For a simplified list see Concise list of Roman Emperors. For more information see History of the Roman Empire. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Julius Asclepiodotus was a Roman Praetorian prefect who served under Aurelian, Probus and Diocletian and was consul Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Sextus Anicius Faustus Paulinus (I or Marcus Junius Caesonius Nicomachus Anicius Faustus Paulinus (II (born ca 240 (Pur between 299 and 300 was the Consul of Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. September–December), with Constantine
From 307 on, different consuls are attested in the regions administered by Galerius, Constantine, and Maxentius. Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine Maximian is attested only in Constantine's domains. 		Succeeded by
Diocletian, Galerius
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