Maximilian Weber
German political economist and sociologist
Born	21 April 1864(1864-04-21) Erfurt, Prussian Saxony
Died	14 June 1920 (aged 56) Munich, Bavaria
Cause of death	Pneumonia

Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (pronounced [maks veːbɛɐ]) (21 April 1864 – 14 June 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public administration. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Political economy originally was the term for studying production buying and selling and their relations with law custom and government Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date) Year 1864 ( MDCCCLXIV) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Erfurt (ˈɛɐ̯fʊɐ̯t is a City in central Germany. It is the Capital of the state of Thuringia with a population of 202619 (2006 }The Province of Saxony (Provinz Sachsen was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia and later the Free State of Prussia from 1816 until 1945 Events 1276 - While taking exile in Fuzhou in southern China, away from the advancing Mongol invaders, the remnants of the Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Bavaria ( German:, with an area of 70553 Km² (27241 square miles and almost 12 Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the Lung. Frequently it is described as lung Parenchyma / alveolar inflammation and abnormal Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date) Year 1864 ( MDCCCLXIV) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Events 1276 - While taking exile in Fuzhou in southern China, away from the advancing Mongol invaders, the remnants of the Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Political economy originally was the term for studying production buying and selling and their relations with law custom and government Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Public administration can be broadly described as the development implementation and study of branches of government Policy. He began his career at the University of Berlin, and later worked at University of Freiburg.

Weber's major works deal with rationalization in sociology of religion and government. In Sociology, rationalization is the process whereby an increasing number of social actions and interactions become based on considerations of efficiency or calculation rather The sociology of religion is primarily the study of the practices Social structures historical backgrounds development, universal themes and Political sociology is the study of power and the intersection of personality social structure and Politics. ^[1] His most famous work is his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, which began his work in the sociology of religion. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is a Book written by Max Weber, a German Economist and Sociologist in A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos In this work, Weber argued that religion was one of the non-exclusive reasons for the different ways the cultures of the Occident and the Orient have developed, and stressed importance of particular characteristics of ascetic Protestantism which led to the development of capitalism, bureaucracy and the rational-legal state in the West. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings The Orient is a term which simply means the " East " It originated in Western Asia to describe that part of the world Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government Rational-legal authority (also known as rational authority, legal authority, rational domination, legal domination, or bureaucratic In another major work, Politics as a Vocation, Weber defined the state as an entity which claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force, a definition that became pivotal to the study of modern Western political science. Politics as a Vocation ( Politik als Beruf) was a Lecture given by Max Weber, a German Economist and sociologist A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. The monopoly on the legitimate use of violence ( Gewaltmonopol des Staates, also known as monopoly on legitimate violence and monopoly on violence) is the Political science is a branch of Social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of Politics and the description and analysis of Political systems His most known contributions are often referred to as the 'Weber Thesis'.

Contents 1 Biography 2 Achievements 2.1 Sociology of religion 2.1.1 The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism 2.1.2 The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism 2.1.3 The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism 2.1.4 Ancient Judaism 2.2 Sociology of politics and government 2.3 Economics 3 Critical responses to Weber 3.1 Influence from and on the Austrian school 3.2 Historical Critiques 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links

Biography

Weber was born in Erfurt in Thuringia, Germany, the eldest of seven children of Max Weber Sr. Erfurt (ˈɛɐ̯fʊɐ̯t is a City in central Germany. It is the Capital of the state of Thuringia with a population of 202619 (2006 The Free State of Thuringia (Freistaat Thüringen is located in central Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. , a prominent liberal politician and civil servant, and Helene Fallenstein, a moderate Calvinist. A politician (from Greek " Polis " is an individual who is involved in influencing public decision making through the influence of Politics or a person See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the ^[2] Weber Sr. 's engagement with public life immersed the family home in politics, as his salon received many prominent scholars and public figures. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions

The young Weber and his brother Alfred, who also became a sociologist and economist, thrived in this intellectual atmosphere. Alfred Weber ( July 30 1868 &ndash May 2 1958) was a German Economist, Sociologist and Theoretician Weber's 1876 Christmas presents to his parents, when he was thirteen years old, were two historical essays entitled "About the course of German history, with special reference to the positions of the emperor and the pope" and "About the Roman Imperial period from Constantine to the migration of nations". Despite the lack of a German nation state prior to 1871 the History of Germany dates back to the era of the Germanic tribes. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine ^[3] At the age of fourteen, he wrote letters studded with references to Homer, Virgil, Cicero, and Livy, and he had an extended knowledge of Goethe, Spinoza, Kant, and Schopenhauer before he began university studies. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg It seemed clear that Weber would pursue advanced studies in the social sciences. The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies

In 1882 Weber enrolled in the University of Heidelberg as a law student. The Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg ( University of Heidelberg, Ruperto Carola, Heidelberg University, or simply Heidelberg) is a Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society ^[4] Weber joined his father's duelling fraternity, and chose as his major study Weber Sr. 's field of law. Along with his law coursework, young Weber attended lectures in economics and studied medieval history and theology. Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Intermittently, he served with the German army in Strasbourg. The Reichswehr ( German for "National Defence" formed the military organisation of Germany from 1919 until 1935 when it was Strasbourg (Strasbourg stʁazbuʁ Alsatian: Strossburi,; Straßburg) is the capital and principal City of the Alsace région

In the autumn of 1884, Weber returned to his parents' home to study at the University of Berlin. For the next eight years of his life, interrupted only by a term at the University of Göttingen and short periods of further military training, Weber stayed at his parents' house; first as a student, later as a junior barrister, and finally as a Dozent at the University of Berlin. The University of Göttingen ( German: Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) is a University in the city of Göttingen, Germany. In 1886 Weber passed the examination for "Referendar", comparable to the bar association examination in the British and American legal systems. Referendary is the English form or rendering of a number of administrative positions of various rank in chanceries and other official organisations A bar association is a Professional body of Lawyers Some bar associations are responsible for the regulation of the legal profession in their Jurisdiction The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The three major legal systems of the world today consist of civil law, Common law and Religious law. Throughout the late 1880s, Weber continued his study of history. He earned his law doctorate in 1889 by writing a doctoral dissertation on legal history entitled The History of Medieval Business Organisations. A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature Zur Geschichte der Handelgesellschaften im Mittelalter is a Doctoral dissertation written by Max Weber, a German Economist and Sociologist ^[4] Two years later, Weber completed his Habilitationsschrift, The Roman Agrarian History and its Significance for Public and Private Law. Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries Roman Agrarian History and its Significance for Public and Private Law (in German: Die Römische Agrargeschichte in ihrer Bedeutung für das Staats- und ^[5] Having thus become a "Privatdozent", Weber was now qualified to hold a German professorship. Private docent (abbreviates PD or Priv-Doz) is a title conferred in some European university systems especially in German -speaking countries

In the years between the completion of his dissertation and habilitation, Weber took an interest in contemporary social policy. Social policy relates to guidelines for the changing maintenance or creation of living conditions that are conducive to human welfare. In 1888 he joined the "Verein für Socialpolitik",^[6] the new professional association of German economists affiliated with the historical school, who saw the role of economics primarily as the solving of the wide-ranging social problems of the age, and who pioneered large-scale statistical studies of economic problems. The Verein für Socialpolitik is an important society of Economists in the German-speaking area The Historical school of economics was an approach to academic Economics and to public administration that emerged in 19th century in Germany, and held sway there He also involved himself in politics, joining the left leaning Evangelical Social Congress. The Evangelical Social Congress was a social-reform movement of German evangelists founded in Whitsuntide in 1890. ^[7] In 1890 the "Verein" established a research program to examine "the Polish question" or Ostflucht, meaning the influx of foreign farm workers into eastern Germany as local labourers migrated to Germany's rapidly industrialising cities. The Ostflucht (flight from the East was a movement by residents of the Former eastern territories of Germany, such as East Prussia, West Prussia, Eastern Germany refers to the territory of the former German Democratic Republic, in Germany known as Ostdeutschland or better Neue Bundesländer The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Weber was put in charge of the study, and wrote a large part of its results. ^[6] The final report was widely acclaimed as an excellent piece of empirical research, and cemented Weber's reputation as an expert in agrarian economics. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Agricultural economics originally applied the principles of Economics to the production of Crops and Livestock — a discipline known as Agronomics

In 1893 he married his distant cousin Marianne Schnitger, later a feminist and author in her own right,^[8] who was instrumental in collecting and publishing Weber's journal articles as books after his death. Marianne Weber, born Marianne Schnitger on August 2, 1870 in Oerlinghausen, died March 12, 1954 in Heidelberg Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate The couple moved to Freiburg in 1894, where Weber was appointed professor of economics at Freiburg University,^[5] before accepting the same position at the University of Heidelberg in 1896. The Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg ( University of Heidelberg, Ruperto Carola, Heidelberg University, or simply Heidelberg) is a ^[5] Next year, Max Weber Sr. died, two months after a severe quarrel with his son that was never resolved. ^[9] After this, Weber became increasingly prone to nervousness and insomnia, making it difficult for him to fulfill his duties as a professor. ^[5] His condition forced him to reduce his teaching, and leave his last course in the fall of 1899 unfinished. After spending months in a sanatorium during the summer and fall of 1900, Weber and his wife traveled to Italy at the end of the year, and did not return to Heidelberg until April 1902.

After Weber's immense productivity in the early 1890s, he did not publish a single paper between early 1898 and late 1902, finally resigning his professorship in fall 1903. Freed from those obligations, in that year he accepted a position as associate editor of the Archives for Social Science and Social Welfare^[10] next to his colleagues Edgar Jaffé and Werner Sombart. The Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik (translated to the Archives for Social Science and Social Welfare) was a journal for the social sciences Werner Sombart ( 19 January 1863 &ndash 18 May 1941) was a German economist and sociologist, the head of the ^[11] In 1904, Weber began to publish some of his most seminal papers in this journal, notably his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is a Book written by Max Weber, a German Economist and Sociologist in It became his most famous work,^[12] and laid the foundations for his later research on the impact of cultures and religions on the development of economic systems. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos An economic system is a System that involves the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services between ^[13] This essay was the only one of his works that was published as a book during his lifetime. Also that year, he visited United States and participated in the Congress of Arts and Sciences held in connection with the World's Fair (Louisiana Purchase Exposition) at St. Louis. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Expo (short for "exposition" and also known as World Fair and World's Fair) is the name given to various large public exhibitions held since the The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, informally known as the Saint Louis World's Fair, was an international exposition held in St Despite his successes, Weber felt that he was unable to resume regular teaching at that time, and continued on as a private scholar, helped by an inheritance in 1907. ^[10] In 1912, Weber tried to organise a left-wing political party to combine social-democrats and liberals. This attempt was unsuccessful, presumably because many liberals feared social-democratic revolutionary ideals at the time. ^[14]

During the First World War, Weber served for a time as director of the army hospitals in Heidelberg. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All ^[15][10] In 1915 and 1916 he sat on commissions that tried to retain German supremacy in Belgium and Poland after the war. Weber's views on war, as well as on expansion of the German empire, changed throughout the war. ^[15][14][16] He became a member of the worker and soldier council of Heidelberg in 1918. A workers' council is a Deliberative assembly, composed of Working class members intended to institute Workers' self-management or Workers' control In the same year, Weber became a consultant to the German Armistice Commission at the Treaty of Versailles and to the commission charged with drafting the Weimar Constitution. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. For a detailed discussion of the English translation of Reich, see Reich. ^[10] He argued in favour of inserting Article 48 into the Weimar Constitution. Article 48 was an article in the constitution of the Weimar Republic of Germany ( 1919 &ndash 1933) that allowed the Chancellor to rule For a detailed discussion of the English translation of Reich, see Reich. ^[17] This article was later used by Adolf Hitler to institute rule by decree, thereby allowing his government to suppress opposition and obtain dictatorial powers. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately A dictatorship is usually defined as an autocratic Form of government in which the Government is ruled by a Dictator. Weber's contributions to German politics remain a controversial subject to this day. This article is about the political views and activities of the German Sociologist Max Weber.

Weber resumed teaching during this time, first at the University of Vienna, then in 1919 at the University of Munich. The University of Vienna (Universität Wien is a Public university located in Vienna, Austria. The Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München also known as LMU, is a University in Munich and with more ^[10] In Munich, he headed the first German university institute of sociology, but ultimately never held a personal sociology appointment. Weber left politics due to right-wing agitation in 1919 and 1920. Many colleagues and students in Munich argued against him for his speeches and left-wing attitude during the German Revolution of 1918 and 1919, with some right-wing students holding protests in front of his home. ^[14] Max Weber contracted the Spanish flu and died of pneumonia in Munich on June 14, 1920. The 1918 flu pandemic (commonly referred to as the Spanish flu) was an Influenza Pandemic that spread to nearly every part of the world Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the Lung. Frequently it is described as lung Parenchyma / alveolar inflammation and abnormal Events 1276 - While taking exile in Fuzhou in southern China, away from the advancing Mongol invaders, the remnants of the Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar

Achievements

Along with Karl Marx and Émile Durkheim,^[18] Weber is regarded as one of the founders of modern sociology, although in his times he was viewed primarily as a historian and an economist. Émile Durkheim ( April 15, 1858 – November 15, 1917) was a French Sociologist whose contributions were instrumental ^[18][19] Whereas Durkheim, following Comte, worked in the positivist tradition, Weber created and worked – like Werner Sombart, his friend and then the most famous representative of German sociology – in the antipositivist, hermeneutic, tradition. Auguste Comte (full name Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte; 17 January 1798 – 5 September 1857 was a French thinker who is generally credited for having This article describes the term 'positivism' as used in social sciences especially within the science of sociology Werner Sombart ( 19 January 1863 &ndash 18 May 1941) was a German economist and sociologist, the head of the Antipositivism is the view in Sociology that Social sciences need to create and use different Scientific methods than those used in the field of Hermeneutics may be described as the development and study of Theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts ^[20] Those works started the antipositivistic revolution in social sciences, which stressed the difference between the social sciences and natural sciences,^[20] especially due to human social actions (which Weber differentiated into traditional, affectional, value-rational and instrumental^[21]). The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies In Sociology, social actions refer to any action that takes into account the actions and reactions of other Individuals and is modified based on those events Traditional action is a Social action taken because it was done in the past Affectional action (also affectual or emotional action) is a Social action caused by an Emotion (revenge love loyalty etc Rational action (or value-rational action, wertrational) is a Social action which is taken because it leads to a valued goal but with no thought of its Instrumental action (also known as goal-instrumental action, zweckrational) is a Social action pursued after evaluating its consequences and consideration Weber's early work was related to industrial sociology, but he is most famous for his later work on the sociology of religion and sociology of government. Industrial sociology (also known as " Sociology of Industrial relations " or sociology of work) is both a study of the interaction of people within The sociology of religion is primarily the study of the practices Social structures historical backgrounds development, universal themes and Political sociology is the study of power and the intersection of personality social structure and Politics.

Max Weber began his studies of rationalisation in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, in which he shows how the aims of certain ascetic Protestant denominations, particularly Calvinism,^[22] shifted towards the rational means of economic gain as a way of expressing that they had been blessed. In Sociology, rationalization is the process whereby an increasing number of social actions and interactions become based on considerations of efficiency or calculation rather The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is a Book written by Max Weber, a German Economist and Sociologist in Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Church (disambiguation A religious denomination is a subgroup within a Religion that operates under a common name tradition and identity Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the The rational roots of this doctrine, he argued, soon grew incompatible with and larger than the religious, and so the latter were eventually discarded. ^[23] Weber continues his investigation into this matter in later works, notably in his studies on bureaucracy and on the classifications of authority. Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government In Politics, authority ( Latin Auctoritas, used in Roman law as opposed to Potestas and Imperium In these works he alludes to an inevitable move towards rationalization.

It should be noted that many of his works famous today were collected, revised, and published posthumously. Significant interpretations of Weber's writings were produced by such sociological luminaries as Talcott Parsons and C. Wright Mills. Talcott Parsons ( December 13, 1902 - May 8, 1979) was an American sociologist, who served on the faculty of Harvard University Charles Mills ( August 28, 1916, Waco Texas &ndash March 20, 1962, West Nyack New York) was an American

Sociology of religion

Weber's work on the sociology of religion started with the essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism and continued with the analysis of The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism, The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism, and Ancient Judaism. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is a Book written by Max Weber, a German Economist and Sociologist in The Religion of China Confucianism and Taoism is a Book written by Max Weber, a German Economist and Sociologist. The Religion of India The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism, also known as just The Religion of India, is a book written by Maximilian Weber Ancient Judaism, also known as Ancient Palestine Society and Religion, is a Book written by Maximilian Weber, a German His work on other religions was interrupted by his sudden death in 1920, which prevented him from following Ancient Judaism with studies of Psalms, Book of Jacob, Talmudic Jewry, early Christianity and Islam. Psalms ( Hebrew: Tehilim, תהילים, or "praises" is a book of the Hebrew Bible (the Christian Old Testament) included The Book of Jacob is the third book of the Book of Mormon. Its full title is The Book of Jacob The Brother of Nephi. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. ^[24] His three main themes were the effect of religious ideas on economic activities, the relation between social stratification and religious ideas, and the distinguishable characteristics of Western civilization. In Sociology, social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of Social classes Castes and strata within a Society. ^[25]

His goal was to find reasons for the different development paths of the cultures of the Occident and the Orient, although without judging or valuing them, like some of the contemporary thinkers who followed the social Darwinist paradigm; Weber wanted primarily to explain the distinctive elements of the Western civilization. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings The Orient is a term which simply means the " East " It originated in Western Asia to describe that part of the world Social Darwinism is a theory that competition among all individuals groups nations or ideas drives Social evolution in human societies ^[25] In the analysis of his findings, Weber maintained that Calvinist (and more widely, Protestant) religious ideas had had a major impact on the social innovation and development of the economic system of Europe and the United States, but noted that they were not the only factors in this development. Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Social innovation refers to new Strategies, Concepts, Ideas and Organizations that meet Social needs of all kinds - from working An economic system is a System that involves the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services between The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Other notable factors mentioned by Weber included the rationalism of scientific pursuit, merging observation with mathematics, science of scholarship and jurisprudence, rational systematisation of government administration, and economic enterprise. In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286 Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and A scholarship is an award of access to an institution or a financial aid award for an individual student scholar for the purpose of furthering their Education Jurisprudence is the Theory and Philosophy of Law. Scholars of jurisprudence or legal philosophers hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. Public administration can be broadly described as the development implementation and study of branches of government Policy. A business (also called firm or an enterprise) is a legally recognized organizational entity designed to provide goods and/or services to ^[25] In the end, the study of the sociology of religion, according to Weber, merely explored one phase of the freedom from magic, that "disenchantment of the world" that he regarded as an important distinguishing aspect of Western culture. In Anthropology, Psychology, and Cognitive science, magical thinking is nonscientific causal reasoning that often includes such ideas as the ability of Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin ^[25]

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

Main article: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

Weber's essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus) is his most famous work. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is a Book written by Max Weber, a German Economist and Sociologist in ^[12] It is argued that this work should not be viewed as a detailed study of Protestantism, but rather as an introduction into Weber's later works, especially his studies of interaction between various religious ideas and economic behaviour. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber puts forward the thesis that Calvinist ethic and ideas influenced the development of capitalism. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where This theory is often viewed as a reversal of Marx's thesis that the economic "base" of society determines all other aspects of it. ^[22] Religious devotion has usually been accompanied by rejection of mundane affairs, including economic pursuit. ^[26] Why was that not the case with Protestantism? Weber addresses that paradox in his essay. A paradox is a true statement or group of statements that leads to a Contradiction or a situation which defies intuition; or inversely

According to Weber, one of the universal tendencies that those individuals had to fight was the desire to profit. After defining the spirit of capitalism, Weber argues that there are many reasons to look for its origins in the religious ideas of the Reformation. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Many observers like William Petty, Montesquieu, Henry Thomas Buckle, John Keats, and others have commented on the affinity between Protestantism and the development of the commercial spirit. Sir William Petty ( May 27 1623 – December 16 1687) was an English Economist, scientist and Philosopher Charles-Louis de Secondat baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (Eng Henry Thomas Buckle ( November 24, 1821 - May 29, 1862) was an English Historian, author of a History of Civilization ^[27]

Weber showed that certain types of Protestantism – notably Calvinism – favoured rational pursuit of economic gain and worldly activities which had been given positive spiritual and moral meaning. ^[22] It was not the goal of those religious ideas, but rather a byproduct – the inherent logic of those doctrines and the advice based upon them both directly and indirectly encouraged planning and self-denial in the pursuit of economic gain. A common illustration is in the cobbler, hunched over his work, who devotes his entire effort to the praise of God. In addition, the Reformation view "calling" dignified even the mundanest professions as being those that added to the common good and were blessed by God, as much as any "sacred" calling could. This Reformation view, that all the spheres of life were sacred when dedicated to God and His purposes of nurturing and furthering life, profoundly affected the view of work.

Weber stated that he abandoned research into Protestantism because his colleague Ernst Troeltsch, a professional theologian, had initiated work on the book The Social Teachings of the Christian Churches and Sects. Ernst Troeltsch ( February 17 1865 – February 1 1923) was a German Protestant theologian and writer on Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Another reason for Weber's decision was that the essay has provided the perspective for a broad comparison of religion and society, which he continued in his later works. ^[28] The phrase "work ethic" used in modern commentary is a derivative of the "Protestant ethic" discussed by Weber. The Protestant work ethic, sometimes called the Puritan work ethic, is a sociological theoretical concept The Protestant work ethic, sometimes called the Puritan work ethic, is a sociological theoretical concept It was adopted when the idea of the Protestant ethic was generalised to apply to Japanese people, Jews and other non-Christians. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings

The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism

The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism was Weber's second major work on the sociology of religion. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Weber focused on those aspects of Chinese society that were different from those of Western Europe and especially contrasted with Puritanism, and posed a question why capitalism did not develop in China. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was an associate of any number of religious groups advocating for more "purity" of Worship and Doctrine, In Hundred Schools of Thought Warring States Period, he concentrated on the early period of Chinese history, during which the major Chinese schools of thoughts (Confucianism and Taoism) came to the fore. The Hundred Schools of Thought ( were philosophers and schools that had flourished from 770 to 221 BC an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China. The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the ^[29]

By 200 BC, the Chinese state had developed from a loose federation of feudal states into a unified empire with patrimonial rule, as described in the Warring States Period. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. A federation ( Latin: foedus, covenant is a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central ("federal" Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that Patrimonialism is a term closely associated with the sociology of Max Weber. The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the ^[29] As in Europe, Chinese cities had been founded as forts or leaders' residences, and were the centres of trade and crafts. Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. A craft is a Skill, especially involving practical arts. It may refer to a Trade or particular art However, they never received political autonomy and its citizens had no special political rights or privileges. An autonomous area is an area of a Country that has a degree of Autonomy, or freedom from an external authority This is due to the strength of kinship ties, which stems from religious beliefs in ancestral spirits. Kinship is a relationship between any entities that share a genealogical origin through either biological cultural or historical descent Also, the guilds competed against each other for the favour of the Emperor, never uniting in order to fight for more rights. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of Therefore, the residents of Chinese cities never constitute a separate status class like the residents of European cities. The German Sociologist Max Weber formulated a Three-component theory of stratification in which he defines status class (also known as a status group ^[30]

Early unification of the state and the establishment of central officialdom meant that the focus of the power struggle changed from the distribution of land to the distribution of offices, which with their fees and taxes were the most prominent source of income for the holder, who often pocketed up to 50% of the revenue. An official is someone who holds an office (function or mandate, regardless whether it carries an actual working space with it in an Organisation or An office is generally a room or other area in which people work, but may also denote a position within an Organization with specific duties attached The imperial government depended on the services of those officials, not on the service of the military (knights) as in Europe. Knight is the English term for a social position originating in the Middle Ages. ^[30]

Weber emphasised that Confucianism tolerated a great number of popular cults without any effort to systematise them into a religious doctrine. Doctrine (Latin doctrina) is a codification of beliefs or "a body of teachings quot or "instructions" taught principles or positions as the Instead of metaphysical conjectures, it taught adjustment to the world. The "superior" man (literati) should stay away from the pursuit of wealth (though not from wealth itself). Therefore, becoming a civil servant was preferred to becoming a businessman and granted a much higher status. See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis A business (also called firm or an enterprise) is a legally recognized organizational entity designed to provide goods and/or services to ^[31]

Chinese civilisation had no religious prophecy nor a powerful priestly class. Prophecy, generally describes the disclosing of Information that is not known to the Prophet by any ordinary means A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities The emperor was the high priest of the state religion and the supreme ruler, but popular cults were also tolerated (however the political ambitions of their priests were curtailed). A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially This forms a sharp contrast with medieval Europe, where the Church curbed the power of secular rulers and the same faith was professed by rulers and common folk alike. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs

According to Confucianism, the worship of great deities is the affair of the state, while ancestral worship is required of all, and the multitude of popular cults is tolerated. Confucianism tolerated magic and mysticism as long as they were useful tools for controlling the masses; it denounced them as heresy and suppressed them when they threatened the established order (hence the opposition to Buddhism). A belief in magic as a means of influencing the world seems to have been common in all Cultures Some of these beliefs crossed over into nascent Religions influencing Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Note that in this context, Confucianism can be referred to as the state cult, and Taoism as the popular religion. ^[32]

Weber argued that while several factors favoured the development of a capitalist economy (long periods of peace, improved control of rivers, population growth, freedom to acquire land and move outside of native community, free choice of occupation) they were outweighed by others (mostly stemming from religion):

• technical inventions were opposed on the basis of religion, in the sense that the disturbance of ancestral spirits was argued to lead to bad luck, and adjusting oneself to the world was preferred to changing it.
• sale of land was often prohibited or made very difficult.
• extended kinship groups (based on the religious importance of family ties and ancestry) protected its members against economic adversities, therefore discouraging payment of debts, work discipline, and rationalisation of work processes. Kinship is a relationship between any entities that share a genealogical origin through either biological cultural or historical descent
• those kinship groups prevented the development of an urban status class and hindered developments towards legal institutions, codification of laws, and the rise of a lawyer class. ^[29]

According to Weber, Confucianism and Puritanism represent two comprehensive but mutually exclusive types of rationalisation, each attempting to order human life according to certain ultimate religious beliefs. Both encouraged sobriety and self-control and were compatible with the accumulation of wealth. However, Confucianism aimed at attaining and preserving "a cultured status position" and used as means adjustment to the world, education, self-perfection, politeness and familial piety. Puritanism used those means in order to create a "tool of God", creating a person that would serve the God and master the world. Such intensity of belief and enthusiasm for action were alien to the aesthetic values of Confucianism. Therefore, Weber states that it was the difference in prevailing mentality that contributed to the development of capitalism in the West and the absence of it in China. ^[33]

The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism

The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism was Weber's third major work on the sociology of religion. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices In this work he deals with the structure of Indian society, with the orthodox doctrines of Hinduism and the heterodox doctrines of Buddhism, with modifications brought by the influence of popular religiosity, and finally with the impact of religious beliefs on the secular ethic of Indian society. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Doctrine (Latin doctrina) is a codification of beliefs or "a body of teachings quot or "instructions" taught principles or positions as the Heterodoxy includes "any opinions or doctrines at variance with an official or orthodox position" Religiosity, in its broadest sense is a comprehensive Sociological term used to refer to the numerous aspects of religious activity dedication and Belief (religious ^[34]

The ancient Indian social system was shaped by the concept of caste. Castes are Hereditary systems of occupation, Endogamy, social culture, Social class, and Political power. It directly linked religious belief and the segregation of society into status groups. The German Sociologist Max Weber formulated a Three-component theory of stratification in which he defines status class (also known as a status group Weber describes the caste system, consisting of the Brahmins (priests), the Kshatriyas (warriors), the Vaisyas (merchants) and the Shudras (labourers). Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. Kshatriya (क्षत्रिय kṣatriya from क्षत्र kṣatra) is one of the four varnas (social orders in Hinduism The Hindu varna (class System, a Vaishya ( Sanskrit वैश्य vaiśya) is a member of the third of the four classes of traditional Shudra ( IAST: Śūdra is the fourth Varna in the traditional four-section division in historic Hindu society Then he describes the spread of the caste system in India due to conquests, the marginalisation of certain tribes and the subdivision of castes. A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use ^[34]

Weber pays special attention to Brahmins and analyses why they occupied the highest place in Indian society for many centuries. Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. With regard to the concept of dharma he concludes that the Indian ethical pluralism is very different both from the universal ethic of Confucianism and Christianity. The Sanskrit term ( Devanāgarī: धर्म Pali transliteration dhamma) is an Indian spiritual and religious Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings He notes that the caste system prevented the development of urban status groups. ^[35]

Next, Weber analyses the Hindu religious beliefs, including asceticism and the Hindu world view, the Brahman orthodox doctrines, the rise and fall of Buddhism in India, the Hindu restoration, and the evolution of the guru. Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. A guru (गुरु গুরু is a person who is regarded as having great knowledge wisdom and authority in a certain area and uses it to guide others Weber asks the question whether religion had any influence upon the daily round of mundane activities, and if so, how it impacted economic conduct. He notes the idea of an immutable world order consisting of the eternal cycles of rebirth and the deprecation of the mundane world, and finds that the traditional caste system, supported by the religion, slowed economic development; in other words, the "spirit" of the caste system militated against an indigenous development of capitalism. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where ^[35]

Weber concludes his study of society and religion in India by combining his findings with his previous work on China. He notes that the beliefs tended to interpret the meaning of life as otherworldly or mystical experience, that the intellectuals tended to be apolitical in their orientation, and that the social world was fundamentally divided between the educated, whose lives were oriented toward the exemplary conduct of a prophet or wise man, and the uneducated masses who remained caught in their daily rounds and believed in magic. Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity An intellectual (from the adjective meaning "involving thought and reason" is a person who tries to use his or her Intelligence and analytical thinking, In Religion, a prophet (or prophetess) is a person who has encountered the Supernatural or the divine and serves as an intermediary In Asia, no Messianic prophecy appeared that could have given "plan and meaning to the everyday life of educated and uneducated alike. This article is about the concept of a Messiah in religion notably in the Christian Islamic and Jewish traditions " He argues that it was the Messianic prophecies in the countries of the Near East, as distinguished from the prophecy of the Asiatic mainland, that prevented Western countries from following the paths of China and India, and his next work, Ancient Judaism was an attempt to prove this theory. B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century Ancient Judaism, also known as Ancient Palestine Society and Religion, is a Book written by Maximilian Weber, a German ^[36]

Ancient Judaism

In Ancient Judaism, his fourth major work on the sociology of religion, Weber attempted to explain the "combination of circumstances" which resulted in the early differences between Oriental and Occidental religiosity. Ancient Judaism, also known as Ancient Palestine Society and Religion, is a Book written by Maximilian Weber, a German The Orient is a term which simply means the " East " It originated in Western Asia to describe that part of the world Religiosity, in its broadest sense is a comprehensive Sociological term used to refer to the numerous aspects of religious activity dedication and Belief (religious ^[37] It is especially visible when the interworldly asceticism developed by Western Christianity is contrasted with mystical contemplation of the kind developed in India. Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country ^[37] Weber noted that some aspects of Christianity sought to conquer and change the world, rather than withdraw from its imperfections. ^[37] This fundamental characteristic of Christianity (when compared to Far Eastern religions) stems originally from ancient Jewish prophecy. The Far East is a term often used by people in the Western world to refer to the countries of East Asia. Prophecy, generally describes the disclosing of Information that is not known to the Prophet by any ordinary means ^[38] Stating his reasons for investigating ancient Judaism, Weber wrote that

Anyone who is heir to the traditions of modern European civilisation will approach the problems of universal history with a set of questions, which to him appear both inevitable and legitimate. These questions will turn on the combination of circumstances which has brought about the cultural phenomena that are uniquely Western and that have at the same time (…) a universal cultural significance. ^[37]

Further on he adds:

"For the Jew (…) the social order of the world was conceived to have been turned into the opposite of that promised for the future, but in the future it was to be overturned so that Jewry could be once again dominant. The world was conceived as neither eternal nor unchangeable, but rather as being created. Its present structure was a product of man's actions, above all those of the Jews, and God's reaction to them. Hence the world was a historical product designed to give way to the truly God-ordained order (…). There existed in addition a highly rational religious ethic of social conduct; it was free of magic and all forms of irrational quest for salvation; it was inwardly worlds apart from the path of salvation offered by Asiatic religions. To a large extent this ethic still underlies contemporary Middle Eastern and European ethic. World-historical interest in Jewry rests upon this fact. (…) Thus, in considering the conditions of Jewry's evolution, we stand at a turning point of the whole cultural development of the West and the Middle East". ^[38]

Weber analyses the interaction between the Bedouins, the cities, the herdsmen and the peasants, including the conflicts between them and the rise and fall of the United Monarchy. The Bedouin, (from the Arabic (ar بدوي pl badū) are a desert-dwelling Arab Nomadic pastoralist, or previously The United Monarchy ( United Kingdom of Israel and Judah) refers to a period in the traditional account of the History of ancient Israel and Judah lasting The time of the United Monarchy appears as a mere episode, dividing the period of confederacy since the Exodus and the settlement of the Israelites in Canaan from the period of political decline following the Division of the Monarchy. A confederation is a group of empowered states or communities usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution Exodus ( Greek: έξοδος eksodos = "departure" is the second book of the Jewish Torah and of the Christian Old Testament. See also History of ancient Israel and Judah According to the Bible, the Israelites were the dominant group living in the Land of Israel. Canaanites redirects here For the 1940s social and political movement in Israel, see Canaanites (movement. This division into periods has major implications for religious history. Since the basic tenets of Judaism were formulated during the time of Israelite confederacy and after the fall of the United Monarchy, they became the basis of the prophetic movement that left a lasting impression on the Western civilisation. ^[39]

Weber discusses the organisation of the early confederacy, the unique qualities of the Israelites' relations to Yahweh, the influence of foreign cults, types of religious ecstasy, and the struggle of the priests against ecstasy and idol worship. For information about Yahweh see God in Abrahamic religions, which provides useful links He goes on to describe the times of the Division of the Monarchy, social aspects of Biblical prophecy, the social orientation of the prophets, demagogues and pamphleteers, ecstasy and politics, and the ethic and theodicity of the prophets. Weber notes that Judaism not only fathered Christianity and Islam, but was crucial to the rise of modern Occident state, as its influence were as important to those of Hellenistic and Roman cultures. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Reinhard Bendix, summarising Ancient Judaism, writes that

free of magic and esoteric speculations, devoted to the study of law, vigilant in the effort to do what was right in the eyes of the Lord in the hope of a better future, the prophets established a religion of faith that subjected man's daily life to the imperatives of a divinely ordained moral law. Reinhard Bendix ( February 25, 1916 - February 28, 1991) was an accomplished sociologist born in Berlin Germany. In this way, ancient Judaism helped create the moral rationalism of Western civilisation. ^[40]

Sociology of politics and government

In the sociology of politics and government, one of Weber's most significant contribution is his Politics as a Vocation essay. Politics as a Vocation ( Politik als Beruf) was a Lecture given by Max Weber, a German Economist and sociologist Therein, Weber unveils the definition of the state that has become so pivotal to Western social thought: that the state is that entity which possesses a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force,^[41] which it may nonetheless elect to delegate as it sees fit. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. The monopoly on the legitimate use of violence ( Gewaltmonopol des Staates, also known as monopoly on legitimate violence and monopoly on violence) is the In this essay, Weber wrote that politics is to be understood as any activity in which the state might engage itself in order to influence the relative distribution of force. Politics thus comes to be understood as deriving from power. A politician must not be a man of the "true Christian ethic", understood by Weber as being the ethic of the Sermon on the Mount, that is to say, the injunction to turn the other cheek. Ethics is a branch of Philosophy dealing with right and wrong in human behavior In the Gospel of St Matthew, the Sermon on the Mount is a compilation of Jesus' sayings epitomizing his moral teaching. An adherent of such an ethic ought rather to be understood to be a saint, for it is only saints, according to Weber, that can appropriately follow it. A saint (from the Latin sanctus) is a human being to whom has been attributed (and who has generally demonstrated a high level of Holiness and Sanctity The political realm is no realm for saints. A politician ought to marry the ethic of ultimate ends and the ethic of responsibility, and must possess both a passion for his avocation and the capacity to distance himself from the subject of his exertions (the governed). ^[42]

Weber distinguished three pure types of political leadership, domination and authority: charismatic domination (familial and religious), traditional domination (patriarchs, patrimonalism, feudalism), and legal domination (modern law and state, bureaucracy). Ideal type, also known as pure type or Idealtyp in the original German, is a Typological term most closely associated with Sociologist The Sociologist Max Weber defined charismatic authority as "resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity heroism or exemplary character of an individual person Traditional authority (also known as traditional domination is a form of Leadership in which the authority of an Organization or a Ruling regime is largely Originally a patriarch was a man who exercised autocratic authority as a Pater familias over an extended family Patriarchy is the structuring of Society on the basis of Family units where fathers have primary responsibility for the welfare of hence authority over Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Rational-legal authority (also known as rational authority, legal authority, rational domination, legal domination, or bureaucratic Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government ^[43] In his view, every historical relation between rulers and ruled contained such elements and they can be analysed on the basis of this tripartite distinction. Max Weber distinguished three Ideal types of political leadership domination and authority Charismatic authority ( familial ^[44] He also notes that the instability of charismatic authority inevitably forces it to "routinize" into a more structured form of authority. Likewise he notes that in a pure type of traditional rule, sufficient resistance to a master can lead to a "traditional revolution". Thus he alludes to an inevitable move towards a rational-legal structure of authority, utilising a bureaucratic structure. Rational-legal authority (also known as rational authority, legal authority, rational domination, legal domination, or bureaucratic ^[45] Thus this theory can be sometimes viewed as part of the social evolutionism theory. Sociocultural evolution(ism is an umbrella term for theories of cultural evolution and Social evolution, describing how Cultures and societies This ties to his broader concept of rationalisation by suggesting the inevitability of a move in this direction.

Weber is also well-known for his critical study of the bureaucratisation of society, the rational ways in which formal social organizations apply the ideal type characteristics of a bureaucracy. It was Weber who began the studies of bureaucracy and whose works led to the popularization of this term. ^[46] Many aspects of modern public administration go back to him, and a classic, hierarchically organised civil service of the Continental type is called "Weberian civil service", although this is only one ideal type of public administration and government described in his magnum opus Economy and Society (1922), and one that he did not particularly like himself – he only thought it particularly efficient and successful. Public administration can be broadly described as the development implementation and study of branches of government Policy. See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis Magnum opus (sometimes Opus magnum, plural magna opera) from the Latin meaning great work, refers to the best the greatest Economy and Society is a book by Political economist and Sociologist Max Weber, published posthumously in 1922 by his wife Marianne In this work, Weber outlines a description, which has become famous, of rationalization (of which bureaucratization is a part) as a shift from a value-oriented organisation and action (traditional authority and charismatic authority) to a goal-oriented organization and action (legal-rational authority). The result, according to Weber, is a "polar night of icy darkness", in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in an "iron cage" of rule-based, rational control. Iron cage is a sociological concept introduced by Max Weber. Iron cage refers to the increasing rationalization of human life which traps individuals in ^[47] Weber's bureaucracy studies also led him to his analysis – correct, as it would turn out, after Stalin's takeover – that socialism in Russia would lead to over-bureaucratization rather than to the "withering away of the state" (as Karl Marx had predicted would happen in communist society). Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending World communism has a meaning close in meaning to ‘international communism’ which has usually been equated to the Comintern (Communist International Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based ^[48]

Economics

While Max Weber is best known and recognised today as one of the leading scholars and founders of modern sociology, he also accomplished much in other fields, notably economics, although this is largely forgotten today among orthodox economists, who pay very little attention to his works. Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The view that Weber is at all influential to modern economists comes largely from non-economists and economic critics with sociology backgrounds. During his life distinctions between the social sciences were less clear than they are now, and Weber considered himself a historian and an economist first, sociologist distant second. ^[18][19]

From the point of view of the economists, he is a representative of the "Youngest" German historical school of economics. The Historical school of economics was an approach to academic Economics and to public administration that emerged in 19th century in Germany, and held sway there ^[49] His most valued contributions to the field of economics is his famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is a Book written by Max Weber, a German Economist and Sociologist in This is a seminal essay on the differences between religions and the relative wealth of their followers. Weber's work is parallel to Sombart's treatise of the same phenomenon, which however located the rise of Capitalism in Judaism. Werner Sombart ( 19 January 1863 &ndash 18 May 1941) was a German economist and sociologist, the head of the Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Weber's other main contribution to economics (as well as to social sciences in general) is his work on methodology: his theories of "Verstehen" (known as understanding or Interpretative Sociology) and of antipositivism (known as humanistic sociology). Methodology (also called manner) is defined as "the analysis of the principles of methods rules and postulates employed by a discipline" Verstehen is a German word signifying the "understanding" and "interpretation" of meaning and human activities Verstehen is a German word signifying the "understanding" and "interpretation" of meaning and human activities Antipositivism is the view in Sociology that Social sciences need to create and use different Scientific methods than those used in the field of ^[49]

The doctrine of Interpretative Sociology is one of the main sociological paradigms, with many supporters as well as critics. Verstehen is a German word signifying the "understanding" and "interpretation" of meaning and human activities Sociological paradigms (or frameworks are specific 'points of view' used by Social scientists in Social research. This thesis states that social, economic and historical research can never be fully inductive or descriptive as one must always approach it with a conceptual apparatus, which Weber termed "Ideal Type". Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed Ideal type, also known as pure type or Idealtyp in the original German, is a Typological term most closely associated with Sociologist ^[49] The idea can be summarised as follows: an ideal type is formed from characteristics and elements of the given phenomena but it is not meant to correspond to all of the characteristics of any one particular case. A phenomenon (from Greek φαινόμενoν, pl φαινόμενα - phenomena) is any observable occurrence Weber's Ideal Type became one of the most important concepts in social sciences, and led to the creation of such concepts as Ferdinand Tönnies' "Normal Type". Ferdinand Tönnies ( July 26, 1855, near Oldenswort ( Eiderstedt, North Frisia) - April 9, 1936, Kiel The typological term normal type (in German Normaltyp) was coined by Ferdinand Tönnies (1855-1936 German Sociologist)

Weber conceded that employing "Ideal Types" was an abstraction but claimed that it was nonetheless essential if one were to understand any particular social phenomena because, unlike physical phenomena, they involve human behaviour which must be interpreted by ideal types. --> Abstraction is the process or result of generalization by reducing the information This, together with his antipositivistic argumentation can be viewed as the methodological justification for the assumption of the "rational economic man" (homo economicus). Homo economicus, or Economic man, is the concept in some Economic theories of man (that is a Human) as a rational, perfectly informed and Homo economicus, or Economic man, is the concept in some Economic theories of man (that is a Human) as a rational, perfectly informed and ^[49]

Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, with Social class, Social status and party (or politicals) as conceptually distinct elements. The three-component theory of stratification, more widely known as Weberian Stratification or Three Class System was developed by German sociologist Max Weber with Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. In Sociology or Anthropology, social status is the honor or prestige attached to one's position in Society (one's Social position) A political party is a Political organization that seeks to attain and maintain political power within Government, usually by participating in electoral ^[50]

• Social class is based on economically determined relationship to the market (owner, renter, employee etc. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. Sao Paulo Stock Exchangejpg|thumb| Virtual market arena where buyer and seller are not present and trade via intemediates and electronical information Lease Renting is an agreement where a payment is made for the temporary ).
• Status is based on non-economical qualities like honour, prestige and religion. Honor or Honour (see spelling differences) (the latter directly from the Latin word honos honoris) is the evaluation of a person's
• Party refers to affiliations in the political domain.

All three dimensions have consequences for what Weber called "life chances". Life chances ( Lebenschancen in German) are the opportunities each individual has to improve their quality of life ^[50]

Weber's other contributions to economics were several: these include a (seriously researched) economic history of Roman agrarian society, his work on the dual roles of idealism and materialism in the history of capitalism in his Economy and Society (1914) which present Weber's criticisms (or according to some, revisions) of some aspects of Marxism. Roman Agrarian History and its Significance for Public and Private Law (in German: Die Römische Agrargeschichte in ihrer Bedeutung für das Staats- und In Western civilization, Idealism is the philosophy which maintains that the Ultimate nature of reality is ideal or based upon ideas values essences The so-called The Philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is Matter, and is considered a form of Physicalism. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Finally, his thoroughly researched General Economic History (1923) can be considered the Historical School at its empirical best. Max Weber 's Wirtschaftsgeschichte ( General Economic History in English (1923 was composed by his students from lecture notes shortly after his death ^[49]

Critical responses to Weber

Influence from and on the Austrian school

During his own lifetime, Weber was critical of the neoclassical economic approaches of authors such as Carl Menger and Friedrich von Weiser, whose formal approach was quite different from his own historical sociology. This article is about the economist not about his son the mathematician Karl Menger. The work of these authors eventually led to the creation of the Austrian School of economics. The Austrian School, also known as the “ Vienna School ” or the “ Psychological School ” is a heterodox school of economics that advocates This includes followers of Friedrich von Hayek and, more recently, authors Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw. Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist Daniel H Yergin (born February 6, 1947) is an American author speaker and economic researcher Joseph Stanislaw is a Financial adviser on International markets and Politics. In their pro-globalization book Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy, they attack Weber for claiming that only Protestantism could lead to a work ethic, pointing to the "Tiger Economies" of Southeastern Asia. Commanding Heights The Battle for the World Economy is a book by Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw, first published as The Commanding Heights The A tiger economy is the economy of a country which undergoes rapid Economic growth, usually accompanied by an increase in standard of living (Likewise, Weber's blending of economics with Calvinism has been satirized by such works as "America's Keenest City" by Mongo. )

However, in these debates, it is easy to overlook that the methods advocated by these later generations of the Austrian School are heavily indebted to the work of Weber. His "action sociology", as they called it, was a frequent topic in the "Mises Circle", an influential group headed by Ludwig von Mises, a key figure in the Austrian School. Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises (ˈluːtvɪç fɔn ˈmiːzəs ( September 29, 1881 – October 10, 1973) was an Austrian Among the attendees was a student of Mises, the philosopher of sociology Alfred Schutz, who sought to clarify Weber's interpretive approach in terms of the analytic phenomenology of Edmund Husserl. Alfred Schütz (1899-1959 aka Alfred Schutz was a Philosopher and Sociologist. Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (ˈhʊsɛrl April 8 1859 – April 26 1938) was a philosopher, known as the father of Hence, although Schutz's work, especially The Phenomenology of the Social World (1932), is in effect a profound critique of Weber's method, it is nevertheless an attempt to further it. Hayek also frequently attended these discussions, and the subjective method advanced in his The Counter-Revolution of Science: Studies in the Abuse of Reason (1952) reflects these influences. Ludwig Lachmann, a later member of the Austrian School, made explicit the Austrian School's indebtedness to the Weberian method. Ludwig Lachmann (1906 – 1990 was a German economist who became a member of and important contributor to the Austrian School.

Interestingly, given their methodological and sociological differences, Weber and Mises were not only acquainted, they shared an admiration for each other’s work. Mises considered Weber a "great genius" and his death a blow to Germany. Likewise, Weber comments that Mises’s Theory of Money and Credit is the monetary theory most acceptable to him. The Theory of Money and Credit is an economics book written by Ludwig von Mises, originally published in German as Theorie des Geldes und der Umlaufsmittel Weber accepted Ludwig von Mises's criticism of socialist economic planning and added his own argument. He believed that under socialism workers would still work in a hierarchy, but that now the hierarchy would be fused with government. Instead of dictatorship of the worker, he foresaw dictatorship of the official.

Historical Critiques

The economist Joseph Schumpeter argued that capitalism did not begin with the Industrial Revolution but in 14th century Italy. Joseph Alois Schumpeter ( February 8, 1883 &ndash January 8, 1950) was an Economist and Political scientist born in The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the ^[51] In Milan, Venice, and Florence the small City-state governments lead to the development of the earliest forms of capitalism. Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany The Italian city states were a remarkable political phenomenon of small independent states in the northern Italian peninsula between the tenth and fifteenth centuries Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where ^[52] In the 16th century Antwerp was a commercial center of Europe. ||-||-||-||} Antwerp ( Dutch:, French: Anvers) is a City and Municipality in Belgium and the capital of the It was also noted that the predominantly Calvinist country of Scotland did not enjoy the same economic growth as Holland, England, and New England. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. In addition, it has been pointed out that Holland, which was heavily Calvinist, industrialized much later in the 19th century than predominantly Catholic Belgium, which was one of the centres of the Industrial Revolution on the European mainland. ^[53]

Emil Kauder expanded Schumpeter's argument by arguing the hypothesis that Calvinism hurt the development of capitalism by leading to the development of the labor theory of value. Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the The labor theories of value (LTV are theories in Economics according to which the values of Commodities are related to the labor needed to Kauder writes "Any social philosopher or economist exposed to Calvinism will be tempted to give labor an exalted position in his social or economic treatise, and no better way of extolling labor can be found than by combining work with value theory, traditionally the very basis of an economic system. "^[54] In contrast, Catholic areas that were influenced by the late scholastics were more likely to adhere to the subjective theory of value. Catholic is an Adjective derived from the Greek adjective '' / 'katholikos' meaning "whole" or "complete". The School of Salamanca is the Renaissance of thought in diverse intellectual areas by Spanish theologians, rooted in the intellectual and pedagogical The subjective theory of value (or theory of subjective value) is an economic theory of value that holds that "to possess value an object must be both useful

See also

• Interpretations of Weber's liberalism
• List of charismatic leaders as defined by Max Weber's classification of authority
• List of Max Weber works
• The Rejection and the Meaning of the World (book)
• Speeches of Weber
• Weber and German politics
• Sociology of law

References

Further reading

• Korotayev A. Andrey Korotayev (born in 1961 is an anthropologist, economic Historian, and sociologist. , Malkov A. , Khaltourina D. Introduction to Social Macrodynamics. Moscow: URSS, 2006. ISBN 5-484-00414-4 [2] (Chapter 6: Reconsidering Weber: Literacy and "the Spirit of Capitalism").
• Bernhard K. Quensel (2007), Max Webers Konstruktionslogik. Sozialökonomik zwischen Geschichte und Theorie. Baden-Baden: Nomos. ISBN 978-3-8329-2517-8 [Revisiting MW's concept of sociology against the background of his juristic and economic provenance within the framework of "social economics". ]
• Roth, Guenther (2001). Max Webers deutsch-englische Familiengeschichte. J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck). ISBN 3-16-147557-7
• Radkau, Joachim (2005). Max Weber The most important Weber-biography on Max Weber's life and torments since Marianne Weber.
• Richard Swedberg "Max Weber as an Economist and as a Sociologist", American Journal of Economics and Sociology
• William H. Richard Swedberg is a Swedish Sociologist at Cornell University. Swatos, ed. (1990), Time, Place, and Circumstance: Neo-Weberian Studies in Comparative Religious History. New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-26892-4
• Richard Swedberg, Max Weber and the Idea of Economic Sociology. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-07013-X
• Weber, Marianne (1926/1988). Marianne Weber, born Marianne Schnitger on August 2, 1870 in Oerlinghausen, died March 12, 1954 in Heidelberg Max Weber: A Biography. New Brunswick: Transaction Books. ISBN 0-471-92333-8

External links

Texts of Weber works:

• Large collection of the German original texts
• Large collection of the German original texts
• Large collection of English translations
• Another collection of English translations
• A comprehensive collection of English translations and secondary literature
• English translations of many of Weber's works, merged into one very long unformatted file
• Max Weber Reference Archive

About Weber:

• Biography entry and link section
• Weber on Ideal Types
• Max Weber – The person
• More of Weber on Ideal Types
• An essay on Max Weber's View of Objectivity in Social Science
• Max Weber: On Capitalism As above, but on capitalism
• Some of Weber concepts in the form of a list
• Max Weber's HomePage "A site for undergraduates"
• Mises versus Weber on Bureaucracy and Sociological Method by William P. Anderson
• Reconciling Weber and Mises on Understanding Human Action by Gene Callahan

Persondata
NAME	Weber, Maximilian
ALTERNATIVE NAMES	Weber, Max
SHORT DESCRIPTION	Founder of modern sociology
DATE OF BIRTH	21 April 1864(1864-04-21)
PLACE OF BIRTH	Erfurt, Germany
DATE OF DEATH	14 June 1920
PLACE OF DEATH	Munich, Germany

Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date) Year 1864 ( MDCCCLXIV) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Erfurt (ˈɛɐ̯fʊɐ̯t is a City in central Germany. It is the Capital of the state of Thuringia with a population of 202619 (2006 Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Events 1276 - While taking exile in Fuzhou in southern China, away from the advancing Mongol invaders, the remnants of the Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.

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